476:
exhibited on the underside. In the May and June butterfly (plate 13, left side) the veins below are greenish grey, and those of the hindwings are broadly bordered also with this colour. In the bulk of the July and August specimens (plate 13, right side) only the nervures are shaded with greenish grey, and the nervures are only faintly, or not at all, marked with this colour. Now and then a specimen of the first brood may assume the characters properly belonging to the specimens of the second brood; and, on the other hand, a butterfly of the second brood may closely resemble one of the first brood. As a rule, however, the seasonal differences referred to are fairly constant. By rearing this species from the egg it has been ascertained that part (sometimes the smaller) of a brood from eggs laid in June attains the butterfly stage the same year, and the other part remains in the chrysalis until the following spring, the butterflies in each set being of the form proper to the time of emergence.
668:, and sperm competition is correspondingly lower in the north. This polymorphic mating system is partially determined by genetic variability within the females genomes. Monandrous and polyandrous females exhibit different heritable reproductive tactics with monandrous females relying on larval derived resources to realize their fecundity and polyandrous females relying on male donations. When genetically polyandrous females are forced into monandry, due to suboptimal mating conditions, they experience reduced life spans. Monandrous and polyandrous females exhibit different life history strategies: at the start of reproduction females that are monandrous produce more eggs than polyandrous females. It is hypothesized that this life history difference is why monandry is more common in the most northern parts of the species' range, as early investment in reproduction can be more beneficial with shorter mating seasons.
331:
316:
301:
286:
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increases the mating costs for females because they are spending more time copulating and receiving fewer nutrients from the ejaculate. Males take advantage of this because females do not reduce their mating costs by copulating with virgin males. In addition, males will transfer the most methyl salicylate to their first mate to ensure its paternity. However, a female who mates with a virgin male will have the most difficulty re-mating, therefore delaying her from engaging in the preferred polyandry. Males tailor their ejaculate in the sense that the first ejaculate is meant to prolong the refractory period of the female, and every subsequent ejaculate is meant to maximize efficiency in sperm competition.
771:
31:
413:), and so it is rarely a pest in gardens or field crops. The caterpillar is green and well camouflaged. When full grown it is green above with black warts, from which arise whitish and blackish hairs. There is a darker line along the back and a yellow line low down on the sides. Underneath the colour is whitish-grey. The spiracular line is dusky but not conspicuous, and the spiracles are blackish surrounded with yellow. There is extensive overlap with other leaf-feeding larvae of large and small whites in some wild populations (e.g. in Morocco). It is often found feeding on the same plant as the
488:- the forewings are creamy-white, irrorated with black towards the base. There is an apical blackish blotch, sometimes broken into several terminal spots ; and a black spot between 3 and 4 (in male sometimes absent) In the female there is a black subdorsal posterior spot, and a dorsal confluent mark. The hindwings are creamy-white, the base black-sprinkled and a black costal spot before the apex (in male sometimes absent). The underside of the hindwings and underside apex of the forewings is pale yellow the veins edged with a shading of fine black lines, in the hindwings more broadly.
544:
53:
40:
461:
681:
by males, means that polyandrous females can substantially increase their lifetime fecundity. However, higher mating rates in females comes with a cost, which can explain the presence of monandrous females in primarily polyandrous populations. Polyandrous females have a higher cost of mating characterized by an increase in time spent looking for mates and time spent mating. This results in a decreased time spent looking for food.
618:. After a female mates, infertile sperm ejaculated by the male will fill the female's sperm storage organ and prevent her from mating. The amount of infertile sperm stored is correlated with the refractory period of a female after mating. Infertile sperm makes up 90% of the sperm count, showing that males manipulate females by preventing them from mating with another male for a certain period of time. Although
648:
during mating. In particular, mating with recently unmated males can increase overall female reproductive output, though small females are unable to compensate for the negative effects of size on fecundity by mating multiply. However, by mating multiply, polyandrous females have overall higher lifetime fecundity, produce more offspring, and have faster-developing offspring compared to monandrous females.
561:, females who mate multiple times have higher lifetime fecundity, lay larger eggs, and live longer compared to females who mate only once. In most organisms it is the female who contributes the most to the reproduction of offspring as she must invest an egg and then carry the zygote. Males, on the other hand, need only provide a sperm that is of low cost. In
219:" butterflies, the sexes differ. The female has two spots on each forewing, the male only one. The veins on the wings of the female are usually more heavily marked. The underside hindwings are pale yellow with the veins highlighted by black scales giving a greenish tint, hence green-veined white. Unlike the large and small whites, it rarely chooses garden
629:
This refractory period makes it harder for females to mate, and females will continue to have difficulty as their age and mating frequency increase. Males who have recently copulated will not transfer as many nutrients to their next mate, but will spend a longer duration of time for each mating. This
680:
can lead to strong competition for mates among the males as well as the males are unlikely to encounter more than one female during the mating season. As a result, females often encounter males that have not recently mated that provide large nuptial gifts. Given the size of the nuptial gift provided
574:
males qualifies both as paternal investment and mating effort. Despite the presence of nuptial gifts and the known benefits to females and offspring, some females are still monogamous. There are multiple reasons in why other species are monogamous like access to males, low sperm population, and age.
527:
will quickly terminate the courtship. Males are very sensitive to differences in methyl salicylate levels, and will use this sense to influence their mating behaviour. However, a virgin female displaying a very similar posture will release a different chemical that will prolong the courtship ritual.
