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1214:. Naguib separated the two issues and accepted the right of Sudanese self-determination. On February 12, 1953, London and Cairo signed an Anglo-Egyptian accord, which allowed for a three-year transition period from condominium rule to self-government. During the transition phase, British troops would withdraw from Sudan. At the end of this period, the Sudanese would decide their future status in a plebiscite conducted under international supervision. Naguib's concession seemed justified when parliamentary elections held at the end of 1952 gave a majority to the pro-Egyptian NUP, which had called for an eventual union with Egypt. In January 1954, a new government emerged under NUP leader
962:, and Upper Nile—received little official attention until after World War I, except for efforts to suppress tribal warfare and the slave trade. The British justified this policy by claiming that the south was not ready for exposure to the modern world. To allow the south to develop along indigenous lines, the British, therefore, closed the region to outsiders. As a result, the south remained isolated. A few Arab merchants controlled the region's limited commercial activities while Arab bureaucrats administered whatever laws existed. Christian missionaries, who operated schools and medical clinics, provided limited social services in southern Sudan.
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988:. There was no competition among these missions, largely because they maintained separate areas of influence. The government eventually subsidized the mission schools that educated southerners. Because mission graduates usually succeeded in gaining posts in the provincial civil service, many northerners regarded them as tools of British imperialism. The few southerners who received higher training attended schools in British East Africa (present-day
24:
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that provided for a prime minister and council of ministers responsible to a bicameral parliament. The new
Sudanese government would have responsibility in all areas except military and foreign affairs, which remained in the British governor-general's hands. Cairo, which demanded recognition of Egyptian sovereignty over Sudan, repudiated the condominium agreement in protest and declared its reigning monarch,
1049:, as it developed after World War I, was an Arab and Muslim phenomenon with its support base in the northern provinces. Nationalists opposed indirect rule and advocated a centralized national government in Khartoum responsible for both regions. Nationalists also perceived Britain's southern policy as artificially dividing Sudan and preventing its unification under an arabized and Islamic ruling class.
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to a modification. Moreover, the
British regarded their role as the protection of the Sudanese from Egyptian domination. The nationalists feared that the eventual result of friction between the condominium powers might be the attachment of northern Sudan to Egypt and southern Sudan to Uganda and Kenya. Although they settled most of their differences in the
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opportunity to enter public service. They also felt threatened by the replacement of trusted
British district commissioners with unsympathetic northerners. After the government replaced several hundred colonial officials with Sudanese, only four of whom were southerners, the southern elite abandoned hope of a peaceful, unified, independent Sudan.
1037:
provinces tended to be
Arabists often drawn from the diplomatic and consular service. Whereas northern provincial governors conferred regularly as a group with the governor-general in Khartoum, their three southern colleagues met to coordinate activities with the governors of the British East African colonies.
