501:. For example, the agent may have one desire to eat an unhealthy cake but follows their other desire to have a healthy salad instead. In this case, eating the cake is a mere desire while eating the salad is a volition. Frankfurt places great importance on the difference between first- and second-order desires. Most regular desires, like the desire to eat healthy food or to buy a car, are first-order desires. Second-order desires are desires about desires. So the desire to have a desire to eat healthy food is a second-order desire. Entities with first-order desires care about what the world around them is like, for example, whether they own a car or not. Entities with second-order desires care also about themselves, i.e. what they themselves are like and what mental states they possess. A second-order desire becomes a second-order volition if it is effective, i.e. if the agent is committed to realizing it by fostering the corresponding first-order desire. Frankfurt sees this as the mark of personhood because entities with second-order volitions do not just have desires but care about which desires they have. So persons are committed to the desires they have.
484:
So when a person starts caring about something, this thing becomes important to them even if it was unimportant to them before. Frankfurt explains this in terms of needs: the caring attitude brings with it a need. Because of this need, the cared-for thing can affect the person's well-being and has thereby become important to them. Yitzhak
Benbaji terms this relation between caring and importance "Frankfurt's Care-Importance Principle". He rejects it based on the claim that at least some cases of the caring attitude are misguided. This usually involves situations in which the agent has a wrong belief that the object of their caring would affect their well-being. In one example, the agent follows a charlatan's health advice to avoid a certain type of food. Benbaji argues that this constitutes a counterexample because the person cares about avoiding this food even though it has no impact on their health or their well-being.
550:". In one example, Allison's father has implanted a computer chip in Allison's head without her knowing. This chip would force Allison to walk her dog. However, Allison freely decides to do so and the chip is thus not activated. Frankfurt argues that, in this case, Allison is morally responsible for walking her dog even though she lacked the ability to do otherwise. The crux of this and similar cases is that the agent is morally responsible because he/she acted in accordance with his/her own will. This is so despite the fact that, usually unbeknownst to the agent, there was no real alternative. This line of thought has led Frankfurt to advocate a form of
33:
315:, on May 29, 1929, and did not know his biological parents. Shortly after his birth, he was adopted by a middle-class Jewish family and given a new name, Harry Gordon Frankfurt. His adoptive parents, Bertha (née Gordon) and Nathan Frankfurt, a piano teacher and a bookkeeper, respectively, raised him in Brooklyn and Baltimore. He attended
483:
factor. On this view, the importance of something determines whether it is appropriate to care about it: people should care about important things but not about unimportant ones. Frankfurt defends a different perspective on this issue by arguing that caring about something makes this thing important.
492:
Persons are characterized by certain attributes or capacities, like reason, moral responsibility, and self-consciousness. However, there is wide disagreement, both within the academic discourse and between different cultures about what the essential features of personhood are. One influential and
403:
is perhaps the most influential version of compatibilism, developing the view that to be free is to have one's actions conform to one's more reflective desires. Frankfurt's version of compatibilism is the subject of a substantial number of citations. More recently, he wrote on love and caring in
331:
at
Princeton University. He previously taught at Ohio State University (1956–1962), SUNY Binghamton (1962–1963), Rockefeller University (from 1963 until the philosophy department was closed in 1976), Yale University (from 1976, where he served as chair of the philosophy department 1978–1987), and
569:
Frankfurt was an amateur classical pianist. He starting taking piano lessons from an early age, initially from his mother who hoped that he might pursue a career as a concert pianist. Frankfurt continued to play piano and receive lessons throughout his life, alongside his philosophical career.
504:
According to
Frankfurt, not every entity with a mind is a person. He refers to such entities as "wantons". Wantons have desires and follow them but do not care about their own will. In this regard, they are indifferent to which of their desires become effective and are translated into action.
371:. In this work he explains how bullshitting is different from lying, in that it is an act that has no regard for the truth. He argues that "It is impossible for someone to lie unless he thinks he knows the truth. Producing bullshit requires no such conviction." In 2006, he followed up with
398:
designed to demonstrate the possibility of situations in which a person could not have done other than he/she did, but in which our intuition is to say nonetheless that this feature of the situation does not prevent that person from being morally responsible). Frankfurt's view of
509:
in which a person acts according to a first-order desire that he/she does not want to have on the second order. For example, a struggling drug addict may follow his/her first-order desire to take drugs despite having a second-order desire to stop wanting drugs.
