History of gravitational theory

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Archimedes in the theory of the centre of gravity were generalized and applied to three-dimensional bodies, the theory of ponderable lever was founded and the 'science of gravity' was created and later further developed in medieval Europe. The phenomena of statics were studied by using the dynamic approach so that two trends – statics and dynamics – turned out to be inter-related within a single science, mechanics. The combination of the dynamic approach with Archimedean hydrostatics gave birth to a direction in science which may be called medieval hydrodynamics. ... Numerous fine experimental methods were developed for determining the specific weight, which were based, in particular, on the theory of balances and weighing. The classical works of al-Biruni and al-Khazini can by right be considered as the beginning of the application of experimental methods in medieval science.

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Calculators did not illustrate the different types of motion with real-world examples. John of Holland at the University of Prague, illustrated uniform motion with what would later be called uniform velocity, but also with a falling stone (all parts moving at the same speed), and with a sphere in uniform rotation. He did, however, make distinctions between different kinds of "uniform" motion. Difform motion was exemplified by walking at increasing speed.

43: 1474: 921: 2836:, an unseen force that moves stars in galaxies at higher velocities than gravity alone accounts for. It was found in 2013 to have comprised 26.8% of the early universe. Along with dark energy, dark matter is an outlier in Einstein's relativity, and an explanation for its apparent effects is a requirement for a successful theory of everything. 1387: 5718: 2697:, that the attraction of opposite charged particles is stronger than the repulsion of equal charged particles. The resulting net force is exactly what is known as universal gravitation, in which the speed of gravity is that of light. Lorentz calculated that the value for the perihelion advance of Mercury was much too low. 2559:. Comparisons of ancient astronomical observations to those of the early 1700s implied that the orbit of Saturn was increasing in diameter while that of Jupiter was decreasing. Ultimately this meant Saturn would exit the Solar System and Jupiter would collide with other planets or the Sun. The problem was tackled first by 5254: 8248:

Abbott, B. P.; Abbott, R.; Abbott, T. D.; Acernese, F.; Ackley, K.; Adams, C.; Adams, T.; Addesso, P.; Adhikari, R. X.; Adya, V. B.; Affeldt, C.; Afrough, M.; Agarwal, B.; Agathos, M.; Agatsuma, K.; Aggarwal, N.; Aguiar, O. D.; Aiello, L.; Ain, A.; Ajith, P.; Allen, B.; Allen, G.; Allocca, A.; Altin,

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Einstein's two-part publication in 1912 (and before in 1908) is really only important for historical reasons. By then he knew of the gravitational redshift and the deflection of light. He had realized that Lorentz transformations are not generally applicable, but retained them. The theory states that

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Gravity is a mutual corporeal disposition among kindred bodies to unite or join together; thus the earth attracts a stone much more than the stone seeks the earth. (The magnetic faculty is another example of this sort).... If two stones were set near one another in some place in the world outside the

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Force arises from dearth or abundance; it is the child of physical motion, and the grandchild of spiritual motion, and the mother and origin of gravity. Gravity is limited to the elements of water and earth; but his force is unlimited, and by it infinite worlds might be moved if instruments could be

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proposed that similar looking objects appearing every 76 years was in fact a single comet. The appearance of the comet in 1759, now named after him, within a month of predictions based on Newton's gravity greatly improved scientific opinion of the theory. Newton's theory enjoyed its greatest success

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If someone drops a rock a finger's height above the ground, it certainly won't make a visible impact on the ground, but if someone drops it holding it a hundred feet or more, it will have a strong impact. And there is no other reason for that impact. Because it does not have greater weight, nor is

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I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centres about which they revolve; and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the moon in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the earth; and found them

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Let us take (as ... Jan Cornets de Groot ... and I have done) two balls of lead, the one ten times larger and heavier than the other, and drop them together from a height of 30 feet on to a board or something on which they give a perceptible sound. Then it will be found that the lighter will not be

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The earth on all its sides is the same; all people on the earth stand upright, and all heavy things fall down to the earth by a law of nature, for it is the nature of the earth to attract and to keep things, as it is the nature of water to flow ... If a thing wants to go deeper down than the earth,

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unifying nature, the latter for its destructive. Under the influence of Love, the roots are 'glued' and 'fitted' together, while under Strife they are torn apart. To equate this to something more relatable, here we might think about the roles of gravity and dark energy in modern physical cosmology.

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In general relativity, the effects of gravitation are ascribed to spacetime curvature instead of to a force. The starting point for general relativity is the equivalence principle, which equates free fall with inertial motion. The issue that this creates is that free-falling objects can accelerate

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What we now know as mass was until the time of Newton called “weight.” ... A goldsmith believed that an ounce of gold was a quantity of gold. ... But the ancients believed that a beam balance also measured “heaviness” which they recognized through their muscular senses. ... Mass and its associated

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suggested that the gravity an object contains varies depending on its distance from the centre of the universe (referring to the centre of the Earth). Al-Biruni and Al-Khazini studied the theory of the centre of gravity, and generalized and applied it to three-dimensional bodies. Fine experimental

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is poured into a vessel, and a stone weighing one hundred pounds is laid upon it, the stone swims on the surface, and cannot depress the liquid, nor break through, nor separate it. If we remove the hundred pound weight, and put on a scruple of gold, it will not swim, but will sink to the bottom of

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Using a whole body of mathematical methods (not only those inherited from the antique theory of ratios and infinitesimal techniques, but also the methods of the contemporary algebra and fine calculation techniques), Muslim scientists raised statics to a new, higher level. The classical results of

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The property of attraction is inherent in the Earth. By this property the Earth attracts any unsupported heavy thing towards it: The thing appears to be falling but it is in a state of being drawn to Earth. ... It is manifest from this that ... people situated at distances of a fourth part of the

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Empedocles also posits two opposing forces in an eternal tug-of-war as the energy which causes the roots to move about in the first place. These are 'Love' (also referred to as Aphrodite, Cypris, or Harmony) and 'Strife' (also referred to as Anger, Wrath, or Discord), the former named so for its

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motion lies in the Oxford Calculators terms "uniform" motion and "difform" motion. "Uniform" motion was used differently then than it would be now. "Uniform" motion might have referred both to constant speed and to motion in which all parts of a body are moving at equal speed. Apparently, the

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in 1638. In the same book, Galileo suggested that the slight variance of speed of falling objects of different mass was due to air resistance, and that objects would fall completely uniformly in a vacuum. The relation of the distance of objects in free fall to the square of the time taken was

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in 1773. Each effort improved the mathematical treatment until the issue was resolved by Laplace in 1784 approximately 100 years after Newton's first publication on gravity. Laplace showed that the changes were periodic but with immensely long periods beyond any existing measurements.

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could not be accounted for entirely under Newtonian gravity, and all searches for another perturbing body (such as a planet orbiting the Sun even closer than Mercury) were fruitless. Even so, Newton's theory is thought to be exceptionally accurate in the limit of weak

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The quantity of matter is the measure of the same, arising from its density and bulk conjunctly. ... It is this quantity that I mean hereafter everywhere under the name of body or mass. And the same is known by the weight of each body; for it is proportional to the

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However, since small time intervals could not be measured, the relationship between time and distance was not so evident as the equation suggests. More generally; equations, which were not widely used until after Galileo's time, imply a clarity that was not there.

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The distance traversed in successive equal intervals of time is calculated with a triangular model whose width (representing maximum velocity) increases by two for every equal section of height (representing time elapsed). This is in part anticipated by the

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that "if one lets fall simultaneously from the same height two bodies differing greatly in weight, one will find that the ratio of the times of their motion does not correspond to the ratios of their weights, but the difference in time is a very small one".

2659:(1898) succeeded in deriving the correct formula for the perihelion shift (which was identical to the formula later used by Albert Einstein). These hypotheses were rejected because of the outdated laws they were based on, being superseded by those of 1126:(c. 1320–1390) adopted Abu'l-Barakat's theory that the acceleration of a falling body is a result of its increasing impetus. Influenced by Buridan, Albert developed a law of proportion regarding the relationship between the speed of an object in 3389:

developed an alternative model of gravity in which the speed of light depends on the gravitational field strength and so is variable almost everywhere. Abraham's 1914 review of gravitation models is said to be excellent, but his own model was poor.

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means "is proportional to". To make this into an equal-sided formula or equation, there needed to be a multiplying factor or constant that would give the correct force of gravity no matter the value of the masses or distance between them – the

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Der englische Physiker und Nobelpreisträger Dirac hat ... vor über dreißig Jahren die Vermutung begründet, dass sich das universelle Maß der Schwerkraft im Laufe der Geschichte des Universums außerordentlich langsam, aber stetig verringert."

193:—who were influenced by certain Islamic scholars—developed the theory of impetus and linked it to the acceleration and mass of objects. Albert also developed a law of proportion regarding the relationship between the speed of an object in 1738:) were created between 1650 and 1900 to explain Newton's theory, but mechanistic models eventually fell out of favor because most of them lead to an unacceptable amount of drag (air resistance), which was not observed. Others violate the 664:

to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object's volume. The fluids described by Archimedes are not self-gravitating, since he assumes that "any fluid at rest is the surface of a sphere whose centre is the same as that of the Earth".

7815:"The English physicist and Nobel laureate Dirac has ..., more than thirty years ago, substantiated the assumption that the universal strength of gravity decreases very slowly, but steadily over the course of the history of the universe. 2274: 7838: 2465: 3340: 2902:. In 1907, in what he described as "the happiest thought of my life", Einstein realized that someone who is in free fall experiences no gravitational field. In other words, gravitation is exactly equivalent to acceleration. 1349:

Since it is apparent that in the descent there is more impediment acquired, it is clear that gravity is diminished on this account. But because this comes about by reason of the position of heavy bodies, let it be called a

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describes gravity as a force in which heavier body moves towards the centre of the earth. He also describes the force of gravity will only move towards the direction of the centre of the earth not in different directions.

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Plutarch also attests to the existence of Roman philosophers and astronomers who rejected Aristotelian dynamics and were engaging sophisticated debates on the subject, even contemplating theories of inertia and universal

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designed a mathematical vortex model. In one of his proofs, he shows that the distance elapsed by an object dropped from a spinning wheel will increase proportionally to the square of the wheel's rotation time. In 1671,

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postulate mechanisms of interaction governing the movements of bodies with mass. There have been numerous theories of gravitation since ancient times. The first extant sources discussing such theories are found in

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sphere of influence of a third kindred body, these stones, like two magnetic bodies, would come together in an intermediate place, each approaching the other by a space proportional to the bulk of the other....

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when the object is in opposition to its natural motion. He concluded that continuation of motion is attributed to the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that object will be in motion until the

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proposed the theory of impetus, which modifies Aristotle's theory that "continuation of motion depends on continued action of a force" by incorporating a causative force which diminishes over time. In his

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For example, in his lost books On Lightness and Heaviness and On Motion, Strato abandoned the doctrine of 'natural places' in exchange for a more mechanical view of why some objects rise and others fall

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English mathematician Isaac Newton used Descartes' argument that curvilinear motion constrains inertia, and in 1675, argued that aether streams attract all bodies to one another. Newton (1717) and

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and the vase trajectory forming one of the legs. On the hypotenuse, Leonardo noted the equivalence of the two orthogonal motions, one effected by gravity and the other proposed by the experimenter.

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ten times longer on its way than the heavier, but that they fall together on to the board so simultaneously that their two sounds seem to be one and the same. ... Therefore Aristotle ... is wrong.

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the speed of light is constant in free space but varies in the presence of matter. The theory was only expected to hold when the source of the gravitational field is stationary. It includes the

3929: 2360: 3630: 850: 3814: 2524: 949:(c. 1020). Unlike Philoponus, who believed that it was a temporary virtue that would decline even in a vacuum, Ibn Sina viewed it as a persistent, requiring external forces such as 1240: 3160: 2947: 8428:(Reprinted from White, K. (Ed.). (1997). Hispanic philosophy in the age of discovery. Studies in Philosophy and the History of Philosophy 29. Catholic University of America Press). 3475: 1499:

According to the story, Galileo discovered through this experiment that the objects fell with the same acceleration, proving his prediction true, while at the same time disproving

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using some sort of screening or shadowing mechanism. In 1784, Le Sage posited that gravity could be a result of the collision of atoms, and in the early 19th century, he expanded

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that they had proven the inverse-square law of planetary motion, in January and August, respectively. While Hooke refused to produce his proofs, Newton was prompted to compose

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Newton was almost certainly influenced by this correspondence to do his subsequent work on gravitation, although he denied that Hooke had told him of the inverse-square force.

1734: (1760) proposed a model in which the aether loses density near mass, leading to a net force acting on bodies. Further mechanical explanations of gravitation (including 999:, weight, and gravity, just like the Earth. He criticized both Aristotle and Ibn Sina for holding the view that only the Earth has these properties. The 12th-century scholar 1848: 820: 105: 3442: 2187: 1611:

reiterated Aristotle's model involving a gravitational centre, adding his view that a system can only be in equilibrium when the common centre itself is unable to fall.

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Abbott, Benjamin P.; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger".