647:
varies with the number of eggs produced as well as the lifespan of the female, and is positively influenced by body mass, other genetic factors independent of body size, and with the degree of polyandry. Fecundity increases with the amount of spermatophore material and ejaculate received from males
579:
are likely monogamous due to variation in egg production between polygamous and monogamous females. Polygamous females rely on male mates in order to increase their reproductive output, but polygamous females that only mate twice may not have as high of reproductive output as monogamous females do.
451:
The generations vary with location, elevation and season. In northern Europe there are two or three generations from April to early
September. In warmer areas and in some good years there is a fourth generation. In southern Europe there are three or more partially overlapping generations from March
436:
is found in damp, grassy places with some shade, forest edges, hedgerows, meadows and wooded river valleys. The later generations widen their habitat use in the search for alternative food plants in drier, but flowery places. In the
Mediterranean the insect is also found in scrub around mountain
475:
In Great
Britain, April, May and June specimens have the veins tinged with grey and rather distinct, but are not so strongly marked with black as those belonging to the second flight, which occurs in late July and throughout August. This seasonal variation, as it is called, is also most clearly
606:
is an example of sexual cooperation towards a common interest of both males and females. The existence of nutrients in the ejaculate is beneficial to the females because it increases female fecundity and longevity, and eventually promotes re-mating. The existence of the anti-aphrodisiac,
565:
however, mating is unusually costly to males as the ejaculate matter produced contains not only sperm but accessory substances as well. These substances average 15% of male body mass and are incorporated into female soma and reproductive tissues during the mating process. Therefore, the
491:
The ground colour varies from white to cream, sulphur-yellow, chrome yellow and light hues of buff or brown. The spot markings also vary and may be joined or absent. The vein shading varies in colour and in intensity and the shaded bands may be broad or narrow.
589:
The amount of ejaculate of virgin males during mating is larger than that of non-virgin males. Females therefore must mate more frequently with non-virgin males in order to obtain the necessary amount of male-derived nutrition.
718:, a fact that threatens their survival as garlic mustard out-competes native mustard plants due to having no biological control species present in North America. In Europe, where garlic mustard is native, 76 things consume it.
274:
as a host plant. Females will lay eggs on it, mistaking this non-native species for a compatible native mustard, resulting in the death of the offspring. Classification is also an issue concerning the
European
214:
and North
America. It is found in meadows, hedgerows and woodland glades but not as often in gardens and parks like its close relatives the large and small whites, for which it is often mistaken. Like other
1121:
Driesche, F.V.; Blossey, B.; Hoodle, M.; Lyon, S.; Reardon, R., 2010. Biological
Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United States. USDA Forest Service. Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team.
425:. This is green in colour, and the raised parts are yellowish and brown. This is the most frequent form, but it varies through yellowish to buff or greyish, and is sometimes without markings.
676:
The maintenance of the two mating systems had been hypothesized to be due to the availability of male nutrients, which can vary within the male-biased operational sex ratio. The male biased
1878:
Becker, R., Gerber E., Hinz H., Katovich E., Panke B., Reardon R., Renz R., Van Riper L., 2013. Biology and
Biological Control of Garlic Mustard. The Forest Technology Enterprise Team.
2409:
417:
but rarely competes for food because it usually feeds on the leaves whereas the orange tip caterpillar feeds on the flowers and developing seed pods. Like other
2393:
857:
2267:
Lorkovic, Zdravko (1968). "Karyologischer
Beitrag zur Frage der Fortpflanzungs verhaltnisse Sudeuropäischer Taxone von Pieris napi (L.). (Lep. Pieridae)".
528:
Males are sensitive to these chemical and postural differences, and can discriminate between a receptive virgin female and an unreceptive mated female.
2598:
2088:"The green-veined white (Pieris napiL.), its Pierine relatives, and the systematics dilemmas of divergent character sets (Lepidoptera, Pieridae)"
523:
After a female mates, she will display a mate refusal posture that releases methyl salicylate during a subsequent courtship. The release of this
1537:
Kaitala, Arja; Christer
Wiklund (1995). "Female mate choice and mating costs in the polyandrous butterfly Pieris napi (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)".
330:
2670:
1043:
Andersson, J.; Borg-Karlson, A. -K.; Vongvanich, N.; Wiklund, C. (2007). "Male sex pheromone release and female mate choice in a butterfly".
300:
2263:, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Symonymis, Locis. Tomis I. 10th Edition Syst. Nat. (Edn 10) 1
315:
1790:"Effects of size and nuptial gifts on butterfly reproduction: can females compensate for a smaller size through male-derived nutrients?..."
285:
2805:
2737:
2572:
2235:
2050:
Bowden, S. R. (1979) Subspecific
Variation in Butterflies: Adaptation and Dissected Polymorphism in Pieris (Artogeia) (Pieridae).
1441:"Sexual cooperation and conflict in butterflies: A male–transferred anti–aphrodisiac reduces harassment of recently mated females"
2611:
1013:
1902:
2795:
1583:"Temporal patterns in reproduction may explain variation in mating frequencies in the green-veined white butterfly Pieris napi"
1236:"Sexual conflict and anti-aphrodisiac titre in a polyandrous butterfly: male ejaculate tailoring and absence of female control"
443:. It is found from sea level to high elevations (2500 m in central Europe, 2600 m in Italy, 3600 m in Morocco).
2785:
1294:
1097:
2616:
2800:
1018:
1958:
Bowden, S. R. (1954) Pieris napi L. f. hibernica Schmidt, eine kuenstliche Aberration? Der gegenwaertige Stand der Frage.
