222:
Chemosensory GC neurons are broadly tuned, meaning that a larger percentage of them respond to a larger number of tastants (4 and 5) as compared to the lower percentage responding to a fewer number of tastants (1 and 2). In addition, the number of neurons responding to a certain tastant stimulus varies. In the rat gustatory complex study, it was shown that more neurons responded to MSG, NaCl, sucrose, and citric acid (all activating approximately the same percentage of neurons) as compared to the compounds quinine (QHCl) and water.
235:, and sucrose), the vast majority of them responded to concentration changes in a complex manner. In such instances with several concentration tastants tested, the middle concentration might evoke the highest firing rate (like 0.1 M sucrose), or the highest and lowest concentrations might elicit the highest rates (NaCl ), or the neuron might respond to only one concentration.
47:. Because of its composition the primary gustatory cortex is sometimes referred to in literature as the AI/FO(Anterior Insula/Frontal Operculum). By using extracellular unit recording techniques, scientists have elucidated that neurons in the AI/FO respond to sweetness, saltiness, bitterness, and sourness, and they code the intensity of the taste stimulus.
185:, in which distinct tastes activate distinct neurons, specifically tuned to a particular taste and spatially distributed in a clustered manner (a gustotopic map). In contrast, the across-fiber model implies that taste is encoded in the ensemble firing patterns of mixed populations of broadly tuned cortical neurons, a process named
189:. Even though the labelled-line model better characterizes the activity of peripheral taste receptors, current evidence seems to support the population coding model in GC. Importantly, early evidence in rodent models pointed to the existence of a gustotopic map; however, recent studies in both mice, through
238:
GC neurons cohere and interact during tasting. GC neurons interact across milliseconds, and these interactions are taste specific and define distinct but overlapping neural assemblies that respond to the presence of each tastant by undergoing coupled changes in firing rate. These couplings are used
144:
in the frontal operculum. Electrical stimulation of the insula in the human elicit gustatory sensations. Gustatory information is conveyed to the orbitofrontal cortex, the secondary gustatory cortex from the AI/FO. Studies have shown that 8% of neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex respond to taste
204:
Some researchers have noted that the AI/FO neurons are intrinsically multimodal, that is, they respond to other modalities in addition to taste (often to olfaction and/or somatosensation). These findings could imply that GC is not strictly involved in taste perception but also in more domain general
163:
Chemosensory neurons are those that discriminate between tastant as well as between the presence or absence of a tastant. In these neurons, the responses to reinforced (stimulated by tastant) licks in rats were greater than to those for the unreinforced (not stimulated by tastant) licks. They found
127:
There have been many studies done to observe the functionality of the primary gustatory cortex and associated structures with various chemical and electrical stimulations as well as observations of patients with lesions and GC epileptic focus. It has been reported that electrical stimulation of the
230:
Studies using the
Gustatory cortex of the rat model have shown that GC neurons exhibit complex responses to changes in concentration of tastant. For one tastant, the same neuron might increase its firing rate whereas for another tastant, it may only be responsive to an intermediate concentration.
247:
GC units signal taste familiarity at a delayed temporal phase of the response. An analysis suggests that specific neuronal populations participate in the processing of familiarity for specific tastants. Furthermore, the neural signature of familiarity is correlated with familiarization with a
154:
part of the insula caused gustatory disturbance, as well as taste recognition and intensity deficits in patients with insular cortex lesions. It has also been reported that a patient who had an epileptic focus in the frontal operculum and epileptic activity in the focus produced a disagreeable
221:
concentration resulted in a decrease in firing rate. GC neurons exhibit rapid and selective response to tastants. Sodium chloride and sucrose elicited the largest response in the rat gustatory cortex in rats, whereas citric acid causes only a moderate increase in activity in a single neuron.