2129: 8618: 3921: 3520: 3499: 2300: 2166: 3110: 3089: 3622: 5689:]. Herbert Langford Warren, Nelson Robinson (illus), Morris Hicky Morgan. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 215. 3760: 3421: 2195: 5514:

Any solid lighter than a fluid will, if placed in the fluid, be so far immersed that the weight of the solid will be equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

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with respect to each other. To deal with this difficulty, Einstein proposed that spacetime is curved by matter, and that free-falling objects are moving along

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General relativity has enjoyed much success because its predictions (not called for by older theories of gravity) have been regularly confirmed. For example:

1044:, al-Baghdādī's theory of motion was "the oldest negation of Aristotle's fundamental dynamic law , anticipation in a vague fashion of the fundamental law of 432:

Aristotle found that objects immersed in a medium tend to fall at speeds proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the medium.

9433: 2870:, and this led to attempts to reconcile it with gravity. At the same time, experimental physicists started testing the foundations of gravity and relativity— 4513:

Several decades after the discovery of general relativity, it was realized that it cannot be the complete theory of gravity because it is incompatible with

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gravitational law, in which the speed of gravity is that of light. As in Lorentz's model, the value for the perihelion advance of Mercury was much too low.

2375: 2136:. Newton would need an accurate measure of this constant to prove his inverse-square law. Reasonably accurate measurements were not available in until the 6473: 3254: 2755:

around a solar eclipse, matching Einstein's equations. This resulted in Einstein's theory superseding Newtonian physics. Thereafter, German mathematician

883:(Bhāskarāchārya, "Bhāskara, the teacher", c. 1114 – c. 1185), describes gravity as an inherent attractive property of Earth in the section 2862:

Early theories of gravity attempted to explain planetary orbits (Newton) and more complicated orbits (e.g. Lagrange). Then came unsuccessful attempts to

2580: 1293:, Leonardo recorded that if a water-pouring vase moves transversally (sideways), simulating the trajectory of a vertically falling object, it produces a 6211:

Espinoza, Fernando. "An Analysis of the Historical Development of Ideas About Motion and its Implications for Teaching". Physics Education. Vol. 40 (2).

6008:. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1910. Electronic reproduction. Vol. 1 and 2. New York: Columbia University Libraries, 2006. p. 272 9497: 7210:"The pre-Newtonian meaning of the word "weight"; a comment on "Kepler and the origins of pre-Newtonian mass" [Am. J. Phys. 85, 115–123 (2017)]" 6069:(in Sanskrit). Translated by Deva Sástri, Bápú; Wilkinson, Lancelot. Calcutta, India: C. B. Lewis, Baptist Mission Press (published 1860). p. 113. 2101:{\displaystyle {\rm {Force\,of\,gravity}}\propto {\frac {\rm {mass\,of\,object\,1\,\times \,mass\,of\,object\,2}}{\rm {distance\,from\,centers^{2}}}}} 9170: 8453: 8408:

Wallace, W. A. (2004a). "The enigma of Domingo de Soto: Uniformiter difformis and falling bodies in late medieval physics". In Wallace, W. A. (ed.).

1420: 9532: 9214: 6227:. Vol. 1. Madison, Wisconsin; London, England: University of Wisconsin Press/Oxford University Press. p. 58 – via Internet Archive. 8416:(Reprinted from "The enigma of Domingo de Soto: Uniformiter difformis and falling bodies in late medieval physics". (1968). Isis, 59(4), 384–401). 6849:, p. 606: by repeated experiments made from the height of the Leaning Tower of Pisa in the presence of other professors and all the students...]. 9464: 6559: 8755: 7194: 6884: 5701: 761:", and suggested that gravitational attraction was not unique to the Earth. The gravitational effects of the Moon on the tides were noticed by 7370: 1853: 1466: 3822: 2955: 734: 9248: 9123: 1444:

in that city. From the sound of the impacts, Stevin deduced that the balls had fallen at the same speed. The result was published in 1586.

6811: 3532: 1497:, composed in 1654 and published in 1717. The basic premise had already been demonstrated by Italian experimenters a few decades earlier. 144: 9136: 6928: 408:. The smaller atoms became the celestial bodies of the cosmos. The larger atoms in the center came together as a membrane from which the 7610: 3168: 2533:

sold out quickly, inspiring Newton to publish a second edition in 1713. However the theory of gravity itself was not accepted quickly.

1378:, a physician and botanist from Bologna, had dispelled the Aristotelian claim that objects fall at speeds proportional to their weight. 8561: 8225: 7712: 1678: 1503:'s theory of gravity (which states that objects fall at speed proportional to their mass). Most historians consider it to have been a 9197: 2555:

Second, detailed comparisons with astronomical data were not initially favorable. Among the most conspicuous issue was the so-called

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Gillispie, Charles Coulston. The edge of objectivity: An essay in the history of scientific ideas. Princeton University Press, 2016.

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Comparison of the antiquated view and the outcome of the experiment (size of the spheres represent their masses, not their volumes)

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its own accord. Hence, it is undeniable that the gravity of a substance depends not on the amount of its weight, but on its nature.

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Espinoza, Fernando (2005). "An analysis of the historical development of ideas about motion and its implications for teaching".

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I have arrived at a proposition, ... namely, that spaces traversed in natural motion are in the squared proportion of the times.

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Force, with physical motion, and gravity, with resistance, are the four external powers on which all actions of mortals depend.

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He accounted for these movements by explaining, "Rotation is natural to a sphere, and by that very act is its shape expressed."

1650: 935:(Avicenna) agreed with Philoponus' theory that "the moved object acquires an inclination from the mover" as an explanation for 4167: 4030:

This theory is Lorentz invariant, satisfies the conservation laws, correctly reduces to the Newtonian limit and satisfies the

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developed the hypothesis that gravitation should slowly and steadily decrease over the course of the history of the universe.

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Successes such the solution to the great inequality of Jupiter and Saturn mystery accumulated. In 1755, Prussian philosopher

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Galileo successfully applied mathematics to the acceleration of falling objects, correctly hypothesizing in a 1604 letter to

1269:(1452–1519) made drawings recording the acceleration of falling objects. He wrote that the "mother and origin of gravity" is 906: 117: 109: 9575: 9320: 9287: 8809: 8740: 8716: 8689: 4686:, whom he calls the "precursor of Leonardo". Leonardo alludes to Jordanus in his notebooks, but not to any of his theories. 4265:

Between 1911 and 1915, Einstein developed the idea that gravitation is equivalent to acceleration, initially stated as the

4020:{\displaystyle -{\partial T^{\mu \nu } \over \partial x^{\nu }}=T{1 \over \psi }{\partial \psi \over \partial x_{\mu }}\,} 2549: 1844: 862:

thing, and seeds always return to it, in whatever direction you may throw them away, and never rise upwards from the earth.

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Furthermore, he hypothesized that the planet is in equilibrium when its centre of gravity coincides with that of its mass.

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mergers (since detected in 2017) and black hole formation may also create detectable amounts of gravitational radiation.

1624: 113: 3731:{\displaystyle -{\partial \varphi \over \partial x^{\mu }}={\dot {u}}_{\mu }+{u_{\mu } \over c^{2}{\dot {\varphi }}}\,} 2316: 9438: 9044: 8592: 8575: 8516: 6999: 6296: 4350: 2863: 2672: 1735: 1707: 695:(c. 99 – c. 55 BCE) asserts that more massive bodies fall faster in a medium because the latter resists less, but in a 8033: 6695:. Translated by Leneaux, G. F.; Vagliente, V. N.; Wagener, G. H. Springer Science & Business Media. p. xxiv. 4423:

Gravitational lensing was first confirmed in 1919, and has more recently been strongly confirmed through the use of a

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The foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages : their religious, institutional, and intellectual contexts

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to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass, according to a biography by Galileo's pupil

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In 1679, Robert Hooke wrote to Isaac Newton of his hypothesis concerning orbital motion, which partly depends on an

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of spacetime, which describes its geometry. The geodesic paths of spacetime are calculated from the metric tensor.

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This theory is Einstein's first treatment of gravitation in which general covariance is strictly obeyed. Writing:

2694: 2484: 9471: 9409: 9243: 4322: 2713: 753:) attested the existence of Roman astronomers who rejected Aristotelian physics, "even contemplating theories of 280: 9340: 9238: 8804: 8726: 8493: 8420:

Wallace, W. A. (2004b). "Domingo de Soto and the Iberian roots of Galileo's science". In Wallace, W. A. (ed.).

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Hipparchus rejected the Aristotlian physics of motion and followed Strato in embracing an early impetus theory

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length less than the geometrized length of the mass of the object, this solution produces black holes with an

1196: 1067: 529:, Aristotle correctly asserted that objects immersed in a medium tend to fall at speeds proportional to their 9647: 9428: 9394: 9347: 8997: 8521: 4442: 4298: 2786: 2612:, asking him to verify it. The same night, Galle spotted Neptune near the position Le Verrier had predicted. 1009: 6915: 3129: 2916: 979: 9711: 9416: 9389: 9367: 9325: 9221: 4308: 3450: 2895: 2848: 1862: 1188: 1040:) on the moved and that this diminishes as the moving object distances itself from the mover. According to 6060: 4544:

holds, which is not always the case. Moreover, this approach fails at short distances of the order of the

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downward force were believed to be the same thing. Kepler formed a concept of mass (“amount of matter” (

9716: 9690: 9660: 9443: 9404: 9352: 9109: 8782: 8676: 8666: 8541: 5777:"Motion to the Center or Motion to the Whole? Plutarch's Views on Gravity and Their Influence on Galileo" 4431: 4313: 2899: 2875: 2690: 2615:

Not every comparison was successful. By the end of the 19th century, Le Verrier showed that the orbit of

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of two equal weights was not the same, it would be located in the middle of the line that joins them. In

174: 6222: 5205:. Internet Archive. Cambridge, England; New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–61. 4048: 3038: 2544:, that the mechanism of gravity was "invisible, intangible, and not mechanical". The French philosopher 595:' (c. 460–c. 370 BCE) by proposing the idea that atoms may randomly deviate from their expected course. 9520: 9382: 9272: 9192: 8982: 8624: 8536: 8488: 8249:

P. A.; Amato, A.; Ananyeva, A.; Anderson, S. B.; Anderson, W. G.; Angelova, S. V.; et al. (2017).

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences

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in papers published in 1905 and 1915; these account for the perihelion precession of Mercury. In 1914,

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At the end of the 19th century, many tried to combine Newton's force law with the established laws of

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The relation of the distance of objects in free fall to the square of the time taken was confirmed by

9627: 9596: 9476: 9372: 9267: 8776: 8771: 7353: 5422: 5232:. Internet Archive. Cambridge, England; New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 130. 2907: 2856: 2537: 1839: 1803:, Newton defined quantity of matter as “density and bulk conjunctly”, and mass as quantity of matter. 1723: 1699: 1286: 1183:

whose speed is half the final velocity of the accelerated body. The mean speed theorem was proved by

940: 804: 460: 456: 7634: 6894: 5678: 9652: 9525: 9481: 9399: 9377: 9231: 8992: 8873: 8702: 7082: 6033:. Cairo: Maṭba'at Dār al-Kutub wa-al-Wathā'iq al-Qawmīyah bi-al-Qāhirah. 2004. pp. 43–44, 87. 6028:

Kitāb al-Jawharatayn al-'atīqatayn al-mā'i'atayn min al-ṣafrā' wa-al-bayḍā': al-dhahab wa-al-fiḍḍah

5867: 4334: 3346: 3120: 1630: 1556: 1326: 480: 253: 97: 1374:, the experiments of at least two Italians, Francesco Beato, a Dominican philosopher at Pisa, and 200:

Italians of the 16th century found that objects in free fall tend to accelerate equally. In 1632,

9558: 9260: 9202: 9180: 8907: 8840: 7604: 6064: 5674: 5648: 4463: 4289:—individual particles of energy, which Einstein himself had postulated the existence of in 1905. 4270: 3358: 2764: 1739: 1351: 1258: 1162: 623: 484: 297: 7545: 4936: 4660:

Leonardo did not publish his manuscripts and they had no direct influence on subsequent science.

4540:, but only at the linearized level and postulating that the conditions for the applicability of 3426: 2759:

promoted the idea of general relativity with a fifth dimension, which in 1921 Swedish physicist

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to explain aspects of it to French readers in 1738, which helped to popularize Newton's theory.

2171: 8824: 8708: 7478: 4361: 2879: 2867: 2744: 2686: 2609: 2133: 1608: 1415: 920: 550: 209: 153:) found that objects immersed in a medium tend to fall at speeds proportional to their weight. 6239: 6104: 5907: 5833: 5448: 5284: 3773:

relativistic field theory of gravitation ever formulated. (notation from Pais not Nordström):

2114: 888: 9553: 9548: 9502: 9359: 9158: 8956: 8935: 8928: 8868: 7831:"Big Bang's afterglow shows universe is 80 million years older than scientists first thought" 7258: 6732: 6690: 5588: 5582: 5555: 4982:

The Greek Cosmologists: Volume 1, The Formation of the Atomic Theory and its Earliest Critics

4402:

for rotating massive objects. This solution also produces black holes with multiple horizons.