516:. The smell of this compound repels other males, thus ensuring the first male's paternity of the eggs—a form of chemical
626:
by maximizing the amount of transferred nutrients from the male, the infertile sperm storage prolongs female re-mating.
2624:
2533:
2402:
1141:
871:
2790:
2386:
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2551:
712:
However, the American butterflies cannot successfully reproduce by laying eggs on the invasive weed garlic mustard,
2675:
1835:"What affects mating rate? Polyandry is higher in the directly developing generation of the butterfly Pieris napi"
2564:
168:
2810:
2780:
2770:
1172:
1140:. (ed.), Die Groß-Schmetterlinge der Erde. 1. Band. Die palaearctischen Tagfalter. – Stuttgart, Fritz Lehmann.
52:
2775:
2657:
1979:
Bowden, S. R. (1962) Ăśbertragung von Pieris napi-Genen auf Pieris bryoniae durch wiederholte Ruckkreuzung.
1879:
2765:
2629:
2494:
978:
956:
894:
2499:
1636:"Does a lack of mating opportunities explain monadry in the green-veined white butterfly (Pierid napi)?"
1937:
Bowden, S. R.; & Riley, Norman Denbigh (1967): The type-material of Pieris napi pseudorapae Verity.
1744:"Polyandry and its effect on female reproduction in the green-veined white butterfly (Pieris napi L.)"
770:
30:
2336:
Rhopalocera Palaearctica Iconographie et Description des Papillons diurnes de la région paléarctique
1703:
1365:
2228:
2136:
Dyar, 1903 A List of North American Lepidoptera and Key to the Literature of this Order of Insects
1992:
Bowden, S. R. (1966b) 'Irregular' diapause in Pieris, with a note on Corsican Pieris brassicae L.
1161:
2603:
2424:
1698:
1360:
414:
2649:
2639:
2462:
2087:
439:
147:
2701:
2381:
495:
Variants, many named, are described by Röber (Europe), Langham (Ireland) and Anon (Britain)
2520:
2471:
2231:
and Gorbunov, P.Y., 1995 The Butterflies (Rhopalocera) of the Asian part of Russia'Pensoft
1647:
619:
555:
2043:
Bowden, S. R. (1975b) Relation of Pieris melete Menetries to Pieris napi L.: ssp. melete.
1686:
8:
1951:
Bowden, S. R. (Oct 1970) Polymorphism in Pieris: f. sulphurea in Pieris napi marginalis.
702:
247:
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837:
661:
615:
608:
509:
2476:
2036:
Bowden, S. R. (1975a) Some subspecific and infrasubspecific names in Pieris napi L.
1858:
1812:
1767:
1606:
1558:
1217:
1185:
1112:
Howe, William H. The Butterflies of North America (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975)
2728:
2512:
2157:
2146:"Descriptions of new species of diurnal Lepidoptera found within the United States"
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1846:
1800:
1755:
1708:
1655:
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1501:
1460:
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1333:
1321:
1255:
1247:
1197:
1072:
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651:
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However, the transfer of this ejaculate can cause a conflict over re-mating due to
524:
1850:
2683:
2413:
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2366:
2239:
2145:
1087:
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390:
276:
243:
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945:
852:
358:
2327:
Tuzov, Bogdanov, Devyatkin, Kaabak, Korolev, Murzin, Samodurov, Tarasov, 1997
1965:
Bowden, S. R. (1956) Hybrids within the European Pieris napi L. species-group.
1804:
1713:
1598:
1392:"Paternal investment directly affects female reproductive effort in an insect"
1375:
1348:
1312:
Kaitala, Wiklund (1994). "Polyandrous female butterflies forage for matings".
1201:
535:. This smell is associated with specialized androconial scales on male wings.
2759:
2447:
2355:
2029:
Bowden, S. R. (1972) 'Pieris napi' in America: genetic imbalance in hybrids.
1999:
Bowden, S. R. (1966c) Pieris napi in Corsica. Entomologist 99, pp. 57–68
735:
671:
532:
517:
469:
350:
228:
164:
2538:
818:
2338:. Papilionidae et Pieridae Rhopalocera Palaearctica 1: 86+368pp, 2+12+72pls
1523:
1505:
1474:
1456:
1425:
1407:
1269:
1251:
1209:
1064:
880:
750:
694:
603:
567:
543:
366:
263:
224:
2064:
Bowden, S. R. (): Pieris napi L. (Pieridae) and the Superspecies Concept.
1742:
Wiklund, Christer; Kaitala, Arja; Lindfors, Virpi; Abenius, Johan (1993).
1122:
508:
Recent research has shown that when males mate with a female, they inject
2585:
2486:
2456:
1445:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
1240:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
1184:
Andersson, Johan; Anna-Karin Borg-Karlson & Christer Wiklund (2003).
406:
374:
251:
104:
2371:
2169:
2017:
Bowden, S. R. (1971). "'Pieris napi' in America: reconnaissance. Proc".
1490:"Coevolution of non-fertile sperm and female receptivity in a butterfly"
2742:
2688:
2577:
2176:
Eitschberger, 1983 Eitschberger, 1984; Systematische Untersuchungen am
1880:
https://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/technology/pdfs/FS_garlicmustard.pdf
1759:
1550:
1325:
842:
236:
1056:
1042:
899:
664:, mates available. Monandry is more common in northern populations of
531:
The adult male of this species has a distinctive odour that resembles
39:
2590:
2161:
1487:
677:
586:, where female reproductive effort is independent of male ejaculate.