505:
Frankfurt holds that personhood is an important feature of humans but not of other animals. However, even some humans may be wantons at times. Various of
Frankfurt's examples of such cases involve some forms of
1729:
The term 'moral responsibility' covers (i) the having of a moral obligation and (ii) the fulfilment of the criteria for deserving blame or praise (punishment or reward) for a morally significant act or
542:. So under normal circumstances, a person is morally responsible for stealing someone's lunch at the cafeteria. However, this may not be the case under special circumstances, for example, if a
497:. A volition is an effective desire, i.e. a desire that the agent is committed to realizing. Not all desires become volitions: humans usually have many desires but put only some of them into
468:
about. An agent cares about something if he/she has a certain attitude of the will: He/she sees the entity in question as important to them. For
Frankfurt, what we care about reflects our
570:
According to
Frankfurt, becoming a professor of philosophy was acceptable to his mother, seeing as it was "close enough" to her other ambition for him, which was to become a rabbi.
558:
world. Frankfurt cases have provoked a significant discussion of the principle of alternative possibilities. However, not everyone agrees that they are successful at disproving it.
943:
2169:
1974:
Kann ein
Konzept der Willensfreiheit auf das Prinzip der alternativen Möglichkeiten verzichten? Harry G. Frankfurts Kritik am Prinzip der alternativen Möglichkeiten (PAP).
776:(A discussion of his views on moral responsibility, caring and love, and the relationship of his later work on the structure of the will to his earlier work on Descartes.)
493:
precisely formulated account of personhood is given by
Frankfurt in his "Freedom of the Will and the Concept of a Person". He holds that persons are beings that have
2054:
2039:
268:
he or she has. He contrasts persons with wantons. Wantons are beings that have desires but do not care about which of their desires is translated into
910:
2139:
464:. He argues that there is another branch of inquiry that has received less attention, namely the question of what has importance or what we should
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compelled them to do it. Frankfurt has rejected the principle of alternative possibilities based on a series of counterexamples, the so-called "
1980:
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566:
Harry
Frankfurt was first married to Marilyn Rothman. They had two daughters. The marriage ended in divorce. He then married Joan Gilbert.
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554:: If free will and moral responsibility do not depend on the ability to do otherwise, then they could even exist in a fully
534:. It states that "a person is morally responsible for what she has done only if she could have done otherwise". Having this
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or who we are. This also affects the person on the practical level concerning how he/she acts and leads his/her life.
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of blame or praise for having done something or having failed to do so. An important principle in this regard is the
2164:
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2079:
944:"Charles Homer Haskins Prize Lecture 2017: A Life of Learning. Harry G. Frankfurt | ACLS Occasional Paper, No. 74"
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252:. The attitude of caring played a central role in his philosophy. To care about something means to see it as
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817:
319:, where he obtained his Bachelor of Arts in 1949 and Doctor of Philosophy in 1954, both in philosophy.
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1027:
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573:
Frankfurt died of congestive heart failure in Santa Monica, California, on July 16, 2023, at age 94.
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103:
83:
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64:
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357:, originally published in 1986 as a paper on the concept of "bullshit", unexpectedly became a
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387:
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261:
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198:
763:
2114:
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2029:
1984:
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519:
452:
According to
Frankfurt, a lot of the philosophical discourse concerns either the domain of
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277:
230:
182:
976:
853:
8:
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527:
498:
461:
383:
375:, a companion book in which he explored the dwindling appreciation in society for truth.
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272:. In the field of ethics, Frankfurt gave various influential counterexamples, so-called
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1996:
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2017 A Life of Learning by Harry G. Frankfurt. The Charles Homer Haskins Prize Lecture
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1319:
Kahane, Guy (June 10, 2022). "Meaningfulness and Importance". In Landau, Iddo (ed.).
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858:
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391:
273:
257:
234:
203:
1469:. Handbooks in Philosophy. Springer International Publishing. pp. 347–360.