4346: 4338: 4303: 4266: 4031: 3905: 3504: 3483: 2790: 2778: 2564: 2285: 2150: 1703: 1620: 1490: 1118:), which varies according to velocity and mass; Buridan was influenced in this by Ibn Sina's 758: 549:(c. 335 – c. 269 BCE) rejected the Aristotelian belief of "natural places" in exchange for a 121: 8342: 6531: 6525: 3094: 3073: 2608:

both predicted the general position of the planet. In 1846, Le Verrier sent his position to

660:, Archimedes claimed that for any object submerged in a fluid there is an equivalent upward 9153: 9023: 8942: 8921: 8914: 8789: 8644: 8602: 8272: 8189: 8143: 8071: 8011: 7953: 7911: 7869: 7801: 7720: 7649: 7557: 7526: 7221: 6765: 6371: 6146: 4795: 4619: 4518: 4369: 4333:

of general relativity, which relate the presence of matter and the curvature of spacetime.

3770: 3600: 2728: 2721: 2705: 2682: 2636: 2632: 2568: 2541: 2269:{\displaystyle {\partial ^{2}\varphi \over \partial x^{j}\,\partial x^{j}}=4\pi G\rho \,.} 2137: 1433: 1179:; a uniformly accelerated body starting from rest travels the same distance as a body with 1107: 872: 842: 678: 674: 619: 599: 380: 265: 257: 241: 133: 6829:

Some contemporary sources speculate about the exact date; e.g. Rachel Hilliam gives 1591 (

4262:

That is, the trace of the stress energy tensor is proportional to the curvature of space.

896:

circumference from us or in the opposite hemisphere, cannot by any means fall downwards .

8: 9606: 7686: 7396: 6180: 4875: 4755: 4751: 4683: 4453: 3744: 3405: 3248:

The equations of electrodynamics exactly match those of general relativity. The equation

3116: 2717: 2712:. His ideas were largely mechanistic and required the existence of the aether, which the 2708:. He proposed that every body pulsates, which might be an explanation of gravitation and 2660: 2621: 1666: 1441: 1402:. This idea was subsequently explored in more detail by Galileo Galilei, who derived his 1330: 1318: 1077: 1045: 992: 945: 603: 546: 525: 504: 464: 217: 205: 8276: 8193: 8147: 8075: 8029: 8015: 7957: 7915: 7873: 7805: 7653: 7561: 7530: 7225: 6769: 6375: 6150: 5703:

The architecture of M. Vitruvius Pollio: translated from the original Latin by W. Newton

5557:

Distinguished Figures in Mechanism and Machine Science: Their Contributions and Legacies

4879: 4799: 2732: 557:

as they fall, instead arguing that the greater impact was due to an increase in speed.

9601: 9282: 9132: 9085: 8551: 8508: 8313: 8290: 8262: 8213: 8179: 7770: 7743: 7581: 7494:

A history of the theories of aether & electricity. 2: The Modern Theories 1900-1926

7450: 7442: 7239: 7188: 6671: 6663: 6579: 6162: 5814: 5776: 5148: 5122: 5088: 4980: 4811: 4807: 4697: 4562: 4522: 4489:, making this the first direct observation of both gravitational waves and black holes. 4406: 4365: 3374: 2883: 2871: 2810: 2752: 2584: 1686: 1670: 1504: 1486: 1176: 1156: 1099: 767: 656: 371: 225: 221: 6759: 5227: 5200: 5173: 4517:. Later it was understood that it is possible to describe gravity in the framework of 2460:{\displaystyle {d^{2}x^{j} \over dt^{2}}=-{\partial \varphi \over \partial x^{j}\,}.} 9672: 9591: 9277: 9255: 9145: 9069: 8977: 8721: 8649: 8394: 8388: 8349: 8320: 8294: 8217: 8205: 8132:"Die Nordströmsche Gravitationstheorie vom Standpunkt des absoluten Differentkalküls" 8112: 8102: 7996: 7796:]. Rororo Sachbuch (in German) (Rororo Taschenbuch Ausgabe ed.). Reinbek: 7585: 7573: 7497: 7454: 7434: 7334: 7282: 7243: 7174: 7036: 6995: 6864: 6819:(in Dutch and English). Vol. 1. C. V. Swets & Zeitlinger. pp. 509, 511. 6790: 6738: 6696: 6675: 6611: 6583: 6535: 6387: 6383: 6301: 6270: 6245: 6192: 6166: 6158: 6110: 6034: 5980: 5955: 5913: 5839: 5818: 5806: 5755: 5724: 5619: 5592: 5561: 5481: 5454: 5290: 5260: 5233: 5206: 5140: 5027: 5020: 5015: 4995: 4956: 4843: 4631: 4541: 4514: 4486: 3370: 3366: 2605: 1784: 1682: 1674: 1406:

from the 14th-century Merton College and Jean Buridan, and possibly De Soto as well.

1334: 1322: 1282: 1266: 1029: 936: 721: 682: 651: 579:

at equal speed, regardless of their mass. On the other hand, upward motion is due to

492: 453: 303: 178: 7997:"Breaking in the 4-vectors: the four-dimensional movement in gravitation, 1905–1910" 6852: 5152: 4815: 3362: 3335:{\displaystyle T^{\mu \nu }=\rho {dx^{\mu } \over d\tau }{dx^{\nu } \over d\tau }\,} 1662: 185:

spoke of gravity as an attractive force. In the 14th century, European philosophers

9611: 9051: 8745: 8639: 8280: 8201: 8197: 8171: 8151: 8079: 7961: 7919: 7877: 7765: 7755: 7657: 7565: 7426: 7229: 7166: 7158: 6842: 6655: 6571: 6379: 6154: 5796: 5788: 5660: 5132: 5080: 4987: 4948: 4839: 4803: 4721: 4590: 4526: 4437:

The prediction that time runs slower at lower potentials has been confirmed by the

4278: 3523: 2814: 2748: 2736: 2652: 2640: 2616: 2601: 1711: 1638: 1564: 1547: 1516: 1494: 1371: 1278: 876: 846: 772: 713: 607: 580: 500: 445: 162: 6317:

Abel B. Franco (October 2003). "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory",

2894:

In 1905, Albert Einstein published a series of papers in which he established the

1755: 709:

that gravity is not dependent on a substance's weight but rather on its 'nature' (

58: 8750: 8671: 8631: 8597: 7937: 7895: 7682: 7630: 7328: 7028: 6983: 6784: 6605: 6265:

Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). "Statics". In Rushdī, Rāshid (ed.).

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Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane

5934: 5749: 5532: 4537: 4508: 3067: 2829: 2794: 2772: 2709: 2678: 2600:

that could not be accounted by the actions of the other planets. Calculations by

2147:

In Newton's theory (rewritten using more modern mathematics) the density of mass

2141: 1792: 1719: 1695: 1656: 1590: 1585: 1482: 1395: 1130:

and the time elapsed. He also theorized that mountains and valleys are caused by

1072: 1005: 799: 762: 705: 687: 476: 233: 201: 170: 129: 78: 48: 9101: 7170: 6474:"Leonardo noted link between gravity and acceleration centuries before Einstein" 2648: 830: 9637: 9299: 8950: 8339: 8285: 8250: 7797: 7163:

Encyklopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften mit Einschluss ihrer Anwendungen

6355: 5881: 5339: 4868: 4863: 4532:, in the same way as the electromagnetic force arises from exchange of virtual 4525:. In this framework, the attractive force of gravity arises due to exchange of 4420:

General relativity accounts for the anomalous perihelion precession of Mercury.

4392: 4368:

non-rotating uncharged massive object. For objects with radii smaller than the

4330: 2756: 2560: 2280: 1830: 1743: 1731: 1386: 1338: 1294: 1270: 1103: 967: 950: 647: 437: 428: 7881: 7760: 6080: 6056: 5450:

The Archimedes Codex: Revealing The Secrets Of The World's Greatest Palimpsest

4952: 2651:

succeeded in doing so by combining the laws of Weber and Riemann, whereby the

1281:

and motion, and gravity and resistance. He associates gravity with the 'cold'

953:

to dissipate it. Ibn Sina made distinction between 'force' and 'inclination' (

880: 72: 9705: 8887: 8556: 8155: 8116: 8083: 7965: 7923: 7661: 7599: 7577: 7438: 7401:

Force in Newton's Physics: The Science of Dynamics in the Seventeenth Century

7112: 6521: 6415: 6391: 6038: 5810: 5144: 4991: 4960: 4743: 4709: 4545: 4457: 4399: 4388: 4326: 2866:

of gravity. The whole landscape of physics was changed with the discovery of

2844: 2840: 2768: 2588: 2576: 1834: 1799:

In 1686, Newton gave the concept of mass its name. In the first paragraph of

1715: 1593:

proposed an attractive force of limited radius between any "kindred" bodies:

1290: 1184: 661: 516: 237: 7614:. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 177–178. 2583:

based on Newtonian principles, in which he develops an early version of the

1843:('On the motion of bodies in an orbit'), in which he mathematically derives 28: 8845: 8654: 8209: 7569: 7365: 7057:

Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics

7016:

Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics

6478: 6395: 5314: 5050: 4783: 4679: 4635: 4557: 4496: 4471: 4383:, in which the central object has an electrical charge. For charges with a 4342: 2798: 1691: 1429: 1274: 1095: 1041: 841:(c. 598 – c. 668 CE) was the first one among 615: 584: 261: 213: 186: 64: 8431: 6031:كتاب الجوهرتين العتيقتين المائعتين من الصفراء والبيضاء : الذهب والفضة 2801:

observed in 1929 that the universe appears to be expanding. By the 1930s,

1813:

Isaac Newton, Mathematical principles of natural philosophy, Definition I.

1694:

speculated that gravitation is the result of bodies emitting waves in the

1489:) is said to have dropped "unequal weights of the same material" from the 8814: 7785: 6575: 5866:. Vol. 1. Translated by Robbins, Frank E. Cambridge, Massachusetts: 5319: 4384: 3762:

is the four-velocity and the dot is a differential with respect to time.

3386: 2833: 2822: 2760: 2701: 2656: 1512: 1089: 838: 777: 627: 540: 520: 508: 182: 92: 7788:(1967) . "Die Expansion der Erde" [The expansion of the Earth]. 7694:

Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW)

7603: 6560:"Leonardo da Vinci's Visualization of Gravity as a Form of Acceleration" 5136: 1760:

Before Newton, 'weight' had the double meaning 'amount' and 'heaviness'.

452:. The cause of the downward natural motion of heavy bodies, such as the 400:(5th-century BCE) proposed the cosmos was created when a large group of 9028: 7517:

Woolfson, M.M. (1993). "Solar System – its origin and evolution".

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4747: 4639: 4373: 2802: 2307: 1403: 1375: 1298: 1000: 795: 639: 592: 567:

which influences their movement. These atoms move downward in constant

472: 363: 359: 334: 333:

in harmony, moving all objects, including the stars, winds, and waves.

306: 220:

were superseded in the early 20th century, when Einstein developed the

212:

was explored by various researchers from the mid-17th century, helping

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Ginzburg, Benjamin (September 1936). "Duhem and Jordanus Nemorarius".

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Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them

3892:{\displaystyle {d\tau }^{2}=-\eta _{\mu \nu }\,dx^{\mu }\,dx^{\nu }\,} 3025:{\displaystyle {d\tau }^{2}=-\eta _{\mu \nu }\,dx^{\mu }\,dx^{\nu }\,} 9033: 9015: 8819: 8796: 8423:

Domingo de Soto and the early Galileo: Essays on intellectual history

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Domingo de Soto and the early Galileo: Essays on intellectual history

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Feynman, R. P.; Morinigo, F. B.; Wagner, W. G.; Hatfield, B. (1995).

8060:"Zur Theorie der Gravitation vom Standpunkt des Relativitätsprinzips" 6929:"El experimento más famoso de Galileo probablemente nunca tuvo lugar" 6889: 6734:

Domingo de Soto and the Early Galileo: Essays on Intellectual History

6188: 6052: 5372:(Winter 2022 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 5092: 5051:"Part I – B. Aristotle's Theory of Free-Fall | Relativity of Gravity" 4604: 4282: 2825:'—found in 2013 to have composed around 68.3% of the early universe. 2806: 2366: 1500: 1398:

theorized that objects in free fall accelerate uniformly in his book

1127: 1082: 1036:, Abu'l-Barakat stated that the mover imparts a violent inclination ( 988: 700: 692: 568: 449: 441: 397: 194: 154: 140: 42: 34: 8390:

The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas

8226:"Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger" 8131: 8059: 7941: 7899: 6179: 4915: 4894: 4412:(from 1922 and 1924), which predicts the expansion of the universe. 3587:{\displaystyle m=m_{0}\exp \left({\frac {\varphi }{c^{2}}}\right)\,} 1575: 1004:

methods were also developed for determining the specific gravity or

9090: 8900: 8893: 8267: 8184: 7430: 7263:. Translated by Motte, A. Printed for Benjamin Motte. pp. 1–2. 6659: 6359: 5792: 5084: 4586: 4529: 2818: 2545: 2303: 1681:

of celestial bodies, lowering density locally and thereby creating

1342: 1297:

with equal leg length, composed of falling material that forms the

1115: 1013: 932: 929: 743: 576: 560: 275: 229: 6557: 6300:. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 26–28. 5127: 4937:"Empedocles' Big Break: Pre-Socratic Cosmology and The Big Bounce" 3238:{\displaystyle {d\tau }^{2}=-g_{\mu \nu }\,dx^{\mu }\,dx^{\nu }\,} 1473: 729: 8462: 5859: 4349:. The solutions of the field equations are the components of the 4286: 2593: 1718:

to the universe as a whole. A similar model was later created by

1553: 1131: 754: 622:(c. 190 – c. 150 BCE) supported his cosmology and also described 588: 534: 394: 374:, "attraction" and "repulsion"; which Empedocles personified as " 88: 6294:

Pines, Shlomo (1970). "Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī, Hibat Allah".