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regions to supersede the advisory executive council. The
Legislative Assembly had its own executive council consisting of five British and seven Sudanese members. A number of elected local government bodies gradually took over the responsibilities of the former British local commissioner, starting with
917:
In Sudan, the traditional leaders were the shaykhs (of villages, tribes, and districts) in the north and tribal chiefs in the south. The
British first delegated judicial powers to shaykhs to enable them to settle local disputes; then, gradually, they allowed the shaykhs to administer local government
1231:
determined that Sudan should be administered as one country. Moreover, the conference delegates agreed to readmit northern administrators to southern posts, abolish the trade restrictions imposed under the "closed door" ordinances, and allow southerners to seek employment in the north. Khartoum also
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in the 1930s and later the executive council's civil secretary, advised the establishment of parliamentary government and the administrative unification of north and south. In 1948, over
Egyptian objections, Britain authorized the partially elected consultative Legislative Assembly representing both
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after the war to be preceded by abolition of the "closed door" ordinances, an end to the separate curriculum in southern schools, and an increase in the number of
Sudanese in the civil service. The governor-general refused to accept the memorandum but agreed to a government-supervised transformation
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In the 1930s, nationalism reemerged in Sudan. Educated
Sudanese wanted to restrict the governor-general's power and to obtain Sudanese participation in the council's deliberations. However, any change in government required a change in the condominium agreement. Neither Britain nor Egypt would agree
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Those individuals who served in the southern provinces tended to be military officers with previous Africa experience on loan to the colonial service. They were usually distrustful of Arab influence and were committed to keeping the south under
British control. By contrast, officials in the northern
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The period's "closed door" ordinances, which barred northern Sudanese from entering or working in the south, reinforced this separate development policy. Moreover, the British gradually replaced Arab administrators and expelled Arab merchants, thereby severing the south's last economic contacts with
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The governor-general presided over this council, which included the inspector-general; the civil, legal, and financial secretaries; the General Officer Commanding the Troops (The Kaid); and two to four other British officials appointed by the governor-general. From 1944 to 1948 there existed also an
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The hostility of southerners toward the northern Arab majority surfaced violently when southern army units mutinied in August 1955 to protest their transfer to garrisons under northern officers. The rebellious troops killed several hundred northerners, including government officials, army officers,
1068:, organized demonstrations in Khartoum that took advantage of the unrest that followed Stack's assassination. Ali Abd al Latif's arrest and subsequent exile in Egypt sparked a mutiny by a Sudanese army battalion, the suppression of which succeeded in temporarily crippling the nationalist movement.
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Although potentially a rich agricultural zone, the south's economic development suffered because of the region's isolation. Moreover, a continual struggle went on between British officials in the north and south, as those in the former resisted recommendations that northern resources be diverted to
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Some southern British colonial officials responded to the Sudan Administrative Conference by charging that northern agitation had influenced the conferees and that no voice had been heard at the conference in support of retaining the separate development policy. These British officers argued that
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The pro-Egyptian NUP boycotted the 1948 Legislative Assembly elections. As a result, pro-independence groups dominated the Legislative Assembly. In 1952, leaders of the Umma-dominated legislature negotiated the Self-Determination Agreement with Britain. The legislators then enacted a constitution
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the supreme military and civil command in Sudan shall be vested in one officer, termed the Governor-General of Sudan. He shall be appointed by Khedival Decree on the recommendation of Her Britannic Majesty's Government and shall be removed only by Khedival Decree with the consent of Her Britannic
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The Sudan Archive was founded in 1957, the year after Sudanese independence, to collect and preserve the papers of administrators from the Sudan Political Service, missionaries, soldiers, business men, doctors, agriculturalists, teachers and others who had served or lived in the Sudan during the
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The mainstream of political development, represented by other local leaders and Khartoum's educated elite, disapproved of indirect rule. In their view, it prevented the country's unification, exacerbated tribalism in the north, and in the south served to buttress a less-advanced society against
629:. Although it emphasized Egypt's indebtedness to Britain for its participation in the reconquest, the agreement failed to clarify the juridical relationship between the two condominium powers in Sudan or to provide a legal basis for continued British governing of the territory on behalf of the
1247:
Despite these promises, an increasing number of southerners expressed concern that northerners would overwhelm them. In particular, they resented the imposition of Arabic as the official language of administration, which deprived most of the few educated English-speaking southerners of the
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and merchants. The government quickly suppressed the revolt and eventually executed seventy southerners for sedition. But this harsh reaction failed to pacify the south, as some of the mutineers escaped to remote areas and organized resistance to the Arab-dominated government of Sudan.
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advisory council for northern Sudan whose functions were advice and consultation. This advisory council had 18 members representing province councils, 10 members nominated by the Governor-General and 2 honorary members. The executive council retained legislative authority until 1948.
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In the condominium's early years, the governor-general and provincial governors exercised a great deal of freedom in governing Sudan. After 1910, however, an executive council, whose approval was required for all legislation and for budgetary matters, assisted the governor-general.
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From the beginning of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, the British sought to modernize Sudan by applying European technology to its underdeveloped economy and by replacing its authoritarian institutions with ones that adhered to liberal English traditions.