885:
The Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of Philosophers in America: From 1600 to the Present
1068:"Understanding Moral Responsibility within the Context of the Free Will Debate"
367:
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1992:
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922:
551:
400:
742:
386:(on which he has written numerous important papers) based on his concept of
2015:
2007 Harry Frankfurt Video Feature Interview on The Alcove with Mark Molaro
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453:
378:
Among philosophers, he was for a time best known for his interpretation of
281:
1989:
Reason & Responsibility: Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy
1567:
1255:"Harry Frankfurt's Metaphysics of Care: Towards an Ethics Without Reason"
818:"Harry G. Frankfurt, Philosopher With a Surprise Best Seller, Dies at 94"
665:
555:
362:
353:
348:
286:
208:
1945:"Harry Frankfurt, philosopher of excrement-level falsehoods, dies at 94"
1568:"On the Concept of Personhood: A Comparative Analysis of Three Accounts"
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2009:
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526:
to perform certain actions and to the backward-looking status of being
358:
328:
1868:
1776:"Moral Responsibility and the Principle of Alternative Possibilities"
539:
379:
253:
225:(May 29, 1929 – July 16, 2023) was an American philosopher. He was a
172:
1802:
1642:
1595:
1254:
1045:
1842:"Moral Responsibility: 1. Freedom, Responsibility, and Determinism"
1463:"Personhood: Implications for Moral Status and Uniqueness of Women"
1408:"The Moral, the Personal, and the Importance of What We Care about"
685:
248:
Frankfurt made significant contributions to fields like ethics and
584:
Demons, Dreamers and Madmen: The Defense of Reason in Descartes's
506:
382:'s rationalism. His most influential work, however, has been on
233:, where he taught from 1990 until 2002. Frankfurt also taught at
1596:"Frankfurt on Second-Order Desires and the Concept of a Person"
514:
Moral responsibility and principle of alternative possibilities
457:
1148:
American Academy Distinguished Visitor - Class of Spring 2003
1976:
In: Zeitschrift für philosophische Forschung (ZphF), Heft 4.
475:
In the academic literature, caring is often understood as a
2014:
607:
The Importance of What We Care About: Philosophical Essays
394:" (also known as "Frankfurt counter-examples", which are
111:
361:, which led to his making media appearances such as on
427:; and he has received grants and fellowships from the
260:. According to Frankfurt, a person is someone who has
1999:, 486–492. California: The Thomson Corporation, 2008.
1138:
1136:
936:
2170:
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1667:
Fischer, John Martin; Ravizza, Mark (July 5, 2018).
1133:
1080:
1028:"Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility"
604:
1624:"Freedom of the Will and the Concept of a Person"
911:"Rockefeller University Hit by Storm Over Tenure"
706:Taking Ourselves Seriously & Getting It Right
2021:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1193:
1191:
811:
809:
807:
1901:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
1848:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
1782:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
1750:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
1514:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
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1401:
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1292:Frankfurt, Harry G. (1999). "14. On Caring".
1285:
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840:
838:
804:
1893:McKenna, Michael; Coates, D. Justin (2021).
1467:Handbook of African Philosophy of Difference
423:; he served as president, Eastern Division,
1769:
1767:
1765:
1657:
1394:
1347:
1312:
1070:– via University of Central Florida.
835:
762:"The Necessity of Love" in Alex Voorhoeve
561:
290:, which discusses the distinction between
31:
2055:21st-century American non-fiction writers
2040:20th-century American non-fiction writers
1942:
1673:. Cornell University Press. p. 217.
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479:attitude in contrast to importance as an
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1026:Frankfurt, Harry G. (December 4, 1969).
456:, which asks what we should believe, or
447:
2140:American philosophers of social science
1943:Rosenwald, Michael S. (July 20, 2023).
1899:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1846:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1839:
1780:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1748:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1741:
1512:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1405:
1118:American Academy of Arts & Sciences
994:McCulloch, Alison (November 12, 2006).
908:
815:
743:"Donald Trump Is BS, Says Expert in BS"
332:then Princeton University (1990–2002).
2022:
1800:
1593:
1582:
1356:"Importance, Value, and Causal Impact"
1353:
1322:The Oxford Handbook of Meaning in Life
1318:
1200:"The Importance of What We Care About"
1171:
909:Shenker, Israel (September 26, 1976).