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5259:. United States and Canada: Pitchstone Publishing. p. 333. 4786:(1987). "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile". 4618:

This was interpreted as deriving the weight of objects from the

2817:

in the very early universe could have been driven by a negative

2536:

The theory of gravity faced two barriers. First scientists like

668: 471:), which caused them to move downward toward the center of the ( 6692:

The Origins of Statics: The Sources of Physical Theory Volume 1

5418: 4533: 4467: 4424: 2597: 1329:, in which he stated that Earth's centre is the centre of both 1114:. They attributed the motion of objects to an impetus (akin to 696: 572: 554: 530: 405: 386: 352: 345:

428 BC), another Ionian philosopher, introduced the concept of

330: 8251:"Multi-messenger Observations of a Binary Neutron Star Merger" 6885:"Sci Tech : Science history: setting the record straight" 5026:(2nd ed.). Hackett Publishing Company. pp. 411–412. 4224:

they relate Einstein–Grossmann to Nordström. They also state:

1273:. He describes two pairs of physical powers which stem from a 8682: 4154:{\displaystyle {ds}^{2}=g_{\mu \nu }\,dx^{\mu }\,dx^{\nu }\,} 2847:(combined with negative inertial mass) would comply with the 1515:

that the distance of a falling object is proportional to the

1437: 1180: 409: 325: 8315:

Warped Passages: Unraveling the Universe's Hidden Dimensions

5394:"Plutarch, Platonicae quaestiones, Question VIII, section 1" 4754:, help to explain the statistical near-impossibility of our 2310:(partial derivatives), this can be conveniently written as: 1774:

K. M. Browne, The pre-Newtonian meaning of the word “weight”

821:

History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent

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Subtle is the Lord: The Science and Life of Albert Einstein

6966: 6964: 4478: 4356:

Notable solutions of the Einstein field equations include:

4274: 3423:

but to let mass depend on the gravitational field strength

3402:

was to retain the Minkowski metric and a constant value of

1637:

between 1640 and 1650. They also made a calculation of the

1563:

between 1640 and 1650. They also made a calculation of the

996: 849:

to describe gravity as an attractive force using the term "

564: 496: 401: 375: 347: 8247: 7018:(Berkeley: the University of California Press, 1979), 180. 6558:

Morteza Gharib; Chris Roh; Flavio Noca (1 February 2023).

6455: 6453: 6451: 6338: 6336: 6334: 6332: 6330: 4456:

passing close to a massive object was first identified by

3373:(1910) tried to modify Newton's theory and to establish a 2882:. These considerations led to and past the development of 1175:

Also in the 14th century, the Merton School developed the

563:(c. 341–270 BCE) viewed weight as an inherent property of 7860:

Bondi, H. (1957). "Negative mass in general relativity".

7111: 6314: 6051: 4446: 4269:, into his general theory of relativity, which fuses the 2747:

gravitation. General relativity was proven in 1919, when

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showing the gravitational attraction of the Earth at its

710: 611: 149: 7900:"Lichtgeschwindigkeit und Statik des Gravitationsfeldes" 7136: 7124: 7091: 7027: 6961: 5535:

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1897. p. 254

4836:

Pseudo-Avicenna, Liber Celi Et Mundi: A Critical Edition

4466:

has been indirectly confirmed through studies of binary

4214:{\displaystyle g_{\mu \nu }=\psi ^{2}\eta _{\mu \nu }\,} 1818: 1769:)), but called it “weight” as did everyone at that time. 834:

Ujjain, Ram Ghat, home to Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya

370:

494 – c. 434/443 BC) it were distinguished two opposing

7062: 6949: 6709: 6624: 6448: 6327: 5775:

Bakker, Frederik; Palmerino, Carla Rita (1 June 2020).

4746:, dimensions exceeding four allow for the existence of 3624:

is the mass when gravitational potential vanishes and,

3352: 2864:

combine gravity and either wave or corpuscular theories

1685:. Using aspects of this theory, between 1669 and 1690, 515:, whose natural motion is circular. Beyond them is the 8306: 8304: 7059:(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 180. 6607:

The Story of Civilization: Volume VI – The Reformation

5229:

Early physics and astronomy: a historical introduction

2168:

generates a scalar field, the gravitational potential

1677:

thrusts relatively light matter away from the central

1641:

constant by recording the oscillations of a pendulum.

1304: 1187:(c. 1323–1382) and would be influential in later 1090:

Jean Buridan, the Oxford Calculators, Albert of Saxony

541:

Strato of Lampsacus, Epicurus and Aristarchus of Samos

7281:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 11–12, 96–97. 6761:

Gravity does not exist: A puzzle for the 21st century

5560:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 13. 5286:

Strato of Lampsacus: Text, Translation and Discussion

4233: 4170: 4090: 4051: 3932: 3908: 3825: 3782: 3747: 3633: 3603: 3535: 3507: 3486: 3453: 3429: 3408: 3257: 3171: 3132: 3097: 3076: 3041: 2958: 2919: 2487: 2378: 2319: 2288: 2198: 2174: 2153: 2117: 1883: 1199: 216:

formulate his law of universal gravitation. Newton's

7635:"The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity" 6106:

Classical Arabic philosophy: an anthology of sources

3070:, and there is a summation from 1 to 4 over indices 2655:

is equal to the speed of light. In another attempt,

699:

fall with equal speed. Roman engineer and architect

8301: 7825: 7823: 7387:, Cambridge University Press 1967, at pp. 519, n.2. 7165:(in German). Vol. 5. Leipzig. pp. 25–67. 6364:

Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A

6269:. Vol. 2. Psychology Press. pp. 614–642. 6264: 5723:. United States and Canada: Pitchstone Publishing. 4427:

which passes behind the Sun as seen from the Earth.