84:
64:
2418:
2009:
Bowden, S. R. (1970b) Pieris napi L.: speciation and subspeciation.
1834:
2722:
2441:
2301:
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915:
779:
460:
382:
216:
187:
114:
2287:
National Audubon Society: Field Guide to North American Butterflie
349:
The eggs are laid singly on a wide range of food plants including
1687:"Monandry and polyandry as alternative lifestyles in a butterfly"
1349:"Monandry and polyandry as alternative lifestyles in a butterfly"
1186:"Antiaphrodisiacs in pierid butterflies: a theme with variation!"
903:
884:
861:
801:
660:
only mate once, irrespective of the number of high quality, more
398:
220:
211:
652:
Polyandry versus monandry is a genetically based mating strategy
2525:
805:
232:
94:
74:
1741:
876:
827:
823:
611:, is effective in reducing female harassment by other males.
513:
207:
1438:
1233:
2329:
Guide to the Butterflies of Russia and adjacent territories
2071:
Bowden, S. R. (1985): Taxonomy for a variable butterfly? .
1972:
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1832:
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The Millennium Atlas of Butterflies of Britain and Ireland
1286:
What the nose knows: the science of scent in everyday life
1229:
1227:
672:
Maintenance of the monandry/polyandry genetic polymorphism
2308:
Suomen suurperhostoukkien ravintokasvit, Animalia Fennica
2211:
Hensle, 2001 Zur Frage der subspezifischen Zuordnung von
580:
This system is unlike other types of butterflies such as
202:
species widespread across Europe and Asia, including the
2360:
2224:
Check List of the Lepidoptera of America North of Mexico
1833:
Larsdotter Mellström, Helena; Wiklund, Christer (2010).
1488:
Wedell, Nina; Christer Wiklund; Jonas Bergstrom (2009).
1439:
Andersson, J.; Borg-Karlson, A.-K.; Wiklund, C. (2000).
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1536:
1224:
2002:
Bowden, S. R. (1970a) What is Pieris dubiosa Warren?
1685:
Wedell, Nina; Wiklund, Christer; Cook, Penny (2002).
656:
Despite the benefits of mating multiply, many female
2279:
Mazzei Paolo, Reggianti Diego and Pimpinelli Ilaria
1581:
Välimäki, Panu; Kaitala, Aria; Kokko, Hanna (2006).
1580:
638:
593:
2303:. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California
1684:
1136:, 1909 Pieridae, pp. 39-74, 374, pls. 17-27. In:
266:. Despite this, the American butterflies, unlike
2757:
2382:Moths and Butterflies of Europe and North Africa
2249:; Checklist: Part 4A; Hesperioidea Papilionoidea
1944:Bowden, S. R. (Aug 68) Pieris napi in Calabria.
1787:
1311:
2315:The butterflies of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia
2204:Fruhstorfer, 1909 Neue palaearktische Pieriden
1633:
1389:
193:
2188:Eitschberger (2001). "Eine neue Unterart von
1985:Bowden, S. R. (1966a) Polymorphism in Pieris
344:
2187:
2057:Bowden, S. R. (): Sexual mosaics in Pieris.
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1036:
437:streams or springs and on floodplains with
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1994:Proc. Trans. S. Lond. ent. nat. Hist. Soc.
1967:Proc. Trans. S. Lond. ent. nat. Hist. Soc.
1307:
1305:
235:, the basic flavor-imparting component of
38:
29:
2106:
2095:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1712:
1702:
1513:
1464:
1415:
1374:
1364:
1259:
1089:Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages
633:
2372:Mario Meier - Europäische Schmetterlinge
2356:Video footage of mud puddling behaviour.
2266:
2085:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1889:
1887:
769:
542:
459:
2143:
1302:
1282:
1123:http://wiki.bugwood.org/Archive:BCIPEUS
1014:List of butterflies of India (Pieridae)
2758:
2334:Verity, 1908; Verity, ; Verity, 1911;
2261:Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae
2066:Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society
2052:Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society
2016:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1634:Valimaki, Panu; Kaitala, Arja (2006).
1629:
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1625:
1623:
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1570:
1568:
1383:
1346:
1085:
2423:
2422:
2184:1 (1-2): (1) i-xxii, 1–504, (2) 1–601
1884:
455:
2565:478d3514-1d1c-4573-8ded-6504c4cc2ec0
2403:Naturkundliches Informationssystem:
2387:Naturkundliches Informationssystem:
1019:List of butterflies of Great Britain
466:The Butterflies of the British Isles
223:to lay its eggs on, preferring wild
1793:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1748:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1728:
1673:
1620:
1587:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1565:
1314:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
697:that includes the American species
13:
2192:(Linnaeus, 1758) vom Polar Ural".
2131:Monographia Rhopalocerum Sinensium
2019:Trans. Br. Entomol. Nat. Hist. Soc
1924:
1396:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
1173:Anon British butterfly aberrations
721:
479:
14:
2822:
2349:
1390:Wedell, N.; Karlsson, B. (2003).
2806:Lepidoptera of the United States
2343:Butterflies of the Indian Region
2247:Atlas of Neotropical Lepidoptera
2108:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2006.00630.x
2045:Proc. Trans. Br. ent. nat. Hist.