145:
stimuli, and a part of these neurons are finely tuned to particular taste stimuli. It has also been shown in monkeys that the responses of orbitofrontal neurons to taste decreased when the monkey eats to satiety. Furthermore neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex respond to the visual, and/or
155:
taste. Activation in the insula also takes place when exposed to gustatory imagery. Studies compared the activated regions in subjects shown food pictures to those shown location pictures and found that food pictures activated the right insula/operculum and the left orbitofrontal cortex.
239:
to discriminate between tastants. Coupled changes in firing rate are the underlying source of GC interactions. Subsets of neurons in GC become coupled after presentation of particular tastants and the responses of neurons in that ensemble change in concert with those of others.
248:
specific tastant rather than with any tastant. This signature is evident 24 hours after initial exposure. This persistent cortical representation of taste familiarity requires slow post-acquisition processing to develop. This process may be related to the activation of
172:
How GC encodes taste qualities and representations has been a source of major debate. Cortical representation theories have been greatly influenced by peripheral taste coding models. In particular, there are two main model of peripheral taste coding: a
149:
stimuli in addition to the gustatory stimulus. These results suggest that gustatory neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex may play an important role in food identification and selection. A patient study reported that damage in the
59:, the taste system is defined by its specialized peripheral receptors and central pathways that relay and process taste information. Peripheral taste receptors are found on the upper surface of the tongue, soft palate,
231:
In studies of chemosensory GC neurons, it was evident that few chemosensory GC neurons monotonically increased or decreased their firing rates in response to changes in concentration of tastants (such as MSG,
99:, which is also known as the gustatory nucleus of the solitary tract complex. Axons from the rostral (gustatory) part of the solitary nucleus project to the ventral posterior complex of the
385:
Ogawa H, Ito S, Nomura T (August 1985). "Two distinct projection areas from tongue nerves in the frontal operculum of macaque monkeys as revealed with evoked potential mapping".
164:
that 34.2% of the GC neurons exhibited chemosensory responses. The remaining neurons discriminate between reinforced and unreinforced licks, or process task related information.
181:, which proposes that taste perception arises from the combined activity of multiple unspecific taste receptors. Accordingly, the labelld-line model suggests the existence of a
471:
Rolls ET, Yaxley S, Sienkiewicz ZJ (October 1990). "Gustatory responses of single neurons in the caudolateral orbitofrontal cortex of the macaque monkey".
197:, indicated distributed population coding in GC. These models have focused on the spatial organization of GC, while another proposed coding mechanism is
213:
GC chemosensory neurons exhibit concentration-dependent responses. In a study done on GC responses in rats during licking, an increase in MSG (
1231:
Bahar A, Dudai Y, Ahissar E (December 2004). "Neural signature of taste familiarity in the gustatory cortex of the freely behaving rat".
1294:
576:
Simmons WK, Martin A, Barsalou LW (October 2005). "Pictures of appetizing foods activate gustatory cortices for taste and reward".
67:. Taste cells synapse with primary sensory axons that run in the chorda tympani and greater superficial petrosal branches of the
369:
282:
194:
151:
88:
201:, which posits that information about taste quality is conveyed through a precise spiking pattern of GC neurons.
1472:
177:, which posits that each taste receptor codes for a specific taste quality (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami); and an
217:) concentration lingual exposure resulted in an increase in firing rate in the rat GC neurons, whereas an increase in
104:
541:
Pritchard TC, Macaluso DA, Eslinger PJ (August 1999). "Taste perception in patients with insular cortex lesions".
298:
Pritchard TC, Macaluso DA, Eslinger PJ (August 1999). "Taste perception in patients with insular cortex lesions".
83:, and esophagus respectively. The central axons of these primary sensory neurons in the respective cranial nerve
1502:
253:
1287:
182:
428:
Thorpe SJ, Rolls ET, Maddison S (1983). "The orbitofrontal cortex: neuronal activity in the behaving monkey".