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During World War II, some British colonial officers questioned the economic and political viability of the southern provinces as separate from northern Sudan. Britain also had become more sensitive to Arab criticism of the southern policy. In 1946, the
1021:. At the same time, the British made efforts to revitalize African customs and tribal life that the slave trade had disrupted. Finally, a 1930 directive stated that blacks in the southern provinces were to be considered a people distinct from northern
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influence. Indirect rule also implied government decentralization, which alarmed the educated elite who had careers in the central administration and envisioned an eventual transfer of power from British colonial authorities to their class.
1008:
British authorities treated the three southern provinces as a separate region. The colonial administration, as it consolidated its southern position in the 1920s, detached the south from the rest of Sudan for all practical purposes.
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under cultivation. Planters sent cotton by rail from Sannar to Port Sudan for shipment abroad. The Gezira Scheme made cotton the mainstay of the country's economy and turned the region into Sudan's most densely populated area.
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After restoring order and the government's authority, the British dedicated themselves to creating a modern government in the condominium. Jurists adopted penal and criminal procedural codes similar to those in force in
887:. However, the 1923 Egyptian constitution made no claim to Egyptian sovereignty over Sudan. Subsequent negotiations in London between the British and the new Egyptian government foundered on the Sudan question.
1087:, the Khatmiyyah leader, who favored union with Egypt. Coalitions supported by each of these leaders formed rival wings of the nationalist movement. Later, radical nationalists and the Khatmiyyah created the
898:, governor-general of Sudan and Sirdar, was assassinated in Cairo. Britain ordered all Egyptian troops, civil servants, and public employees withdrawn from Sudan. In 1925, Khartoum formed the 4,500-man
847:'s settled areas. In the first two decades of condominium rule, the British extended telegraph and rail lines to link key points in northern Sudan but services did not reach more remote areas.
1210:
broke the deadlock on the problem of Egyptian sovereignty over Sudan. Cairo previously had linked discussions on Sudan's status to an agreement on the evacuation of British troops from the
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to quell the fears of southern leaders and British officials in the south and to assure them that a post-independence government would safeguard southern political and cultural rights.
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1095:(NUP), to advance the cause of Sudanese-Egyptian unification. The moderates favored Sudanese independence in cooperation with Britain and together with the Ansar established the
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that called for an independent Sudan in which power would be shared by tribal and religious leaders. Three years later, Ali Abd al Latif's movement, reconstituted as the
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under the supervision of British district commissioners. The number of Sudanese recognizing these leaders and the degree of authority they wielded varied considerably.
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spur southern economic development. Personality clashes between officials in the two branches in the Sudan Political Service also impeded the south's growth.
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Nationalists and religious leaders were divided on the issue of whether Sudan should apply for independence or for union with Egypt. The Mahdi's son,
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in 1914, sent a small force against Ali Dinar, who died in subsequent fighting. In 1916, the British annexed Darfur to Sudan and terminated the
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offensive that routed the Italians in Eritrea and liberated Ethiopia by the end of the year. Some Sudanese units later contributed to the
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715:, the number of date palms, and the size of herds; however, the rate of taxation was fixed for the first time in Sudan's history.
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1165:, a quasi-nationalist movement formed by educated Sudanese, presented the government with a memorandum that demanded a pledge of
1076:, which set a timetable for the end of British military occupation, Britain and Egypt failed to agree on Sudan's future status.
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religious order that had established southern missions before the Mahdiyah. Other missionary groups active in the south included
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There was little resistance to the condominium. Breaches of the peace usually took the form of intertribal warfare or banditry.
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707:. Commissions established land tenure rules and adjusted claims in dispute because of grants made by successive governments.
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northern domination of the south would result in a southern rebellion against the government. Khartoum therefore convened a
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uprisings occurred in February 1900, in 1902–1903, in 1904, and in 1908 but these revolts were of short duration. In 1916,
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Public Relations Department Sudan Government Khartoum (1951) “Sudan Almanac 1951”, McCorquodale & Co. (Sudan)
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appointed by the governor-general. Religious judges and other sharia court officials were invariably Egyptian.