1905:. Fauna Europaea. Archived from
1660:10.1111/j.2006.0030-1299.14947.x
538:
329:
314:
299:
284:
51:
2281:Moths and Butterflies of Europe
1872:
1826:
1781:
1530:
1481:
1432:
1340:
1276:
1152:Langham, C. 1922 Some forms of
1045:Journal of Experimental Biology
639:Fecundity benefits of polyandry
594:Sexual cooperation and conflict
446:
231:that is perceptible to humans,
186:) is a butterfly of the family
2222:Hodges, Ronald W. (ed.), 1983
1177:
1166:
1146:
1127:
1115:
1106:
1079:
1:
2796:Butterflies described in 1758
2254:Le farfalle nei loro ambienti
2086:Chew, F.S; Watt, W.B (2006).
1903:"Pieris napi (Linnaeus 1758)"
1851:10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.05.025
1029:
765:
746:– Krueper's small white
2786:Butterflies of North America
2124:Farfalle d'Italia e d'Europa
2117:Guida degli insetti d'Europa
1981:Z. Arbgem. Ă–st. Ent. 14, pp.
921:For others see Wikispecies.
498:
421:species it overwinters as a
7:
2801:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
1190:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1156:taken in County Fermanagh.
997:
924:
912:Lep. Portug. Porto: 2, 1929
684:
379:Rorippa nastutium-aquaticum
194:Appearance and distribution
10:
2827:
2367:www.schmetterling-raupe.de
2256:Ed. A. Vallardi (ecoguide)
1539:Journal of Insect Behavior
1289:, Random House of Canada,
1283:Gilbert, Avery N. (2008),
1092:. CRC Press. p. 319.
689:Some authorities consider
428:
345:Life cycle and food plants
270:, cannot successfully use
242:Some authors consider the
2712:
2431:
2341:Wynter-Blyth, M. A., 1957
1805:10.1007/s00265-002-0512-0
1599:10.1007/s00265-006-0240-y
503:
153:
146:
48:Scientific classification
46:
37:
28:
23:
2791:Butterflies of Indochina
2054:33(2), pp. [77-111, 40 f
811:Pieris napi meridionalis
705:as well as the European
2377:www.eurobutterflies.com
2363:Photos of imagos and la
2213:Pieris bryoniae lappona
2150:Trans. Am. Entomol. Soc
2122:Chinery, Michael, 1989
2115:Chinery, Michael, 1987
2068:26(3), pp. 170–173
1934:Oxford university Press
1714:10.1093/beheco/13.4.450
1376:10.1093/beheco/13.4.450
1202:10.1023/a:1024277823101
250:of North America to be
2405:Pieris napi flavescens
2252:Leraut, Patrice, 1992
1506:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0452
1457:10.1098/rspb.2000.1138
1408:10.1098/rspb.2003.2479
1252:10.1098/rspb.2003.2671
909:Pieris napi lusitanica
890:Pieris napi flavescens
782:
634:Monandry and polyandry
551:
484:In the typical form -
472:
2811:Lepidoptera of Canada
2781:Butterflies of Europe
2771:Butterflies of Africa
2306:Seppänen, E. J, 1970
2138:Bull. U.S. natn. Mus.
2119:Franco Muzzio Editore
1960:Mitt. ent. Ges. Basel
1347:Wedell, Nina (2002).
833:Pieris napi segonzaci
792:Pieris napi adalwinda
773:
546:
463:
440:Nasturtium officinale
411:Raphanus raphanistrum
355:Sisymbrium officinale
2776:Butterflies of Japan
2560:Fauna Europaea (new)
2361:Pieridae Holarctinae
2313:Tennent, John, 1996
2245:Lamas Gerardo, 2004
2208:3 (16): 88 (17 July)
2178:Pieris napi-bryoniae
2078:Carter, David, 1993
953:Pieris canidiaformis
867:Pieris napi atlantis
622:benefits females of
16:Species of butterfly
2126:De Agostini/Collins
1652:2006Oikos.115..110V
1451:(1450): 1271–1275.
1246:(1550): 1765–1770.
1086:Maarse, H. (1991).
986:Pieris meridionalis
754:– small white
703:West Virginia white
248:West Virginia white
204:Indian subcontinent
24:Green-veined white
2766:Pieris (butterfly)
2412:2007-09-27 at the
2396:2007-09-27 at the
2299:Scott, J. A. 1986
2238:2007-08-31 at the
1930:Asher, Jim et al.
1760:10.1007/BF00164343
1691:Behavioral Ecology
1551:10.1007/bf01989364
1353:Behavioral Ecology
1326:10.1007/bf00165840
858:Glacières de Blida
783:
715:Alliaria petiolata
552:
473:
456:Seasonal variation
391:large bitter-cress
371:Cardamine pratense
363:Alliaria petiolata
180:green-veined white
2753:
2752:
2697:Open Tree of Life
2425:Taxon identifiers
2080:Farfalle e falene
1402:(1528): 2065–71.
1296:978-1-4000-8234-6
1099:978-0-8247-8390-7
1057:10.1242/jeb.02726
1004:Dark-veined white
993:
982:
975:Pieris flavescens
971:
960:
949:
938:
913:
898:
875:
856:
848:Pieris napi maura
841:
822:
800:
707:dark-veined white
616:sperm competition
609:methyl salicylate
512:along with their
510:methyl salicylate
403:Brassica oleracea
277:dark-veined white
176:
175:
2818:
2746:
2745:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2705:
2704:
2692:
2691:
2679:
2678:
2666:
2665:
2663:NHMSYS0000516630
2653:
2652:
2643:
2642:
2633:
2632:
2620:
2619:
2607:
2606:
2594:
2593:
2581:
2580:
2568:
2567:
2555:
2554:
2542:
2541:
2529:
2528:
2516:
2515:
2503:
2502:
2490:
2489:
2480:
2479:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2420:
2419:
2391:(Linnaeus, 1758)
2389:Pieris napi napi
2345:; (1982 Reprint)
2276:
2201:
2180:-Komplex (s.l.)