4307:Illustration explaining the relevance of the total 329:('word') to describe a kind of law which keeps the 8341: 8312: 6061:"Chapter III ─ Called Bhuvana-kośa or Cosmograghy" 5302:it impelled by greater force; but it moves faster. 5019: 4979: 4867: 4251: 4213: 4153: 4073: 4019: 3915: 3891: 3808: 3754: 3730: 3616: 3586: 3514: 3493: 3469: 3436: 3415: 3334: 3237: 3154: 3104: 3083: 3058: 3024: 2941: 2518: 2459: 2355:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\varphi =4\pi G\rho \,.} 2354: 2294: 2268: 2181: 2160: 2123: 2100: 1665:proposed that no empty space can exist and that a 1234: 475:) universe. For this reason Aristotle supported a 9131: 8053: 8051: 7260:The mathematical principles of natural philosophy 6737:. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. pp. 119, 121–22. 6500:Da Vinci, Leonardo (1971). Taylor, Pamela (ed.). 6440:Da Vinci, Leonardo (1971). Taylor, Pamela (ed.). 6360:"Free fall from Albert of Saxony to Honoré Fabri" 5115:Journal of the American Philosophical Association 1357: 1094:In the 14th century, both the French philosopher 9703: 7977: 7975: 7820: 6994:. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books. p. 72. 6863:(Facsim. ed.). Mineola (N.Y.): Dover publ. 6444:. New American Library. pp. 136–38, 142–48. 5504:. Cambridge, University Press. 1897. p. 257 5477:Science and Mathematics in Ancient Greek Culture 5447:Neitz, Reviel; Noel, William (13 October 2011). 4986:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–141. 4430:The expansion of the universe (predicted by the 276:Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Leucippus 8241: 7942:"Zur Theorie des statischen Gravitationsfeldes" 7277:Cohen, I. Bernard; Smith, George Edwin (2002). 6847:Racconto istorico della vita di Galileo Galilei 6810:Stevin, S. (1955) . Dijksterhuis, E. J. (ed.). 6654:(2). The University of Chicago Press: 341–362. 6102: 5831: 5774: 5644:"Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, BOOK II, line 216" 3345:is not in general relativity. It expresses the 1779: 730:Plutarch, Pliny the Elder, and Claudius Ptolemy 8756:Degenerate Higher-Order Scalar-Tensor theories 8129: 8048: 8022: 7930: 7888: 5174:"On the Heavens by Aristotle, Book 2, Part 14" 2889: 2859:-free solutions for the relativity equations. 2716:failed to detect in 1887. This, combined with 650:of a triangle. He also postulated that if the 440:philosopher Aristotle taught that there is no 161:) understood that objects fall based on their 9117: 8447: 8310: 8162: 8123: 7972: 7021: 6267:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 6079: 5584:Simplicius: On Aristotle On the Heavens 1.5-9 5473: 5368:, in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.), 4460:in 1964 in interplanetary spacecraft signals. 4037: 3809:{\displaystyle \delta \int \psi \,d\tau =0\,} 2592:when it was used to predict the existence of 2548:countered these concerns, ultimately writing 1859:Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy 1567:by recording the oscillations of a pendulum. 1481:Between 1589 and 1592, the Italian scientist 1289:and earth, and calls its energy infinite. In 1137: 681:and followed Strato in adopting some form of 669:Hipparchus of Nicaea, Lucretius and Vitruvius 6833:, The Rosen Publishing Group, 2005, p. 101). 6185:The Islamic intellectual tradition in Persia 4536:. This reproduces general relativity in the 2727:Albert Einstein developed his revolutionary 2720:, led to gravitational models which feature 2519:{\displaystyle \varphi =-{\frac {GM}{r}}\,.} 1019: 8461: 7625: 7623: 7621: 7415:"Action at a Distance in Classical Physics" 7371:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica 7319: 6789:. University of Chicago Press. p. 20. 6641: 6639: 6553: 6551: 6244:. Princeton University Press. p. 260. 6224:The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages 5998: 5996: 5480:. United Kingdom: Hachette UK. p. xi. 5282: 1854:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica 1833:force. In 1684, both Hooke and Newton told 1454:Simon Stevin, De Beghinselen der Weeghconst 1134:—displacing the Earth's centre of gravity. 9124: 9110: 8454: 8440: 7994: 7485: 7406: 7385:The Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol. 4 7333:. New York: Random House. pp. 52–58. 7276: 7193:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 5553: 5494: 4788:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 4364:, which describes spacetime surrounding a 4323:locally straight paths in curved spacetime 4285:. However, it does not unify gravity with 3444:. Allowing this field strength to satisfy 2365:This scalar field governs the motion of a 1644: 1467:Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment 1436:, a local politician in the Dutch city of 1142:The roots of Domingo de Soto's expression 1028:adopted and modified Ibn Sina's theory on 8386: 8284: 8266: 8183: 8090: 8057: 8028: 7769: 7759: 7717:International Electrotechnical Commission 7491: 7272: 7270: 7233: 7142: 7130: 7097: 7080: 7068: 7035:. Santa Fe: Green Lion Press. p. 1. 6970: 6955: 6861:Galileo at Work: His Scientific Biography 6831:Galileo Galilei: Father of Modern Science 6786:Galileo at work: His scientific biography 6764:. Amsterdam University Press. p. 9. 6630: 6471: 6409: 6407: 6405: 6342: 6103:McGinnis, Jon; Reisman, David C. (2007). 5800: 5673: 5446: 5126: 5111:"Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look" 5014: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4210: 4150: 4136: 4122: 4070: 4016: 3912: 3888: 3874: 3860: 3805: 3792: 3751: 3727: 3583: 3511: 3490: 3466: 3433: 3412: 3331: 3234: 3220: 3206: 3151: 3101: 3080: 3055: 3021: 3007: 2993: 2938: 2681:tried to explain gravity on the basis of 2512: 2450: 2348: 2262: 2230: 2178: 2157: 2066: 2053: 2023: 2004: 1997: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1957: 1950: 1908: 1901: 1861:), which hypothesizes the inverse-square 1847:. In 1687, with Halley's support (and to 1749: 1614: 1602: 1440:. Stevin dropped two lead balls from the 1277:origin and have an effect on everything: 8419: 8407: 8130:Einstein, Albert; Fokker, A. D. (1914). 7936: 7894: 7710: 7629: 7618: 7598: 7516: 7033:Selections from Kepler's Astronomia Nova 6715: 6645: 6636: 6548: 6499: 6472:Ouellette, Jennifer (10 February 2023). 6459: 6439: 6136: 6130: 5993: 5974: 5912:. Oxford University Press. p. 105. 5905: 5363: 5225: 4829: 4827: 4825: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4434:) was confirmed by Edwin Hubble in 1929. 4302: 2777: 1783: 1574: 1472: 1419: 1385: 1361: 1308: 1257: 1235:{\displaystyle \ s={\frac {1}{2}}v_{f}t} 1166: 1066: 978: 919: 829: 733: 427: 419: 287: 279: 181:. In the 7th century, Indian astronomer 9060:Gravitational interaction of antimatter 8368: 7981:Einstein, A. and Grossmann, M. (1913), 7741: 7681: 7496:(Repr ed.). New York: Dover Publ. 7157: 7113:"Kinetic Theories of Gravitation" 6982: 6730: 6220: 6066:Súrya Siddhánta and Siddhánta Shiromańi 5858: 5720:The Scientist in the Early Roman Empire 5716: 5615:The Scientist in the Early Roman Empire 5611: 5580: 5370:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5340:"Letter of Epicurus to Herodotus, (61)" 5256:The Scientist in the Early Roman Empire 5252: 5108: 5104: 5102: 5070: 4934: 4311:, from the 22 November 1919 edition of 1051: 987:Another 11th-century Persian polymath, 911:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world 9704: 8168: 7853: 7543: 7481:. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7403:. New York: American Elsevier, p. 750. 7364: 7315: 7313: 7311: 7303:Correspondence of Isaac Newton, Vol. 2 7267: 7256: 7207: 7153: 7151: 7109: 6809: 6603: 6413: 6402: 5474:Tuplin, C. J.; Wolpert, Lewis (2002). 4977: 4833: 4782: 3155:{\displaystyle \delta \int d\tau =0\,} 2942:{\displaystyle \delta \int d\tau =0\,} 2557:great inequality of Jupiter and Saturn 1651:Mechanical explanations of gravitation 1528:Galileo Galilei, Letter to Paolo Sarpi 1485:(then professor of mathematics at the 814: 270: 100:. This work was furthered through the 9105: 9065:Physics in the medieval Islamic world 8988:(2+1)-dimensional topological gravity 8484:Newton's law of universal gravitation 8435: 8101:. New York: Oxford University Press. 8034:"Relativitätsprinzip und Gravitation" 7983:Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik 7859: 7784: 7476: 7412: 6988:Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences 6858: 6782: 6726: 6724: 6688: 6520: 6507:made by which the force be generated. 6504:. New American Library. p. 124. 6354: 6293: 6237: 5618:. Pitchstone Publishing (US&CA). 5388: 5386: 5198: 5045: 5043: 4862: 4822: 4771: 4638:, which he used to argue against the 4292: 3470:{\displaystyle \Box \varphi =\rho \,} 3349:as a function of the matter density. 1819:Newton's law of universal gravitation 1150: 907:Physics in the medieval Islamic world 794:In the 6th century CE, the Byzantine 228:theories of relativity. An elemental 9576:Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era 8810:Asymptotic safety in quantum gravity 8387:Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1960). 8096: 6757: 6173: 5932: 5747: 5717:Carrier, Richard (1 December 2017). 5699:For another English translation see: 5612:Carrier, Richard (1 December 2017). 5554:Ceccarelli, Marco (17 August 2007). 5337: 5253:Carrier, Richard (1 December 2017). 5099: 4913: 3353:Lorentz-invariant models (1905–1910) 2775:and potential theory of everything. 2643:) in order to explain the anomalous 1789:Portrait of Isaac Newton (1642–1727) 1253: 1248: 957:), and argued that an object gained 703:(c. 85 – c. 15 BCE) contends in his 638:The 3rd-century-BCE Greek physicist 523:of all motion in the cosmos. In his 8373:. Princeton University Press. ISBN. 7995:Walter, S. (2007). Renn, J. (ed.). 7592: 7544:Hughes, D. W. (30 September 1987). 7308: 7148: 6813:The Principal Works of Simon Stevin 6610:. Simon and Schuster. p. 823. 6109:. Hackett Publishing. p. 174. 5949: 5641: 4921:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4900:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3393: 1625:Science in the Age of Enlightenment 1305:Nicolaus Copernicus, Petrus Apianus 677:(c.190 – c. 120 BCE) also rejected 165:. In the 6th century CE, Byzantine 124:—culminating in the formulation of 13: 8562:Gibbons–Hawking–York boundary term 8371:Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell 6721: 6502:The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci 6442:The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci 6297:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 5417: 5383: 5357: 5040: 4892: 4808:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37219.x 4502: 4325:. More specifically, Einstein and 4074:{\displaystyle \delta \int ds=0\,} 4000: 3992: 3957: 3939: 3648: 3640: 3059:{\displaystyle \eta _{\mu \nu }\,} 2673:Alternatives to general relativity 2437: 2429: 2321: 2289: 2231: 2217: 2203: 2086: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2063: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2047: 2044: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2032: 2029: 2020: 2017: 2014: 2011: 2008: 2005: 2001: 1998: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1954: 1951: 1947: 1944: 1941: 1938: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1905: 1902: 1898: 1895: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1756:Mass § Pre-Newtonian concepts 1570: 1459: 1400:Physicorum Aristotelis quaestiones 1381: 1163:Equations of motion § History 858:let it try. The earth is the only 789: 553:view in which objects do not gain 533:and inversely proportional to the 14: 9728: 8677:Modified Newtonian dynamics, MOND 8593:Classical theories of gravitation 8255:The Astrophysical Journal Letters 8004:The Genesis of General Relativity 7279:The Cambridge Companion to Newton 5754:. Oregon State University Press. 5706:. Vol. 2. 1791. p. 168. 5587:. Translated by Hankinson, R. J. 5073:The American Journal of Philology 4856: 4712:repeated this assumption in 1869. 4252:{\displaystyle T\,\propto \,R\,.} 3380: 2876:gravitational deflection of light 1845:Kepler's laws of planetary motion 1742:and are incompatible with modern 1071:A 14th century illustration from 866: 851:gurutvākarṣaṇam (गुरुत्वाकर्षणम्) 646:287 – c. 212 BCE) discovered the 624:gravitational effects of the Moon 206:the basic principle of relativity 9686: 9685: 8362: 8333: 7988: 7778: 7735: 7704: 7675: 7537: 7510: 7470: 7461: 7390: 7378: 7358: 7347: 7295: 7250: 7201: 6086:Siddhánta Shiromańi: Goládhyáyah 4916:"Empedocles (c. 492—432 B.C.E.)" 4736: 4727: 4724:made a similar argument in 1853. 