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Hyslop, J. (1952) : “The Sudan Story”, Chapter “The Avenger Brings Peace”, The Naldrett Press, London, UK
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In the immediate postwar years, the condominium government made a number of significant changes. In 1942 the
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Sudan was relatively quiet in the late 1920s and 1930s. During this period, the colonial government favored
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was raided by irregular Eritrean forces in August 1940, the SDF prevented an Italian advance on the
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In January 1941, the SDF, expanded to about 20,000 troops, retook Kassala and participated in the
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reclaimed Darfur's throne, which had been lost to the Egyptians in 1874 and held the throne under
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In each province, two inspectors and several district commissioners aided the British governor (
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suzerainty, with British approval on condition that he pay annual tribute to the khedive. When
681:. Egyptians filled middle-level posts while Sudanese gradually acquired lower-level positions.
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The problem of the condominium's undefined borders was a greater concern. A 1902 treaty with
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942:) supported the British approach since many of them enjoyed positions of local authority.
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on land remained the basic form of taxation, the amount assessed depending on the type of
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In 1911 the Sudanese government and the private Sudan Plantations Syndicate launched the
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was the only province formerly under Egyptian control that was not recaptured during the
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broke out, Ali Dinar proclaimed his loyalty to the Ottoman Empire and responded to the
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projected or proposed railways and international boundary lines of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
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industry. By 1952 it was reported that Sudan had 56 local self-governing authorities.
1131:, Italian forces invaded Sudan at several points and captured the railway junction at
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Inflamed by the failure of the talks, nationalists rioted in Egypt and in Sudan where
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nullified the prohibition against Muslim proselytizing in the south and introduced
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Ironically, a non-Arab led Sudan's first modern nationalist movement. In 1921,
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The British governor-general, who was a military officer, reported to the
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During the co-dominium period, economic development occurred only in the
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fixed the southeastern boundary with Sudan. Seven years later, an Anglo-
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the north. The colonial administration also discouraged the spread of
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and that the region should be prepared for eventual integration with
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862:(Gezira is also seen as Jazirah) to provide a source of high-quality
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1127:). During the summer of 1940, in what became the first moves of the
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of indirect rule into a modernized system of local government. Sir
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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assumed the mission of guarding the Sudanese frontier with
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902:(SDF) under Sudanese officers to replace Egyptian units.
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In 1922, Britain renounced the protectorate and approved
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Southern Sudan's remote and undeveloped provinces—
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in the south as the official administration language.
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The western boundary proved more difficult to resolve.
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Bird's Eye View of the Soudan and Surrounding Countries
669:). Initially, nearly all administrative personnel were
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1017:, the practice of Arab customs, and the wearing of
870:, completed in 1925, brought a much larger area in
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827:. Britain, which had declared a protectorate over
621:. The agreement designated territory south of the
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855:as the country's principal outlet to the sea.
1309:The Sudan under the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium
866:for Britain's textile industry. An irrigation
965:The earliest Christian missionaries were the
784:in the south, establishing a border with the
633:. Article II of the agreement specified that
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1135:and other villages along the border. While
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1206:the Faruk monarchy in late 1952, Colonel
654:as if it were a colonial administration.
108:Learn how and when to remove this message
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613:, or joint authority, exercised by the
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1060:and former army officer, founded the
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879:Egyptian independence, fate of Sudan
780:treaty determined the status of the
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605:agreement restored Egyptian rule in
46:adding citations to reliable sources
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885:Egypt's declaration of independence
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946:Britain's policy towards the South
894:with Egypt. In November 1924, Sir
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1202:After seizing power in Egypt and
57:"History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan"
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1222:The south and the unity of Sudan
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823:'s call for a jihad against the
801:Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan
790:Democratic Republic of the Congo
745:, who claimed to be the Prophet
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1229:Sudan Administrative Conference
934:opposed indirect rule, but the
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33:needs additional citations for
1425:Egypt–United Kingdom relations
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1267:Sudan–United Kingdom relations
662:as governor-general in 1899.