2173:
2162:10.2307/25076222
2144:Edwards (1869).
2140:, 52: xix, 723pp
2112:
2110:
2092:
2026:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1914:
1899:
1882:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1839:Animal Behaviour
1830:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1739:
1726:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1716:
1706:
1682:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1631:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1578:
1563:
1562:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1517:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1468:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1419:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1378:
1368:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1309:
1300:
1299:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1263:
1231:
1222:
1221:
1181:
1175:
1170:
1164:
1158:Irish Naturalist
1150:
1144:
1131:
1125:
1119:
1113:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1040:
988:
977:
966:
955:
944:
933:
931:Pieris adalwinda
911:
892:
869:
850:
835:
813:
794:
787:Pieris napi napi
525:anti-aphrodisiac
387:Sinapis arvensis
333:
318:
303:
288:
159:
56:
55:
42:
33:
21:
20:
2826:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2756:
2755:
2754:
2749:
2741:
2736:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2708:
2700:
2695:
2687:
2684:Observation.org
2682:
2674:
2669:
2661:
2656:
2648:
2646:
2638:
2636:
2628:
2623:
2615:
2610:
2602:
2597:
2589:
2584:
2576:
2571:
2563:
2558:
2550:
2545:
2537:
2532:
2524:
2519:
2511:
2506:
2498:
2493:
2485:
2483:
2475:
2470:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2446:
2445:
2440:
2427:
2414:Wayback Machine
2398:Wayback Machine
2352:
2259:Linnaeus, 1758
2240:Wayback Machine
2233:Digital version
2229:Korshunov, Y.P.
2219:32 (1/2): 89–95
2090:
1927:
1925:Further reading
1922:
1921:
1912:
1910:
1909:on June 4, 2011
1901:
1900:
1885:
1877:
1873:
1863:
1861:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1815:
1786:
1782:
1772:
1770:
1740:
1729:
1719:
1717:
1704:10.1.1.486.5646
1683:
1674:
1664:
1662:
1632:
1621:
1611:
1609:
1579:
1566:
1535:
1531:
1500:(5): 678–6781.
1486:
1482:
1437:
1433:
1388:
1384:
1366:10.1.1.486.5646
1345:
1341:
1310:
1303:
1297:
1281:
1277:
1232:
1225:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1167:
1151:
1147:
1132:
1128:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1100:
1084:
1080:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1024:Species problem
1000:
927:
778:
776:P.n. lusitanica
768:
759:Pieris oleracea
743:Pieris krueperi
729:Pieris bryoniae
724:
722:Similar species
687:
674:
654:
641:
636:
596:
583:Pararge aegeria
554:In the usually
541:
506:
501:
482:
480:Other variation
458:
449:
431:
395:Cardamine amara
347:
340:
334:
325:
319:
310:
304:
295:
289:
227:. Males emit a
196:
172:
161:
155:
142:
50:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2824:
2814:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2751:
2750:
2748:
2747:
2734:
2718:
2716:
2710:
2709:
2707:
2706:
2693:
2680:
2667:
2654:
2644:
2634:
2621:
2608:
2595:
2582:
2569:
2556:
2547:Fauna Europaea
2543:
2530:
2517:
2504:
2491:
2481:
2468:
2453:
2437:
2435:
2429:
2428:
2417:
2416:
2407:F.Wagner, 1903
2400:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2358:
2351:
2350:External links
2348:
2347:
2346:
2339:
2332:
2325:
2311:
2304:
2297:
2283:
2277:
2264:
2257:
2250:
2243:
2226:
2220:
2215:Rangnow, 1935
2209:
2202:
2185:
2174:
2141:
2134:
2129:Chou Io (Ed.)
2127:
2120:
2113:
2101:(3): 413–435.
2083:
2082:Fabbri Editori
2076:
2069:
2062:
2055:
2048:
2041:
2034:
2027:
2014:
2007:
2000:
1997:
1990:
1983:
1977:
1970:
1963:
1956:
1949:
1942:
1935:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1883:
1871:
1845:(3): 413–418.
1825:
1799:(4): 296–302.
1780:
1727:
1697:(4): 450–455.
1672:
1646:(1): 110–116.
1619:
1564:
1545:(3): 355–363.
1529:
1480:
1431:
1382:
1359:(4): 450–455.
1339:
1320:(6): 385–388.
1301:
1295:
1275:
1223:
1196:(6): 1489–99.