852:. Princeton University. Archived from
532:principle of alternative possibilities
411:Frankfurt was elected a Fellow of the
1860:
1693:
1565:
1552:
1505:
1252:
975:Dougherty, Peter (December 6, 2017).
955:American Council of Learned Societies
881:
589:. Princeton University Press. 2007 .
437:National Endowment for the Humanities
415:in 1995. He was a Visiting Fellow of
413:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
335:His major areas of interest included
39:American Council of Learned Societies
2190:Deaths from congestive heart failure
1773:
1715:10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001
1670:Perspectives on Moral Responsibility
1331:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190063504.013.6
1081:Harry G. Frankfurt (July 16, 2019).
882:Shook, John R. (February 11, 2016).
727:. Princeton University Press. 2015.
669:. Princeton University Press. 2005.
649:. Princeton University Press. 2004.
629:. Cambridge University Press. 1999.
611:. Cambridge University Press. 1988.
327:Frankfurt was professor emeritus of
2185:People from Langhorne, Pennsylvania
1873:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
709:. Stanford University Press. 2006.
13:
2180:21st-century American male writers
2175:20th-century American male writers
2060:21st-century American philosophers
2045:20th-century American philosophers
1966:
1182:American Philosophical Association
538:is usually associated with having
425:American Philosophical Association
365:'s late-night television program,
14:
2201:
2085:American male non-fiction writers
2003:
1866:
2120:American philosophers of culture
1566:Vezér, Martin Alexander (2007).
816:Ryerson, James (July 17, 2023).
522:" refers to the forward-looking
16:American philosopher (1929–2023)
2110:Johns Hopkins University alumni
2065:21st-century American essayists
2050:20th-century American essayists
1936:
1913:
1886:
1833:
1794:
1735:
1687:
1526:
1499:
1454:
1354:Kahane, Guy (August 13, 2021).
1259:Philosophy and Social Criticism
1165:
1101:
1074:
1060:
768:Oxford University Press, 2009.
576:
311:at a home for unwed mothers in
2160:Rockefeller University faculty
1707:Oxford Companion to Philosophy
1298:. Cambridge University Press.
1174:"In Memoriam: Harry Frankfurt"
1019:
1006:
987:
977:"The Character of Its Content"
968:
902:
875:
1:
2135:American philosophers of mind
2090:American philosophy academics
1295:Necessity, Volition, and Love
1172:Ferrer, Amy (July 17, 2023).
797:
792:List of American philosophers
756:
627:Necessity, Volition, and Love
487:
442:
302:
276:, against the principle that
2150:Princeton University faculty
1972:Bischof, Michael H. (2004).
1622:Frankfurt, Harry G. (1971).
1594:Norris, Christopher (2010).
1475:10.1007/978-3-030-14835-5_17
297:
7:
1803:"Abilities to Do Otherwise"
1709:. Oxford University Press.
1360:Journal of Moral Philosophy
1014:Reason & Responsibility
780:
460:, which asks how we should
284:. His most popular book is
10:
2206:
1152:American Academy in Berlin
2010:Princeton Faculty Listing
1840:Talbert, Matthew (2019).
1819:10.1007/s11098-015-0455-8
1742:Talbert, Matthew (2019).
1424:10.1017/S0031819101000365
1406:Benbaji, Yitzhak (2001).
1372:10.1163/17455243-20213581
1198:Frankfurt, Harry (1982).
1033:The Journal of Philosophy
1012:Feinberg; Shafer-Landau:
888:. Bloomsbury Publishing.
322:
216:
190:
154:
142:
132:
122:
118:
99:
91:
72:
46:
30:
23:
2100:American epistemologists
1461:Tshivhase, Mpho (2020).
1271:10.1177/0191453708093085
850:Department of Philosophy
765:Conversations on Ethics.
433:Andrew Mellon Foundation
317:Johns Hopkins University
264:or who cares about what
104:Johns Hopkins University
84:Santa Monica, California
2165:Yale University faculty
2125:Philosophers of history
2080:American male essayists
1981:Alternate Possibilities
1253:Jouan, Marlène (2008).