1454:
1424:
838:"Spatially Distributed Representation of Taste Quality in the Gustatory Insular Cortex of Behaving Mice"
1528:
1280:
1245:
1523:
590:
1419:
256:
detected in the insular cortex in the first hours after the consumption of an unfamiliar taste.
1382:
1240:
585:
137:
72:
40:
682:
Ohla K, Yoshida R, Roper SD, Di
Lorenzo PM, Victor JD, Boughter JD, et al. (April 2019).
205:
functions, such as decision making regarding consummatory behaviors and valence processing.
214:
8:
740:"Against gustotopic representation in the human brain: There is no Cartesian Restaurant"
1208:
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1183:
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410:
346:
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920:
908:
867:
818:
769:
713:
661:
603:
558:
523:
506:
Rolls ET (September 1989). "Information processing in the taste system of primates".
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36:
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437:
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56:
1135:"Rethinking the role of taste processing in insular cortex and forebrain circuits"
1335:
1330:
1325:
1150:
755:
198:
190:
141:
119:), which becomes activated when the subject is consuming and experiencing taste.
554:
311:
1372:
1081:
Levitan D, Lin JY, Wachutka J, Mukherjee N, Nelson SB, Katz DB (October 2019).
1049:
951:
133:
116:
92:
32:
983:
Avery JA, Liu AG, Ingeholm JE, Riddell CD, Gotts SJ, Martin A (January 2020).
903:
886:
853:
484:
1517:
1083:"Single and population coding of taste in the gustatory cortex of awake mice"
936:"Distinct representations of basic taste qualities in human gustatory cortex"
333:
Kobayashi M (2006). "Functional
Organization of the Human Gustatory Cortex".
129:
804:
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68:
44:
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Stapleton JR, Lavine ML, Wolpert RL, Nicolelis MA, Simon SA (April 2006).
527:
519:
492:
449:
406:
1387:
1184:"Taste-specific neuronal ensembles in the gustatory cortex of awake rats"
76:
441:
277:(Third ed.). Boston: Benjamin Cummings/Pearson. pp. 391–395.
80:
1320:
684:"Recognizing Taste: Coding Patterns Along the Neural Axis in Mammals"
146:
108:
79:(Cranial nerve X) to innervate the taste buds in the tongue, palate,
64:
208:
1464:
1446:
1434:
1272:
100:
218:
84:
60:
31:. It consists of two substructures: the anterior insula on the
1312:
933:
787:
Chen X, Gabitto M, Peng Y, Ryba NJ, Zuker CS (September 2011).
627:
934:
Chikazoe J, Lee DH, Kriegeskorte N, Anderson AK (March 2019).
630:"Rapid taste responses in the gustatory cortex during licking"
225:
75:(cranial nerve IX), and the superior laryngeal branch of the
28:
789:"A gustotopic map of taste qualities in the mammalian brain"
1411:
1080:
232:
107:. This nucleus projects in turn to several regions of the
681:
540:
297:
27:) is a brain structure responsible for the perception of
982:
364:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Association.
470:
575:
1031:
786:
427:
16:
Brain structure responsible for perception of taste
1181:
835:
1230:
985:"Taste Quality Representation in the Human Brain"
209:Tastant concentration-dependent neuronal activity
111:which includes the gustatory cortex (the frontal
103:, where they terminate in the medial half of the
1515:
1132:
623:
621:
619:
617:
122:
71:(cranial nerve VII), the lingual branch of the
1182:Katz DB, Simon SA, Nicolelis MA (March 2002).
836:Chen K, Kogan JF, Fontanini A (January 2021).
384:
252:receptors, modulation of gene expression, and
1288:
1032:Carleton A, Accolla R, Simon SA (July 2010).
614:
1224:
1175:
569:
50:
534:
272:
1295:
1281:
1034:"Coding in the mammalian gustatory system"
499:
464:
421:
226:Responsiveness to changes in concentration
91:and lateral regions of the nucleus of the
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1516:
1133:Boughter JD, Fletcher M (April 2021).