4715: 4634:tested this theory by observing 4483:detected gravitational radiation 3115:Einstein and Grossmann includes 2645:perihelion precession of Mercury 1465:This section is an excerpt from 1191:. Written as a modern equation: 1008:of objects, based the theory of 928:In the 11th century CE, Persian 900: 784: 602:(c. 310 – c. 230 BCE) theorized 71: 57: 41: 27: 21:Pioneers of gravitational theory 8499:History of gravitational theory 8344:Feynman lectures on gravitation 7687:"Considerations on Gravitation" 7546:"The history of Halley's Comet" 7103: 7074: 7049: 7008: 6976: 6921: 6909: 6877: 6836: 6823: 6803: 6776: 6751: 6682: 6597: 6514: 6493: 6465: 6433: 6348: 6319:Journal of the History of Ideas 6287: 6258: 6231: 6214: 6205: 6096: 6092:(in Sanskrit). Calcutta, India. 6073: 6045: 6020: 5968: 5943: 5926: 5899: 5874: 5852: 5825: 5768: 5741: 5710: 5693: 5667: 5642:Leonard, William Ellery (ed.). 5635: 5605: 5574: 5547: 5519: 5467: 5453:. United Kingdom: Hachette UK. 5440: 5411: 5331: 5307: 5276: 5246: 5219: 5192: 5180:. The Internet Classics Archive 5166: 5064: 4895:"Anaxagoras (c.500—428 B.C.E.)" 4703: 4689: 4682:erroneously attributes this to 4672: 4663: 4654: 4645: 4625: 4612: 4596: 2821:field, a concept later coined ' 2735:attempted to unify gravity and 1874:Newton's original formula was: 1409: 1112:Aristotelian concept of gravity 1062: 404:came together and swirled as a 362:works of the Greek philosopher 175:Aristotelian concept of gravity 116:, before gaining great strides 8805:Causal dynamical triangulation 8494:Poisson's equation for gravity 8393:. Princeton University Press. 8202:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102 7711:Thompson, Silvanus P. (2019). 7110:Taylor, William Bower (1876). 6893:. 30 June 2005. Archived from 5681:. In Howard, Alfred A. (ed.). 5581:Sorabji, Richard, ed. (2014). 5008: 4971: 4928: 4907: 4886: 4580: 2900:mass and energy are equivalent 2704:pondered the possibility of a 1716:theory of corpuscular pressure 1432:performed a demonstration for 1358:Francesco Beato and Luca Ghini 1122:. Buridan and the philosopher 887:(On Spherics) of his treatise 825: 487:, were moved by their nature ( 1: 8233:LIGO Scientific Collaboration 7492:Whittaker, Edmund T. (1989). 7031:; William H. Donahue (2004). 6731:Wallace, William A. (2018) . 5979:. New York: Springer-Verlag. 5939:. A. Mukherjee & Company. 5283:Fortenbaugh, William (2017). 4568: 4299:History of general relativity 2695:Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner 2666: 2540:complained that it relied on 1533:Written with modern symbols: 966:is spent. The Iraqi polymath 747: 633: 317: 310: 8010:. Berlin, Germany: 193–252. 6384:10.1016/0039-3681(75)90007-2 6238:Starr, S. Frederick (2015). 6183:; Mehdi Amin Razavi (1996). 5835:The Natural History of Pliny 4765: 4602:The source of this quote is 4573: 4372:, this solution generates a 4309:solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 2896:special theory of relativity 2849:strong equivalence principle 1863:law of universal gravitation 1780:Mass as distinct from weight 1722: (1853–1928), who used 1545:The result was published in 1507:rather than a physical test. 974: 685:to explain motion. The poem 606:around its own axis and the 415: 247: 7: 9498:Cosmic microwave background 8667:Infinite derivative gravity 7214:American Journal of Physics 7171:10.1007/978-3-663-16016-8_2 5933:Bose, Mainak Kumar (1988). 5906:Pickover, Clifford (2008). 5838:. H. G. Bohn. p. 128. 5683:De Architectura libri decem 4551: 4381:Reissner–Nordström solution 4376:with a central singularity. 4314:The Illustrated London News 3769:is remembered as the first 2890:Einstein (1905, 1908, 1912) 2845:negative gravitational mass 2793:to account for the alleged 2714:Michelson–Morley experiment 2691:Ottaviano Fabrizio Mossotti 2189:in joules per kilogram, by 1337:. In 1533, German humanist 1102:(the Merton School) of the 915: 355:mind) as a ordering force. 240:, in a potentially unified 159: 1st century BCE 136:in the early 20th century. 10: 9733: 8855:Unified-field-theoric and 8380: 6530:. US: Doubleday. pp. 6221:Clagett, Marshall (1961). 6159:10.1088/0031-9120/40/2/002 5954:. Allen Lane. p. 29. 5022:Philosophy Before Socrates 4506: 4296: 4038:Einstein and Fokker (1914) 4032:weak equivalence principle 3437:{\displaystyle \varphi \,} 2851:of general relativity and 2832:proposed the existence of 2787:Einstein's field equations 2700:In the late 19th century, 2670: 2182:{\displaystyle \varphi \,} 1822: 1753: 1669:causes every motion to be 1654: 1648: 1635:Giovanni Battista Riccioli 1618: 1464: 1428:In 1585, Flemish polymath 1413: 1160: 1154: 1138:Uniform and difform motion 1058:Science in the Renaissance 1055: 939:. Ibn Sina then published 904: 818: 805:commentary on Aristotle's 251: 128:. This was superseded by 9681: 9620: 9584: 9541: 9490: 9454: 9298: 9144: 9078: 9010: 8998:Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity 8968: 8854: 8833: 8777:Canonical quantum gravity 8772:Euclidean quantum gravity 8764: 8611: 8585: 8574: 8507: 8476: 8469: 8038:Physikalische Zeitschrift 7882:10.1103/revmodphys.29.423 7862:Reviews of Modern Physics 7761:10.1038/sj.embor.embor779 7742:Andrzej, Stasiak (2003). 7605:"Adams, John Couch" 5748:Taub, Liba Chaia (2008). 5687:Ten Books on Architecture 5502:"The works of Archimedes" 5364:Berryman, Sylvia (2022), 5315:"Weight in Greek Atomism" 4953:10.14232/suc.2020.1.11-28 4640:myth of a universal flood 4487:two colliding black holes 4443:Hafele–Keating experiment 4410:Robertson–Walker solution 4273:and the one dimension of 4271:three dimensions of space 2908:principle of least action 2795:staticity of the universe 2765:a physical interpretation 2581:a cosmological manuscript 2538:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 1840:De motu corporum in gyrum 1724:electromagnetic radiation 1700:Nicolas Fatio de Duillier 1026:Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī 1020:Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī 941:his own theory of impetus 775:(100 – c. 170 CE) in his 372:fundamental cosmic forces 8874:Superfluid vacuum theory 8698:Nonsymmetric gravitation 8547:Post-Newtonian formalism 8286:10.3847/2041-8213/aa91c9 8156:10.1002/andp.19143491009 8084:10.1002/andp.19133471303 7966:10.1002/andp.19123430709 7924:10.1002/andp.19123430704 7662:10.1002/andp.19163540702 7084:Principles of Philosophy 7081:Descartes, René (1644). 6859:Drake, Stillman (2003). 6030: 5952:The Argumentative Indian 5868:Harvard University Press 5832:Pliny the Elder (1893). 5675:Vitruvius, Marcus Pollio 4992:10.1017/CBO9780511552540 3501:is rest mass energy and 2855:. Bondi's proof yielded 2124:{\displaystyle \propto } 1870:to answer pretty nearly. 1631:Francesco Maria Grimaldi 436:In the 4th century BCE, 230:force carrier of gravity 148: 4th century 98:ancient Greek philosophy 9633:Chandrasekhar–Eddington 9559:Golden age of cosmology 9491:On specific discoveries 9439:Lorentz transformations 9039:Mechanical explanations 8908:Heterotic string theory 8864:Noncommutative geometry 8783:Wheeler–DeWitt equation 8509:General relativity (GR) 8489:Gauss's law for gravity 8463:Theories of gravitation 7611:Encyclopædia Britannica 7413:Hesse, Mary B. (1955). 7161:(1903). "Gravitation". 6527:The Science of Leonardo 5975:Thurston, Hugh (1993). 5649:Perseus Digital Library 5528:The works of Archimedes 5423:"Geography — III, 5, 9" 5226:Pedersen, Olaf (1993). 5109:Rovelli, Carlo (2015). 4935:Preston, David (2020). 4834:Gutman, Oliver (2003). 4464:Gravitational radiation 4432:Robertson–Walker metric 4366:spherically symmetrical 3916:{\displaystyle \psi \,} 3765:The second approach of 3515:{\displaystyle \Box \,} 3494:{\displaystyle \rho \,} 3359:principle of relativity 2868:Lorentz transformations 2853:Newton's laws of motion 2782:Albert Einstein in 1921 2295:{\displaystyle \nabla } 2161:{\displaystyle \rho \,} 1825:Gauss's law for gravity 1740:energy conservation law 1726:instead of corpuscles. 1645:Mechanical explanations 1607:A disciple of Galileo, 1189:gravitational equations 463:, was related to their 208:. The existence of the 126:Newton's law of gravity 9564:Medieval Islamic world 9307:Computational physics 9249:Variational principles 9176:Electrical engineering 8880:Logarithmic BEC vacuum 8825:Rainbow gravity theory 8703:Scalar–tensor theories 8477:Newtonian gravity (NG) 8311:Randall, Lisa (2005). 8097:Pais, Abraham (2005). 8058:Nordström, G. (1913). 7570:10.1098/rsta.1987.0091 7301:H. W. Turnbull (ed.), 7208:Browne, K. M. (2018). 6689:Duhem, Pierre (2012). 6604:Durant, Will (2011) . 6414:Knight, Kevin (2017). 5199:Grant, Edward (1996). 4978:Furley, David (1987). 4750:—which along with the 4439:Pound–Rebka experiment 4362:Schwarzschild solution 4347:differential equations 4317: 4253: 4215: 4155: 4075: 4021: 3917: 3893: 3810: 3756: 3732: 3618: 3588: 3516: 3495: 3471: 3438: 3417: 3398:The first approach of 3336: 3239: 3156: 3106: 3105:{\displaystyle \nu \,} 3085: 3084:{\displaystyle \mu \,} 3060: 3026: 2943: 2813:proposed in 1980 that 2783: 2771:, a possible model of 2610:Johann Gottfried Galle 2520: 2478:, the scalar field is 2474:from an isolated mass 2461: 2356: 2296: 2270: 2183: 2162: 2134:gravitational constant 2125: 2102: 1872: 1816: 1796: 1777: 1750:'Weight' before Newton 1615:European Enlightenment 1609:Evangelista Torricelli 1603:Evangelista Torricelli 1600: 1580: 1531: 1478: 1457: 1425: 1416:Delft tower experiment 1391: 1370:By 1544, according to 1367: 1355: 1327:his heliocentric model 1314: 1263: 1236: 1172: 1086: 984: 925: 898: 864: 835: 739: 727: 433: 425: 293: 285: 210:gravitational constant 197:and the time elapsed. 118:during the Renaissance 9554:Golden age of physics 9549:Copernican Revolution 8957:Twistor string theory 8936:Type II string theory 8929:Bosonic string theory 8869:Semiclassical gravity 8834:Unified-field-theoric 8619:Poincaré gauge theory 7477:Shank, J. B. (2009). 5950:Sen, Amartya (2005). 5589:Bloomsbury Publishing 5427:penelope.uchicago.edu 5398:www.perseus.tufts.edu 5016:McKirahan, Richard D. 4481:experiments directly 4335:These field equations 4306: 4267:equivalence principle 4254: 4216: 4156: 4076: 4022: 3918: 3894: 3811: 3757: 3733: 3619: 3617:{\displaystyle m_{0}} 3589: 3517: 3496: 3472: 3439: 3418: 3337: 3240: 3157: 3107: 3086: 3061: 3027: 2944: 2791:cosmological constant 2781: 2767:of in a prototypical 2753:gravitational lensing 2565:Joseph-Louis Lagrange 2521: 2462: 2357: 2297: 2271: 2184: 2163: 2126: 2103: 1867: 1805: 1787: 1762: 1704:Georges-Louis Le Sage 1621:Scientific Revolution 1595: 1578: 1552:confirmed by Italian 1521: 1519:of the time elapsed. 1491:Leaning Tower of Pisa 1476: 1446: 1423: 1389: 1365: 1347: 1312: 1261: 1237: 1170: 1070: 1024:In the 12th century, 982: 923: 893: 855: 843:Indian mathematicians 833: 759:universal gravitation 737: 718: 431: 423: 291: 283: 254:Archimedes' principle 122:Scientific Revolution 9657:Relativity priority 9512:Subatomic particles 9472:Loop quantum gravity 9461:Quantum information 9410:Quantum field theory 9210:Gravitational theory 9024:Aristotelian physics 8993:Gauss–Bonnet gravity 8943:Little string theory 8922:Type 0 string theory 8915:Type I string theory 8790:Loop quantum gravity 8717:Scalar–tensor–vector 8690:Tensor–vector–scalar 8645:Gauge theory gravity 8603:Theory of everything 7519:Q. J. R. Astron. Soc 7397:Westfall, Richard S. 7257:Newton, I. (1729) . 6576:10.1162/leon_a_02322 5936:Late classical India 5338:Laertius, Diogenes. 