1176:
1165:
1145:
1126:
1114:
1105:
1098:
1078:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
999:
996:
995:
994:
983:
972:
964:Pieris dubiosa
961:
950:
942:Pieris arctica
939:
926:
923:
919:
918:
906:
887:
864:
845:
830:
808:
789:
767:
764:
763:
762:
755:
747:
739:
732:
723:
720:
686:
683:
673:
670:
653:
650:
640:
637:
635:
632:
595:
592:
540:
537:
505:
502:
500:
497:
481:
478:
464:Plate 13 from
457:
454:
448:
445:
430:
427:
359:garlic mustard
346:
343:
342:
341:
335:
328:
326:
320:
313:
311:
305:
298:
296:
290:
283:
272:garlic mustard
195:
192:
174:
173:
162:
151:
150:
144:
143:
136:
134:
130:
129:
122:
118:
117:
112:
108:
107:
102:
98:
97:
92:
88:
87:
82:
78:
77:
72:
68:
67:
62:
58:
57:
44:
43:
35:
34:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2823:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2744:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2711:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2645:
2641:
2635:
2631:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2458:
2454:
2449:
2443:
2439:
2438:
2436:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2421:
2415:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2353:
2344:
2340:
2337:
2333:
2330:
2326:
2324:
2323:0-906802-05-9
2320:
2316:
2312:
2309:
2305:
2302:
2298:
2296:
2295:0-394-51914-0
2292:
2288:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2265:
2262:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2248:
2244:
2241:
2237:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2221:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2207:
2206:Int. ent. Zs.
2203:
2200:(1/2): 85–88.
2199:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2142:
2139:
2135:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2084:
2081:
2077:
2075:. 36(2), pp.
2074:
2070:
2067:
2063:
2061:12(1-2), pp.
2060:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2005:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1991:
1988:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1969:1954–55, pp.
1968:
1964:
1961:
1957:
1954:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1928:
1908:
1904:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1881:
1875:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1784:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1435:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1308:
1306:
1298:
1292:
1288:
1287:
1279:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1228:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1180:
1174:
1169:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1109:
1101:
1095:
1091:
1090:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1051:(6): 964–70.
1050:
1046:
1039:
1035:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1009:Mustard white
1007:
1005:
1002:
1001:
991:
987:
984:
980:
976:
973:
969:
965:
962:
958:
954:
951:
947:
943:
940:
936:
932:
929:
928:
922:
917:
910:
907:
905:
901:
896:
891:
888:
886:
882:
878:
873:
868:
865:
863:
859:
854:
849:
846:
844:
839:
834:
831:
829:
825:
820:
816:
812:
809:
807:
803:
798:
793:
790:
788:
785:
784:
781:
777:
772:
761:
760:
756:
753:
752:
748:
745:
744:
740:
738:
737:
736:Pieris ergane
733:
731:
730:
726:
725:
719:
717:
716:
710:
708:
704:
700:
699:mustard white
696:
692:
682:
679:
669:
667:
663:
659:
649:
646:
643:Fecundity in
631:
627:
625:
621:
617:
612:
610:
605:
601:
591:
587:
585:
584:
578:
573:
569:
564:
560:
557:
550:
545:
539:Mating system
536:
534:
533:lemon verbena
529:
526:
521:
519:
518:mate guarding
515:
511:
496:
493:
489:
487:
477:
471:
470:Richard South
467:
462:
453:
444:
442:
441:
435:
426:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
351:hedge mustard
338:
332:
327:
323:
317:
312:
308:
302:
297:
293:
287:
282:
281:
280:
278:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
244:mustard white
240:
238:
234:
230:
229:sex pheromone
226:
222:
218:
213:
209:
205:
201:
191:
189:
185:
181:
170:
166:
160:
158:
152:
149:
148:Binomial name
145:
141:
140:
135:
132:
131:
128:
127:
123:
120:
119:
116:
113:
110:
109:
106:
103:
100:
99:
96:
93:
90:
89:
86:
83:
80:
79:
76:
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36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
2714:Papilio napi
2713:
2432:
2404:
2388:
2342:
2335:
2328:
2314:
2307:
2300:
2286:
2285:Pyle, R. M.
2280:
2272:
2268:
2260:
2253:
2246:
2223:
2216:
2212:
2205:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2182:Herbipoliana
2181:
2177:
2153:
2149:
2137:
2130:
2123:
2116:
2098:
2094:
2079:
2072:
2065:
2058:
2051:
2047:Soc. 7, pp.
2044:
2037:
2030:
2022:
2018:
2010:
2003:
1993:
1987:Entomologist
1986:
1980:
1974:Entomologist
1973:
1966:
1959:
1953:Entomologist
1952:
1946:Entomologist
1945:
1938:
1931:
1911:. Retrieved
1907:the original
1874:
1862:. Retrieved
1842:
1838:
1828:
1816:. Retrieved
1796:
1792:
1783:
1771:. Retrieved
1751:
1747:
1718:. Retrieved
1694:
1690:
1663:. Retrieved
1643:
1639:
1610:. Retrieved
1590:
1586:
1542:
1538:
1532:
1497:
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1189:
1179:
1168:
1157:
1153:
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1134:Julius Röber
1129:
1117:
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1088:
1081:
1048:
1044:
1038:
985:
974:
963:
952:
941:
930:
920:
908:
889:
881:Middle Atlas
866:
847:
832:
810:
791:
786:
775:
757:
751:Pieris rapae
749:
741:
734:
727:
713:
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695:superspecies
690:
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675:
665:
657:
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644:
642:
628:
623:
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604:nuptial gift
599:
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581:
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571:
568:nuptial gift
562:
558:
553:
548:
530:
522:
507:
494:
490:
486:forma typica
485:
483:
474:
465:
452:to October.