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733:
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727:
677:
675:
505:
1302:
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508:The Journal of Experimental Biology
13:
1473:Posterior limb of internal capsule
1200:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-05-01850.2002
1123:
724:
672:
14:
1540:
105:ventral posterior medial nucleus
1074:
1025:
976:
927:
878:
829:
780:
254:posttranslational modifications
167:
1001:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1751-19.2019
647:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0092-06.2006
378:
353:
326:
291:
266:
136:, and a lingual branch of the
1:
1455:Ventral posteromedial nucleus
1139:Current Opinion in Physiology
885:Fontanini A (February 2023).
744:Current Opinion in Physiology
347:10.1016/S1349-0079(06)80007-1
259:
123:Functionality and stimulation
1151:10.1016/j.cophys.2020.12.009
756:10.1016/j.cophys.2021.01.005
399:10.1016/0168-0102(85)90017-3
63:, and the upper part of the
7:
1425:Medial parabrachial nucleus
1188:The Journal of Neuroscience
989:The Journal of Neuroscience
634:The Journal of Neuroscience
555:10.1037/0735-7044.113.4.663
430:Experimental Brain Research
335:Journal of Oral Biosciences
312:10.1037/0735-7044.113.4.663
273:Marieb EN, Katja H (2008).
10:
1545:
1233:Journal of Neurophysiology
1087:Journal of Neurophysiology
1050:10.1016/j.tins.2010.04.002
952:10.1038/s41467-019-08857-z
473:Journal of Neurophysiology
191:two-photon calcium imaging
1503:Special visceral afferent
1490:
1463:
1445:
1410:
1363:
1356:
1311:
904:10.1016/j.cub.2023.01.005
854:10.1016/j.cub.2020.10.014
485:10.1152/jn.1990.64.4.1055
51:Role in the taste pathway
275:Anatomy & Physiology
1420:Central tegmental tract
1038:Trends in Neurosciences
805:10.1126/science.1204076
738:Avery JA (April 2021).
543:Behavioral Neuroscience
300:Behavioral Neuroscience
360:Purves D, ed. (2001).
193:, and humans, through
138:glossopharyngeal nerve
73:glossopharyngeal nerve
41:inferior frontal gyrus
1255:10.1152/jn.00198.2004
1099:10.1152/jn.00357.2019
940:Nature Communications
700:10.1093/chemse/bjz013
600:10.1093/cercor/bhi038
520:10.1242/jeb.146.1.141
387:Neuroscience Research
215:monosodium glutamate
159:Chemosensory neurons
799:(6047): 1262–1266.
175:labelled-line model
442:10.1007/bf00235545
179:across-fiber model
1511:
1510:
1486:
1485:
1400:Gustatory nucleus
1341:Fungiform papilla
848:(2): 247–256.e4.
640:(15): 4126–4138.
584:(10): 1602–1608.
371:978-0-87893-742-4
284:978-0-8053-0094-9
243:Taste familiarity
187:population coding
183:topographical map
37:frontal operculum
1536:
1529:Gustatory system
1478:Gustatory cortex
1395:Solitary nucleus
1361:
1360:
1346:Filiform papilla
1297:
1290:
1283:
1274:
1273:
1267:
1266:
1248:
1239:(6): 3298–3308.
1228:
1222:
1221:
1211:
1194:(5): 1850–1857.
1179:
1173:
1172:
1162:
1130:
1121:
1120:
1110:
1093:(4): 1342–1356.
1078:
1072:
1071:
1061:
1029:
1023:
1022:
1012:
995:(5): 1042–1052.
980:
974:
973:
963:
931:
925:
924:
906:
897:(4): R130–R135.
882:
876:
875:
865:
833:
827:
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778:
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735:
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625:
612:
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532:
531:
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479:(4): 1055–1066.