1113:Harry Gordon Frankfurt"
981:Princeton Alumni Weekly
562:Personal life and death
536:ability to do otherwise
313:Langhorne, Pennsylvania
282:ability to do otherwise
127:Contemporary philosophy
65:Langhorne, Pennsylvania
1801:Kittle, Simon (2015).
1744:"Moral Responsibility"
689:. Random House. 2006.
495:second-order volitions
388:higher-order volitions
262:second-order volitions
239:Rockefeller University
223:Harry Gordon Frankfurt
95:Harry Gordon Frankfurt
2095:Analytic philosophers
1807:Philosophical Studies
1631:Journal of Philosophy
1539:Oxford Bibliographies
1533:Shir-Vertesh, Dafna.
964:on November 24, 2020.
544:neurological disorder
448:Caring and importance
429:Guggenheim Foundation
243:Ohio State University
199:Higher-order volition
2130:Philosophers of love
1985:Moral Responsibility
1774:Robb, David (2020).
1508:"Self-Consciousness"
1506:Smith, Joel (2020).
520:moral responsibility
390:and for developing "
278:moral responsibility
231:Princeton University
183:philosophy of action
1979:Frankfurt, Harry. "
1949:The Washington Post
1925:, February 13, 2018
1325:. pp. 92–108.
1084:The Reasons of Love
787:American philosophy
646:The Reasons of Love
406:The Reasons of Love
396:thought experiments
384:freedom of the will
347:, and 17th-century
309:David Bernard Stern
307:Frankfurt was born
51:David Bernard Stern
41:2017 annual meeting
2145:Philosophy writers
2075:American ethicists
1997:Russ Shafer-Landau
1216:10.1007/BF00484902
1000:The New York Times
915:The New York Times
822:The New York Times
470:personal character
341:philosophy of mind
258:person's character
250:philosophy of mind
227:professor emeritus
209:theory of bullshit
178:philosophy of love
168:philosophy of mind
137:Western philosophy
1813:(11): 3017–3035.
1680:978-1-5017-2156-4
1484:978-3-030-14835-5
1340:978-0-19-006350-4
1305:978-0-521-63395-6
1178:www.apaonline.org
1144:"Harry Frankfurt"
962:(web.archive.org)
846:"Harry Frankfurt"
774:978-0-19-921537-9
421:Oxford University
417:All Souls College
256:and reflects the
229:of philosophy at
220:
219:
37:Frankfurt at the
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2070:Action theorists
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1699:"responsibility"
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1418:(297): 415–433.
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1366:(aop): 577–601.
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963:
957:. Archived from
948:
940:
934:
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931:
929:
906:
900:
899:
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873:
872:
870:
868:
863:on July 18, 2023
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830:
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813:
752:
738:
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680:
660:
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622:
610:
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524:moral obligation
351:. His 2005 book
337:moral philosophy
163:Moral philosophy
92:Other names
79:
60:
58:
35:
21:
20:
2205:
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2020:
2019:
2006:
1969:
1967:Further reading
1964:
1963:
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1895:"Compatibilism"
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78:(2023-07-16)
61:May 29, 1929
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2115:Ontologists
2035:2023 deaths
2030:1929 births
1869:"Free Will"
1637:(1): 5–20.
1600:Prolegomena
666:On Bullshit
586:Meditations
363:Jon Stewart
354:On Bullshit
349:rationalism
294:and lying.
287:On Bullshit
2024:Categories
1412:Philosophy
798:References
757:Interviews
518:The term "
488:Personhood
477:subjective
443:Philosophy
359:bestseller
329:philosophy
303:Early life
57:1929-05-29
2105:Free will
1827:170485685
1730:omission.
1493:260602264
1448:143737564
1432:0031-8191
1388:238678531
1380:1745-5243
1279:143684323
1224:0039-7857
1111:Professor
1016:, p. 486.
923:0362-4331
540:free will
481:objective
380:Descartes
298:Biography
254:important
173:free will
100:Education
1954:July 23,
1929:July 18,
1697:(2005).
1240:46967621
1232:20115802
1204:Synthese
1157:July 23,
1125:July 23,
928:July 25,
867:July 23,
857:(by the
827:July 18,
781:See also
686:On Truth
435:and the
373:On Truth
149:Analytic
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1878:July 6,
1786:July 6,
1754:July 6,
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1489:S2CID
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1995:and
1983:and
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