4941:Sapiens Ubique Civis 4876:Grosset & Dunlap 4519:quantum field theory 4495:It is believed that 4370:Schwarzschild radius 4231: 4168: 4088: 4049: 3930: 3906: 3823: 3780: 3771:logically consistent 3745: 3631: 3601: 3533: 3505: 3484: 3451: 3427: 3406: 3347:stress–energy tensor 3255: 3169: 3130: 3095: 3074: 3039: 2956: 2917: 2729:theory of relativity 2722:action at a distance 2706:theory of everything 2637:Carl Friedrich Gauss 2633:Wilhelm Eduard Weber 2622:gravitational fields 2596:based on motions of 2569:Pierre-Simon Laplace 2542:action at a distance 2485: 2376: 2317: 2286: 2196: 2172: 2151: 2138:Cavendish experiment 2115: 1881: 1851:), Newton published 1683:centripetal pressure 1434:Jan Cornets de Groot 1197: 1052:European Renaissance 873:Indian mathematician 679:Aristotelian physics 675:Hipparchus of Nicaea 620:Seleucus of Seleucia 600:Aristarchus of Samos 587:deviated from older 505:Astronomical objects 491:) upward toward the 266:Principle of inertia 258:Aristotelian physics 242:theory of everything 134:theory of relativity 9712:Theories of gravity 9621:Scientific disputes 9607:Via Panisperna boys 9508:Gravitational waves 9455:Recent developments 9186:Maxwell's equations 8841:Kaluza–Klein theory 8277:2017ApJ...848L..12A 8194:2016PhRvL.116f1102A 8148:1914AnP...349..321E 8076:1913AnP...347..533N 8016:2007ggr..conf..193W 7958:1912AnP...343..443E 7916:1912AnP...343..355E 7874:1957RvMP...29..423B 7835:The Washington Post 7806:1967ubp..book.....H 7790:Unser blauer Planet 7654:1916AnP...354..769E 7562:1987RSPTA.323..349H 7531:1993QJRAS..34....1W 7226:2018AmJPh..86..471B 6770:2014gdne.book.....I 6376:1975SHPSA...5..347D 6324:(4), pp. 521–546 .) 6181:Seyyed Hossein Nasr 6151:2005PhyEd..40..139E 6083:(1150). "ভুবনকোষ". 5137:10.1017/apa.2014.11 4800:1987NYASA.500..477S 4756:fine-tuned universe 4752:anthropic principle 4684:Jordanus Nemorarius 4620:pressure of the air 4454:time delay of light 3923:is a scalar field, 3755:{\displaystyle u\,} 3416:{\displaystyle c\,} 3117:Riemannian geometry 2689:. He assumed, like 2687:Maxwell's equations 2661:James Clerk Maxwell 1865:. In his own words: 1708:a corpuscular model 1667:continuum of matter 1319:Nicolaus Copernicus 1313:Nicolaus Copernicus 1046:classical mechanics 946:The Book of Healing 889:Siddhānta Shiromani 815:Indian subcontinent 571:within an infinite 547:Strato of Lampsacus 321: 475 BCE 271:Classical antiquity 236:approaches such as 232:is hypothesized in 218:classical mechanics 114:European scientists 9717:History of physics 9666:General relativity 9661:Special relativity 9602:Oxford Calculators 9429:Special relativity 9348:General relativity 9133:History of physics 9086:Gravitational wave 8969:Generalisations / 8857:quantum-mechanical 8765:Quantum-mechanical 8578:general relativity 8552:Linearized gravity 8348:. Addison-Wesley. 8136:Annalen der Physik 8064:Annalen der Physik 7946:Annalen der Physik 7904:Annalen der Physik 7744:"Myths in science" 7642:Annalen der Physik 7118:Smithsonian Report 6897:on 2 November 2005 6416:"Albert of Saxony" 4914:Campbell, Gordon. 4748:parallel realities 4563:History of physics 4523:fundamental forces 4318: 4293:General relativity 4249: 4211: 4151: 4071: 4017: 3913: 3889: 3806: 3752: 3728: 3614: 3584: 3512: 3491: 3467: 3434: 3413: 3332: 3235: 3152: 3102: 3081: 3056: 3022: 2939: 2898:and the fact that 2884:general relativity 2872:Lorentz invariance 2811:Alexei Starobinsky 2784: 2585:nebular hypothesis 2516: 2457: 2352: 2292: 2266: 2179: 2158: 2121: 2098: 1797: 1687:Christiaan Huygens 1581: 1505:thought experiment 1487:University of Pisa 1479: 1426: 1392: 1368: 1352:positional gravity 1315: 1283:classical elements 1279:abundance of force 1264: 1232: 1177:mean speed theorem 1173: 1157:Mean speed theorem 1151:Mean speed theorem 1100:Oxford Calculators 1087: 985: 926: 836: 768:Naturalis Historia 765:(23–79 CE) in his 751: 46 – 120 CE 742:Greek philosopher 740: 657:On Floating Bodies 652:centres of gravity 545:Greek philosopher 434: 426: 316: – 294: 286: 139:Greek philosopher 9699: 9698: 9673:Transfermium Wars 9592:Harvard Computers 9417:Subatomic physics 9390:Quantum mechanics 9326:Superconductivity 9317:Condensed matter 9146:Classical physics 9099: 9098: 9070:Theory of impetus 9006: 9005: 8978:Liouville gravity 8722:Conformal gravity 8650:Composite gravity 8640:Bimetric theories 8570: 8569: 8355:978-0-201-62734-3 8108:978-0-19-152402-8 7556:(1572): 349–367. 7503:978-0-486-26126-3 7340:978-0-3078-0105-0 7288:978-0-521-65696-2 7235:10.1119/1.5027490 7180:978-3-663-15445-7 6783:Drake, S (1978). 6758:Icke, V. (2014). 6744:978-1-351-15959-3 6541:978-0-385-51390-6 6198:978-0-7007-0314-2 6139:Physics Education 6116:978-0-87220-871-1 5986:978-0-387-94107-3 5961:978-0-7139-9687-6 5919:978-0-19-979268-9 5882:"John Philoponus" 5845:978-0-598-91073-8 5761:978-0-87071-196-1 5730:978-1-63431-107-6 5625:978-1-63431-107-6 5598:978-1-4725-0111-0 5567:978-1-4020-6366-4 5366:"Ancient Atomism" 5296:978-1-351-48792-4 5266:978-1-63431-107-6 5239:978-0-521-40340-5 5212:978-0-521-56137-2 5033:978-1-60384-182-5 4893:Patzia, Michael. 4632:Leonardo da Vinci 4542:Ehrenfest theorem 4515:quantum mechanics 4014: 3987: 3971: 3725: 3721: 3677: 3662: 3577: 3375:Lorentz invariant 3371:Arnold Sommerfeld 3367:Hermann Minkowski 3329: 3302: 2880:Eötvös experiment 2606:Urbain Le Verrier 2510: 2452: 2418: 2245: 2111:where the symbol 2096: 1675:centrifugal force 1335:orbit of the Moon 1267:Leonardo da Vinci 1262:Leonardo da Vinci 1254:Leonardo da Vinci 1249:15th–17th century 1217: 1202: 1034:Kitab al-Mu'tabar 1030:projectile motion 937:projectile motion 683:theory of impetus 673:Greek astronomer 598:Greek astronomer 581:atomic collisions 304:Greek philosopher 179:theory of impetus 9724: 9689: 9688: 9612:Women in physics 9364:Nuclear physics 9288:Perpetual motion 9222:Material science 9166:Electromagnetism 9126: 9119: 9112: 9103: 9102: 9054: 9052:Entropic gravity 9047: 8971:extensions of GR 8959: 8945: 8938: 8931: 8924: 8917: 8910: 8903: 8896: 8882: 8799: 8792: 8785: 8746:Geometrodynamics 8735: 8711: 8692: 8685: 8634: 8627: 8583: 8582: 8474: 8473: 8456: 8449: 8442: 8433: 8432: 8427: 8415: 8404: 8375: 8374: 8369:Zee, A. (2003). 8366: 8360: 8359: 8347: 8337: 8331: 8330: 8318: 8308: 8299: 8298: 8288: 8270: 8245: 8239: 8236: 8230: 8221: 8187: 8172:Phys. Rev. Lett. 8166: 8160: 8159: 8127: 8121: 8120: 8094: 8088: 8087: 8055: 8046: 8045: 8026: 8020: 8019: 8001: 7992: 7986: 7979: 7970: 7969: 7938:Einstein, Albert 7934: 7928: 7927: 7896:Einstein, Albert 7892: 7886: 7885: 7857: 7851: 7850: 7848: 7846: 7841:on 22 March 2013 7837:. Archived from 7827: 7818: 7817: 7782: 7776: 7775: 7773: 7763: 7739: 7733: 7732: 7730: 7728: 7723:on 29 March 2019 7719:. Archived from 7708: 7702: 7701: 7691: 7679: 7673: 7672: 7670: 7668: 7639: 7631:Einstein, Albert 7627: 7616: 7615: 7607: 7596: 7590: 7589: 7541: 7535: 7534: 7514: 7508: 7507: 7489: 7483: 7482: 7474: 7468: 7465: 7459: 7458: 7410: 7404: 7394: 7388: 7382: 7376: 7375: 7362: 7356: 7351: 7345: 7344: 7317: 7306: 7299: 7293: 7292: 7274: 7265: 7264: 7254: 7248: 7247: 7237: 7205: 7199: 7198: 7192: 7184: 7155: 7146: 7140: 7134: 7128: 7122: 7121: 7115: 7107: 7101: 7095: 7089: 7088: 7078: 7072: 7066: 7060: 7053: 7047: 7046: 7029:Kepler, Johannes 7025: 7019: 7012: 7006: 7005: 6990:. Translated by 6984:Galilei, Galileo 6980: 6974: 6968: 6959: 6953: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6942: 6934:The Conversation 6925: 6919: 6918:on museo galileo 6916:Vincenzo Viviani 6913: 6907: 6906: 6904: 6902: 6881: 6875: 6874: 6856: 6850: 6843:Vincenzo Viviani 6840: 6834: 6827: 6821: 6820: 6818: 6807: 6801: 6800: 6780: 6774: 6773: 6755: 6749: 6748: 6728: 6719: 6713: 6707: 6706: 6686: 6680: 6679: 6643: 6634: 6628: 6622: 6621: 6601: 6595: 6594: 6592: 6590: 6555: 6546: 6545: 6518: 6512: 6511: 6497: 6491: 6490: 6488: 6486: 6469: 6463: 6457: 6446: 6445: 6437: 6431: 6430: 6428: 6426: 6411: 6400: 6399: 6352: 6346: 6340: 6325: 6311: 6291: 6285: 6284: 6262: 6256: 6255: 6235: 6229: 6228: 6218: 6212: 6209: 6203: 6202: 6177: 6171: 6170: 6134: 6128: 6127: 6125: 6123: 6100: 6094: 6093: 6091: 6077: 6071: 6070: 6049: 6043: 6042: 6024: 6018: 6017: 6015: 6013: 6005:Alberuni's India 6000: 5991: 5990: 5972: 5966: 5965: 5947: 5941: 5940: 5930: 5924: 5923: 5903: 5897: 5896: 5894: 5892: 5878: 5872: 5871: 5856: 5850: 5849: 5829: 5823: 5822: 5804: 5772: 5766: 5765: 5745: 5739: 5738: 5714: 5708: 5707: 5697: 5691: 5690: 5671: 5665: 5664: 5661:Tufts University 5658: 5656: 5639: 5633: 5632: 5609: 5603: 5602: 5578: 5572: 5571: 5551: 5545: 5544: 5542: 5540: 5531:. Translated by 5523: 5517: 5516: 5511: 5509: 5498: 5492: 5491: 5471: 5465: 5464: 5444: 5438: 5437: 5435: 5433: 5415: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5390: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5377: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5335: 5329: 5328: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5280: 5274: 5273: 5250: 5244: 5243: 5223: 5217: 5216: 5196: 5190: 5189: 5187: 5185: 5178:classics.mit.edu 5170: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5130: 5106: 5097: 5096: 5068: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5047: 5038: 5037: 5025: 5012: 5006: 5005: 4985: 4975: 4969: 4968: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4890: 4884: 4883: 4873: 4870:Man and His Gods 4860: 4854: 4853: 4840:Brill Publishers 4831: 4820: 4819: 4780: 4759: 4740: 4734: 4731: 4725: 4722:Bernhard Riemann 4719: 4713: 4707: 4701: 4693: 4687: 4676: 4670: 4667: 4661: 4658: 4652: 4649: 4643: 4629: 4623: 4616: 4610: 4600: 4594: 4584: 4337:are a set of 10 4279:four-dimensional 4258: 4256: 4255: 4250: 4220: 4218: 4217: 4212: 4209: 4208: 4196: 4195: 4183: 4182: 4160: 4158: 4157: 4152: 4149: 4148: 4135: 4134: 4121: 4120: 4105: 4104: 4099: 4080: 4078: 4077: 4072: 4026: 4024: 4023: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4012: 4011: 3998: 3990: 3988: 3980: 3972: 3970: 3969: 3968: 3955: 3954: 3953: 3937: 3922: 3920: 3919: 3914: 3898: 3896: 3895: 3890: 3887: 3886: 3873: 3872: 3859: 3858: 3840: 3839: 3834: 3815: 3813: 3812: 3807: 3767:Nordström (1913) 3761: 3759: 3758: 3753: 3737: 3735: 3734: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3723: 3722: 3714: 3711: 3710: 3700: 3699: 3690: 3685: 3684: 3679: 3678: 3670: 3663: 3661: 3660: 3659: 3646: 3638: 3623: 3621: 3620: 3615: 3613: 3612: 3593: 3591: 3590: 3585: 3582: 3578: 3576: 3575: 3563: 3551: 3550: 3521: 3519: 3518: 3513: 3500: 3498: 3497: 3492: 3476: 3474: 3473: 3468: 3443: 3441: 3440: 3435: 3422: 3420: 3419: 3414: 3400:Nordström (1912) 3394:Nordström (1912) 3341: 3339: 3338: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3320: 3319: 3318: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3293: 3292: 3291: 3278: 3270: 3269: 3244: 3242: 3241: 3236: 3233: 3232: 3219: 3218: 3205: 3204: 3186: 3185: 3180: 3161: 3159: 3158: 3153: 3111: 3109: 3108: 3103: 3090: 3088: 3087: 3082: 3068:Minkowski metric 3065: 3063: 3062: 3057: 3054: 3053: 3031: 3029: 3028: 3023: 3020: 3019: 3006: 3005: 2992: 2991: 2973: 2972: 2967: 2948: 2946: 2945: 2940: 2815:cosmic inflation 2749:Arthur Eddington 2745:five-dimensional 2737:electromagnetism 2733:Gunnar Nordström 2718:Mach's principle 2710:electric charges 2683:his ether theory 2653:speed of gravity 2641:Bernhard Riemann 2624:and low speeds. 2602:John Couch Adams 2525: 2523: 2522: 2517: 2511: 2506: 2498: 2466: 2464: 2463: 2458: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2448: 2435: 2427: 2419: 2417: 2416: 2415: 2402: 2401: 2400: 2391: 2390: 2380: 2361: 2359: 2358: 2353: 2329: 2328: 2301: 2299: 2298: 2293: 2275: 2273: 2272: 2267: 2246: 2244: 2243: 2242: 2229: 2228: 2215: 2211: 2210: 2200: 2188: 2186: 2185: 2180: 2167: 2165: 2164: 2159: 2130: 2128: 2127: 2122: 2107: 2105: 2104: 2099: 2097: 2095: 2094: 2093: 2027: 1936: 1931: 1930: 1814: 1775: 1736:Le Sage's theory 1712:Daniel Bernoulli 1706:(1748) proposed 1639:gravity of Earth 1565:gravity of Earth 1548:Two New Sciences 1542: 1529: 1495:Vincenzo Viviani 1455: 1372:Benedetto Varchi 1241: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1227: 1218: 1210: 1200: 1124:Albert of Saxony 1078:L'Image du monde 991:, proposed that 773:Claudius Ptolemy 752: 749: 714:specific gravity 645: 604:Earth's rotation 511:are composed of 501:sublunary sphere 493:celestial sphere 378:" and "Strife" ( 369: 344: 340: 323:) used the word 322: 319: 315: 312: 191:Albert of Saxony 163:specific gravity 160: 152: 146: 75: 61: 45: 31: 9732: 9731: 9727: 9726: 9725: 9723: 9722: 9721: 9702: 9701: 9700: 9695: 9677: 9648:Joule–von Mayer 9616: 9580: 9537: 9486: 9450: 9341:Big Bang theory 9294: 9193:Fluid mechanics 9140: 9130: 9100: 9095: 9074: 9050: 9043: 9014: 9012: 9002: 8983:Lovelock theory 8970: 8964: 8955: 8941: 8934: 8927: 8920: 8913: 8906: 8899: 8892: 8878: 8856: 8850: 8829: 8795: 8788: 8781: 8760: 8751:Induced gravity 8731: 8727:Scalar theories 8707: 8688: 8681: 8672:Massive gravity 8632:Teleparallelism 8630: 8625:Einstein–Cartan 8623: 8607: 8598:Quantum gravity 8577: 8576:Alternatives to 8566: 8532:Exact solutions 8503: 8465: 8460: 8401: 8383: 8378: 8367: 8363: 8356: 8338: 8334: 8327: 8309: 8302: 8246: 8242: 8228: 8224: 8167: 8163: 8142:(10): 321–328. 