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250:neurotransmitter
57:olfactory system
21:gustatory cortex
1544:
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1524:Cerebral cortex
1514:
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1512:
1507:
1482:
1459:
1441:
1406:
1352:
1336:Foliate papilla
1331:Vallate papilla
1326:Lingual papilla
1307:
1301:
1271:
1270:
1246:10.1.1.325.1189
1229:
1225:
1180:
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1131:
1124:
1079:
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1026:
981:
977:
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891:Current Biology
883:
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842:Current Biology
834:
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736:
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688:Chemical Senses
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578:Cerebral Cortex
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1122:
1073:
1044:(7): 326–334.
1024:
975:
926:
877:
828:
779:
723:
694:(4): 237–247.
671:
613:
591:10.1.1.165.177
568:
549:(4): 663–671.
533:
498:
463:
420:
393:(6): 447–459.
377:
370:
352:
341:(4): 244–260.
325:
306:(4): 663–671.
290:
283:
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210:
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169:
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140:elicit evoked
134:chorda tympani
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93:solitary tract
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15:
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436:(1): 93–115.
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130:lingual nerve
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114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
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82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
48:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
1498:Basic tastes
1477:
1430:Hypothalamus
1236:
1232:
1226:
1191:
1187:
1177:
1142:
1138:
1090:
1086:
1076:
1041:
1037:
1027:
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988:
978:
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929:
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782:
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691:
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637:
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581:
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546:
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511:
507:
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476:
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380:
362:Neuroscience
361:
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334:
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303:
299:
293:
274:
268:
246:
237:
229:
212:
203:
178:
174:
171:
168:Taste coding
162:
126:
69:facial nerve
54:
45:frontal lobe
33:insular lobe
24:
20:
19:The primary
18:
1303:Anatomy of
946:(1): 1048.
514:: 141–164.
87:project to
77:vagus nerve
1518:Categories
260:References
81:epiglottis
55:Like the
1321:Taste bud
1241:CiteSeerX
1145:: 52–56.
921:257222230
750:: 23–28.
586:CiteSeerX
147:olfactory
113:operculum
109:neocortex
65:esophagus
35:and the
1465:cerebrum
1447:thalamus
1435:Amygdala
1263:15212421
1218:11880514
1169:33681544
1117:31339800
1068:20493563
1019:31836661
970:30837463
913:36854267
872:33186554
823:21885776
774:33521413
718:30788507
666:16611830
608:15703257
563:10495075
458:12600073
320:10495075
115:and the
101:thalamus
1365:medulla
1209:6758892
1160:7932132
1108:6843090
1059:2902637
1010:6989007
961:6401093
887:"Taste"
863:7855361
814:3523322
793:Science
765:7839947
709:6462759
657:6673900
528:2689559
493:2258734
450:6861938
415:4252387
407:4047521
219:sucrose
152:rostral
97:medulla
95:in the
89:rostral
85:ganglia
61:pharynx
43:of the
39:on the
1313:Tongue
1261:
1243:
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368:
318:
281:
117:insula
1491:Other
1305:taste
917:S2CID
454:S2CID
411:S2CID
29:taste
1412:pons
1357:Path
1259:PMID
1214:PMID
1165:PMID
1113:PMID
1064:PMID
1015:PMID
966:PMID
909:PMID
868:PMID
819:PMID
770:PMID
714:PMID
662:PMID
604:PMID
559:PMID
524:PMID
489:PMID
446:PMID
403:PMID
366:ISBN
316:PMID
279:ISBN
233:NaCl
195:fMRI
1378:VII
1251:doi
1204:PMC
1196:doi
1155:PMC
1147:doi
1103:PMC
1095:doi
1091:122
1054:PMC
1046:doi
1005:PMC
997:doi
956:PMC
948:doi
899:doi
858:PMC
850:doi
809:PMC
801:doi
797:333
760:PMC
752:doi
704:PMC
696:doi
652:PMC
642:doi
596:doi
551:doi
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516:doi
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438:doi
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