646:through its resident agent in
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1420:History of the British Empire
1163:Graduates' General Conference
1074:Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936
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1041:Rise of Sudanese nationalism
726:separation of civil law and
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1197:King of Egypt and the Sudan
749:, launched an unsuccessful
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1399:Anglo-Egyptian Condominium
1374:- Anglo-Egyptian Agreement
1354:LIFE Visits Sudan in 1947
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892:a minority supported union
851:opened in 1906, replacing
1336:Federal Research Division
986:Church Missionary Society
673:officers attached to the
262:c. 9th cent. – 19th cent.
248:Christian Nubian Kingdoms
1103:The road to independence
1004:"Closed-door" ordinances
1385:Library. Archived from
1093:National Unionist Party
720:Code of Civil Procedure
679:Sudan Political Service
1156:North African Campaign
1081:Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi
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1415:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
1183:, the centre of the
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743:Abd Allah as Suhayni
656:Sir Reginald Wingate
627:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
597:In January 1899, an
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268:Turco-Egyptian Sudan
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230: – 9th cent. BC
224:New Kingdom of Egypt
42:improve this article
1117:Italian East Africa
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1027:British East Africa
900:Sudan Defence Force
833:Sultanate of Darfur
344:Democratic Republic
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1359:2011-01-16 at the
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1391:. Retrieved
1387:the original
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258:Islamization
240:9th cent. BC
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40:Please help
35:verification
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1152:Eighth Army
1056:, a Muslim
1047:nationalism
969:Fathers, a
845:Nile Valley
817:World War I
803:. When the
611:condominium
526:Photography
521:Decorations
184:Before 1956
143:History of
1409:Categories
1393:2014-09-01
1212:Suez Canal
1185:Gum arabic
1137:Port Sudan
1097:Umma Party
1019:Arab dress
932:Khatmiyyah
872:Al Jazirah
849:Port Sudan
713:irrigation
658:succeeded
546:Television
506:Literature
496:Demography
301:Since 1955
194:Prehistory
68:newspapers
1045:Sudanese
977:from the
956:Equatoria
896:Lee Stack
809:Ali Dinar
718:The 1902
660:Kitchener
501:Languages
449:By region
423:2021 Coup
418:2019 Coup
399:1986–2019
390:1989 Coup
385:1985 Coup
371:1983–2005
361:1969–1985
352:1969 Coup
338:1956–1969
315:1955–1972
292:1899–1956
282:1885–1899
272:1820–1885
1357:Archived
1340:–
1256:See also
1181:El Obeid
1121:Ethiopia
998:Tanzania
983:Anglican
981:and the
805:Mahdiyah
774:Ethiopia
652:Khartoum
603:Egyptian
561:Timeline
531:Religion
491:Economic
472:By topic
463:Khartoum
428:2023 War
134:a series
132:Part of
1273:Sources
1141:Red Sea
1133:Kassala
1125:Eritrea
1089:Ashigga
1023:Muslims
853:Sawakin
813:Ottoman
778:Belgian
739:Mahdist
724:Ottoman
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536:Slavery
439:present
198:before
82:scholar
1381:. UK:
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1234:Arabic
1148:Empire
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967:Verona
864:cotton
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768:, 1884
728:sharia
486:Cinema
458:Darfur
175:Anthem
170:Emblem
136:on the
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1342:Sudan
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1058:Dinka
1015:Islam
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821:Porte
751:jihad
709:Taxes
667:mudir
648:Cairo
619:Egypt
607:Sudan
599:Anglo
551:Women
541:Sport
516:Music
511:Media
481:Coups
437:2019–
204:cent.
202:25th
145:Sudan
89:JSTOR
75:books
1123:and
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732:qadi
617:and
165:Flag
61:news
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