450:
447:Flight times
438:
433:
432:
418:
410:
402:
394:
386:
378:
370:
367:cuckooflower
362:
354:
348:
336:
321:
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267:
264:superspecies
259:
258:or consider
255:
241:
200:circumboreal
197:
183:
179:
177:
156:
154:
139:P. napi
138:
137:
125:
18:
2586:iNaturalist
2477:Pieris_napi
2463:Pieris napi
2457:Wikispecies
2433:Pieris napi
2269:Biol. Glasn
2190:Pieris napi
2156:: 369–376.
1962:(nf)4, pp.
1160:31: 42-45
1154:Pieris napi
935:Fruhstorfer
797:Fruhstorfer
556:polyandrous
549:Pieris napi
407:wild radish
375:water-cress
337:Pieris napi
322:Pieris napi
307:Pieris napi
292:Pieris napi
252:conspecific
184:Pieris napi
157:Pieris napi
105:Lepidoptera
2760:Categories
2729:Q109585535
2242:in English
1996:1966, pp.
1913:2007-04-27
1593:: 99–107.
1030:References
843:High Atlas
766:Subspecies
415:orange tip
237:lemon peel
85:Arthropoda
2650:ArtogNapi
2275:: 95–136.
2059:Lep. News
2038:Ent. Rec.
2004:Ent. Rec.
1955:103, pp.
1948:101, pp.
1754:: 25–33.
1699:CiteSeerX
1494:Biol Lett
1361:CiteSeerX
957:Drenowsky
914:De Sousa
678:sex-ratio
620:polyandry
570:given by
499:Behaviour
225:crucifers
133:Species:
71:Kingdom:
65:Eukaryota
2723:Wikidata
2647:MaBENA:
2625:LepIndex
2604:10890987
2484:BioLib:
2442:Wikidata
2410:Archived
2394:Archived
2236:Archived
2217:Atalanta
2194:Atalanta
2170:25076222
2073:Ent. Gaz
2040:87, pp.
2025:: 71–77.
1989:99, pp.
1976:94, pp.
1941:50, pp.
1864:13 March
1859:54389039
1818:13 March
1813:13168534
1773:13 March
1768:40165781
1720:13 March
1665:13 March
1612:13 March
1607:23160181
1559:20515742
1524:19640869
1475:10972120
1426:14561296
1270:15315890
1218:13702247
1210:12918930
1138:Seitz, A
1065:17337709
998:See also
925:Synonyms
916:Portugal
872:OberthĂĽr
780:Portugal
693:to be a
685:Taxonomy
563:P. napi,
397:), wild
383:charlock
262:to be a
221:cabbages
188:Pieridae
165:Linnaeus
115:Pieridae
111:Family:
81:Phylum:
75:Animalia
61:Domain:
2743:7539529
2578:1920494
2448:Q683592
2033:4, pp.
2013:3, pp.
2006:82, pp.
1648:Bibcode
1515:2781977
1466:1690675
1417:1691472
1334:9096451
1261:1691801
1073:7164912
904:Austria
900:Mödling
897:, 1903)
885:Morocco
874:, 1923)
862:Algeria
855:, 1911)
840:, 1923)
838:le Cerf
802:Finland
799:, 1909)
774:Female
691:P. napi
666:P. napi
658:P. napi
645:P. napi
624:P. napi
600:P. napi
577:P. napi
572:P. napi
559:P. napi
547:Mating
434:P. napi
429:Habitat
405:), and
399:cabbage
268:P. napi
260:P. napi
256:P. napi
212:Maghreb
121:Genus:
101:Order:
95:Insecta
91:Class:
2702:731676
2630:179608
2617:188538
2552:440887
2526:180636
2321:
2293:
2289:1981;
2168:
1857:
1811:
1766:
1701:
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1414:
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1332:
1293:
1268:
1258:
1216:
1208:
1096:
1071:
1063:
992:, 1895
981:, 1903
979:Wagner
970:, 1907
959:, 1910
948:, 1911
946:Verity
937:, 1909
895:Wagner
853:Verity
821:, 1895
817:&
806:Sweden
602:, the
504:Senses
419:Pieris
233:citral
210:, the
126:Pieris
2676:78633
2637:LoB:
2599:IRMNG
2591:54087
2539:91144
2534:EUNIS
2513:4HRQQ
2500:32781
2487:51338
2166:JSTOR
2133:, 1–2
2091:(PDF)
1939:Redia
1855:S2CID
1809:S2CID
1764:S2CID
1640:Oikos
1603:S2CID
1555:S2CID
1330:S2CID
1214:S2CID
1069:S2CID
990:Heyne
968:Röber
877:Azrou
828:Italy
824:Spain
815:Heyne
575:Some
514:sperm
254:with
239:oil.
217:white
208:Japan
2738:GBIF
2671:NCBI
2640:4557
2612:ITIS
2573:GBIF
2495:BOLD
2319:ISBN
2291:ISBN
1866:2020
1820:2020
1775:2020
1722:2020
1667:2020
1614:2020
1520:PMID
1471:PMID
1422:PMID
1291:ISBN
1266:PMID
1206:PMID
1094:ISBN
1061:PMID
819:RĂĽhl
701:and
423:pupa
339:♀ △
309:♂ △
246:and
178:The
169:1758
2689:709
2658:NBN
2521:EoL
2508:CoL
2472:ADW
2158:doi
2103:doi
1847:doi
1801:doi
1756:doi
1709:doi
1656:doi
1644:115
1595:doi
1547:doi
1510:PMC
1502:doi
1461:PMC
1453:doi
1449:267
1412:PMC
1404:doi
1400:270
1371:doi
1322:doi
1256:PMC
1248:doi
1244:271
1198:doi
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