8128: 8124: 8109: 8095: 8091: 8056: 8049: 8027: 8023: 7999: 7993: 7989: 7980: 7973: 7935: 7931: 7893: 7889: 7858: 7854: 7844: 7842: 7829: 7828: 7821: 7794:Our blue planet 7783: 7779: 7740: 7736: 7726: 7724: 7709: 7705: 7689: 7680: 7676: 7666: 7664: 7637: 7628: 7619: 7597: 7593: 7542: 7538: 7515: 7511: 7504: 7490: 7486: 7475: 7471: 7466: 7462: 7411: 7407: 7395: 7391: 7383: 7379: 7363: 7359: 7352: 7348: 7341: 7318: 7309: 7300: 7296: 7289: 7275: 7268: 7255: 7251: 7206: 7202: 7186: 7185: 7181: 7156: 7149: 7141: 7137: 7129: 7125: 7108: 7104: 7096: 7092: 7079: 7075: 7067: 7063: 7055:J.L. Heilbron, 7054: 7050: 7043: 7026: 7022: 7014:J.L. Heilbron, 7013: 7009: 7002: 6981: 6977: 6973:, pp. 3–6. 6969: 6962: 6954: 6950: 6940: 6938: 6927: 6926: 6922: 6914: 6910: 6900: 6898: 6883: 6882: 6878: 6871: 6857: 6853: 6841: 6837: 6828: 6824: 6816: 6808: 6804: 6797: 6781: 6777: 6756: 6752: 6745: 6729: 6722: 6714: 6710: 6703: 6687: 6683: 6644: 6637: 6629: 6625: 6618: 6602: 6598: 6588: 6586: 6556: 6549: 6542: 6519: 6515: 6508: 6498: 6494: 6484: 6482: 6470: 6466: 6458: 6449: 6438: 6434: 6424: 6422: 6412: 6403: 6356:Drake, Stillman 6353: 6349: 6341: 6328: 6312: 6308: 6292: 6288: 6277: 6263: 6259: 6252: 6236: 6232: 6219: 6215: 6210: 6206: 6199: 6178: 6174: 6135: 6131: 6121: 6119: 6117: 6101: 6097: 6089: 6078: 6074: 6050: 6046: 6032: 6026: 6025: 6021: 6011: 6009: 6002: 6001: 5994: 5987: 5977:Early Astronomy 5973: 5969: 5962: 5948: 5944: 5931: 5927: 5920: 5904: 5900: 5890: 5888: 5880: 5879: 5875: 5857: 5853: 5846: 5830: 5826: 5773: 5769: 5762: 5746: 5742: 5731: 5715: 5711: 5700: 5698: 5694: 5672: 5668: 5654: 5652: 5640: 5636: 5626: 5610: 5606: 5599: 5579: 5575: 5568: 5552: 5548: 5538: 5536: 5525: 5524: 5520: 5507: 5505: 5500: 5499: 5495: 5488: 5472: 5468: 5461: 5445: 5441: 5431: 5429: 5416: 5412: 5402: 5400: 5392: 5391: 5384: 5375: 5373: 5362: 5358: 5348: 5346: 5344:www.attalus.org 5336: 5332: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5297: 5281: 5277: 5267: 5251: 5247: 5240: 5224: 5220: 5213: 5197: 5193: 5183: 5181: 5172: 5171: 5167: 5157: 5155: 5107: 5100: 5069: 5065: 5055: 5053: 5049: 5048: 5041: 5034: 5013: 5009: 5002: 4976: 4972: 4933: 4929: 4912: 4908: 4891: 4887: 4864:Smith, Homer W. 4861: 4857: 4850: 4842:. p. 193. 4832: 4823: 4781: 4772: 4768: 4763: 4762: 4741: 4737: 4732: 4728: 4720: 4716: 4708: 4704: 4694: 4690: 4677: 4673: 4668: 4664: 4659: 4655: 4650: 4646: 4630: 4626: 4617: 4613: 4609:(c. 1030). 4601: 4597: 4585: 4581: 4576: 4571: 4554: 4538:classical limit 4521:like the other 4511: 4509:Quantum gravity 4505: 4503:Quantum gravity 4331:field equations 4329:discovered the 4301: 4295: 4232: 4229: 4228: 4201: 4197: 4191: 4187: 4175: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4165: 4144: 4140: 4130: 4126: 4113: 4109: 4100: 4092: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4085: 4050: 4047: 4046: 4040: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3991: 3989: 3979: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3936: 3931: 3928: 3927: 3907: 3904: 3903: 3882: 3878: 3868: 3864: 3851: 3847: 3835: 3827: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3820: 3781: 3778: 3777: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3713: 3712: 3706: 3702: 3701: 3695: 3691: 3689: 3680: 3669: 3668: 3667: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3639: 3637: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3608: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3598: 3571: 3567: 3562: 3558: 3546: 3542: 3534: 3531: 3530: 3506: 3503: 3502: 3485: 3482: 3481: 3452: 3449: 3448: 3428: 3425: 3424: 3407: 3404: 3403: 3396: 3383: 3355: 3321: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3304: 3294: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3277: 3262: 3258: 3256: 3253: 3252: 3228: 3224: 3214: 3210: 3197: 3193: 3181: 3173: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3166: 3131: 3128: 3127: 3121:tensor calculus 3096: 3093: 3092: 3075: 3072: 3071: 3046: 3042: 3040: 3037: 3036: 3015: 3011: 3001: 2997: 2984: 2980: 2968: 2960: 2959: 2957: 2954: 2953: 2918: 2915: 2914: 2892: 2830:Jacobus Kapteyn 2773:quantum gravity 2679:Hendrik Lorentz 2675: 2669: 2631:(like those of 2629:electrodynamics 2499: 2497: 2486: 2483: 2482: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2428: 2426: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2396: 2392: 2386: 2382: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2374: 2373: 2324: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2314: 2287: 2284: 2283: 2238: 2234: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2206: 2202: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2194: 2193: 2173: 2170: 2169: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2142:Henry Cavendish 2116: 2113: 2112: 2089: 2085: 2028: 1937: 1935: 1885: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1878: 1827: 1821: 1815: 1812: 1793:Godfrey Kneller 1782: 1776: 1773: 1758: 1752: 1720:Hendrik Lorentz 1659: 1657:Aether theories 1653: 1647: 1627: 1617: 1605: 1591:Johannes Kepler 1586:Astronomia nova 1579:Johannes Kepler 1573: 1571:Johannes Kepler 1534: 1530: 1527: 1509: 1508: 1483:Galileo Galilei 1470: 1462: 1460:Galileo Galilei 1456: 1453: 1418: 1412: 1396:Domingo de Soto 1390:Domingo de Soto 1384: 1382:Domingo de Soto 1360: 1307: 1256: 1251: 1223: 1219: 1209: 1198: 1195: 1194: 1165: 1159: 1153: 1144:uniform difform 1140: 1120:Book of Healing 1092: 1073:Gautier de Metz 1065: 1060: 1054: 1022: 1006:specific weight 993:heavenly bodies 977: 918: 913: 903: 871:Another famous 869: 828: 823: 817: 800:John Philoponus 792: 790:John Philoponus 787: 763:Pliny the Elder 750: 738:Pliny the Elder 732: 706:De architectura 688:De rerum natura 671: 643: 636: 543: 537:of the medium. 477:spherical Earth 418: 367: 342: 338: 320: 313: 278: 273: 268: 250: 234:quantum gravity 202:Galileo Galilei 171:John Philoponus 158: 147: 130:Albert Einstein 85: 84: 83: 82: 81: 79:Albert Einstein 76: 68: 67: 62: 53: 52: 51: 49:Galileo Galilei 46: 38: 37: 32: 23: 22: 12: 11: 5: 9730: 9720: 9719: 9714: 9697: 9696: 9694: 9693: 9682: 9679: 9678: 9676: 9675: 9670: 9669: 9668: 9663: 9655: 9653:Shapley–Curtis 9650: 9645: 9643:Leibniz–Newton 9640: 9638:Galileo affair 9635: 9630: 9624: 9622: 9618: 9617: 9615: 9614: 9609: 9604: 9599: 9594: 9588: 9586: 9582: 9581: 9579: 9578: 9573: 9572: 9571: 9561: 9556: 9551: 9545: 9543: 9539: 9538: 9536: 9535: 9533:Speed of light 9530: 9529: 9528: 9523: 9518: 9510: 9505: 9500: 9494: 9492: 9488: 9487: 9485: 9484: 9479: 9477:Nanotechnology 9474: 9469: 9468: 9467: 9458: 9456: 9452: 9451: 9449: 9448: 9447: 9446: 9441: 9436: 9426: 9425: 9424: 9414: 9413: 9412: 9407: 9402: 9397: 9387: 9386: 9385: 9380: 9375: 9370: 9362: 9357: 9356: 9355: 9345: 9344: 9343: 9338: 9330: 9329: 9328: 9323: 9315: 9314: 9313: 9304: 9302: 9300:Modern physics 9296: 9295: 9293: 9292: 9291: 9290: 9285: 9280: 9275: 9268:Thermodynamics 9265: 9264: 9263: 9253: 9252: 9251: 9246: 9236: 9235: 9234: 9229: 9219: 9218: 9217: 9207: 9206: 9205: 9200: 9190: 9189: 9188: 9183: 9178: 9173: 9163: 9162: 9161: 9150: 9148: 9142: 9141: 9129: 9128: 9121: 9114: 9106: 9097: 9096: 9094: 9093: 9088: 9082: 9080: 9079:Related topics 9076: 9075: 9073: 9072: 9067: 9062: 9057: 9056: 9055: 9048: 9036: 9031: 9026: 9020: 9018: 9008: 9007: 9004: 9003: 9001: 9000: 8995: 8990: 8985: 8980: 8974: 8972: 8966: 8965: 8963: 8962: 8961: 8960: 8951:Twistor theory 8948: 8947: 8946: 8939: 8932: 8925: 8918: 8911: 8904: 8897: 8885: 8884: 8883: 8871: 8866: 8860: 8858: 8852: 8851: 8849: 8848: 8843: 8837: 8835: 8831: 8830: 8828: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8807: 8802: 8801: 8800: 8793: 8786: 8774: 8768: 8766: 8762: 8761: 8759: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8737: 8736: 8724: 8719: 8714: 8713: 8712: 8700: 8695: 8694: 8693: 8686: 8674: 8669: 8664: 8652: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8636: 8635: 8628: 8615: 8613: 8609: 8608: 8606: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8589: 8587: 8580: 8572: 8571: 8568: 8567: 8565: 8564: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8544: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8513: 8511: 8505: 8504: 8502: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8480: 8478: 8471: 8467: 8466: 8459: 8458: 8451: 8444: 8436: 8430: 8429: 8417: 8405: 8399: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8376: 8361: 8354: 8332: 8325: 8300: 8240: 8238: 8237: 8161: 8122: 8107: 8089: 8047: 8021: 7987: 7971: 7929: 7910:(7): 355–369. 7887: 7868:(3): 423–428. 7852: 7819: 7800:. p. 52. 7798:Rowohlt Verlag 7777: 7734: 7703: 7683:Lorentz, H. A. 7674: 7648:(7): 769–822. 7617: 7602:, ed. (1911). 7600:Chisholm, Hugh 7591: 7536: 7509: 7502: 7484: 7469: 7460: 7431:10.1086/348429 7425:(4): 337–353. 7405: 7389: 7377: 7357: 7346: 7339: 7307: 7294: 7287: 7266: 7249: 7200: 7179: 7147: 7145:, p. 120. 7143:Gillispie 1960 7135: 7133:, p. 480. 7131:Gillispie 1960 7123: 7102: 7100:, p. 121. 7098:Gillispie 1960 7090: 7073: 7069:Gillispie 1960 7061: 7048: 7041: 7020: 7007: 7001:978-1614277941 7000: 6975: 6971:Gillispie 1960 6960: 6956:Gillispie 1960 6948: 6920: 6908: 6876: 6869: 6851: 6835: 6822: 6802: 6795: 6775: 6750: 6743: 6720: 6718:, p. 121. 6708: 6701: 6681: 6660:10.1086/347085 6635: 6631:Gillispie 1960 6623: 6616: 6596: 6547: 6540: 6522:Capra, Fritjof 6513: 6492: 6464: 6462:, p. 386. 6447: 6432: 6401: 6370:(4): 347–366. 6347: 6343:Gillispie 1960 6326: 6306: 6286: 6275: 6257: 6250: 6230: 6213: 6204: 6197: 6191:. p. 72. 6172: 6129: 6115: 6095: 6072: 6044: 6019: 5992: 5985: 5967: 5960: 5942: 5925: 5918: 5898: 5873: 5851: 5844: 5824: 5793:10.1086/709138 5787:(2): 217–238. 5767: 5760: 5740: 5729: 5709: 5692: 5666: 5634: 5624: 5604: 5597: 5591:. p. 87. 5573: 5566: 5546: 5518: 5493: 5486: 5466: 5459: 5439: 5410: 5382: 5356: 5330: 5306: 5295: 5275: 5265: 5245: 5238: 5218: 5211: 5191: 5165: 5098: 5085:10.2307/290584 5063: 5039: 5032: 5007: 5000: 4970: 4927: 4906: 4885: 4855: 4848: 4821: 4794:(1): 477–482. 4769: 4767: 4764: 4761: 4760: 4735: 4726: 4714: 4702: 4688: 4671: 4662: 4653: 4644: 4624: 4611: 4595: 4593:, respectively 4578: 4577: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4567: 4566: 4565: 4560: 4553: 4550: 4507:Main article: 4504: 4501: 4493: 4492: 4491: 4490: 4461: 4450: 4435: 4428: 4421: 4414: 4413: 4403: 4396: 4393:Cauchy horizon 4391:surrounding a 4377: 4297:Main article: 4294: 4291: 4260: 4259: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4222: 4221: 4207: 4204: 4200: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4181: 4178: 4174: 4162: 4161: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4119: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4103: 4098: 4095: 4082: 4081: 4069: 4066: 4063: 4060: 4057: 4054: 4039: 4036: 4028: 4027: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3997: 3994: 3986: 3983: 3978: 3975: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3952: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3935: 3911: 3900: 3899: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3857: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3830: 3817: 3816: 3804: 3801: 3798: 3795: 3791: 3788: 3785: 3750: 3739: 3738: 3720: 3717: 3709: 3705: 3698: 3694: 3688: 3683: 3676: 3673: 3666: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3645: 3642: 3636: 3611: 3607: 3595: 3594: 3581: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3561: 3557: 3554: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3538: 3510: 3489: 3478: 3477: 3465: 3462: 3459: 3456: 3432: 3411: 3395: 3392: 3382: 3381:Abraham (1912) 3379: 3365:(1905, 1906), 3363:Henri Poincaré 3354: 3351: 3343: 3342: 3327: 3324: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3300: 3297: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3276: 3273: 3268: 3265: 3261: 3246: 3245: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3203: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3189: 3184: 3179: 3176: 3163: 3162: 3150: 3147: 3144: 3141: 3138: 3135: 3100: 3079: 3052: 3049: 3045: 3033: 3032: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2990: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2976: 2971: 2966: 2963: 2950: 2949: 2937: 2934: 2931: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2891: 2888: 2843:proposed that 2757:Theodor Kaluza 2668: 2665: 2563:in 1748, then 2561:Leonhard Euler 2527: 2526: 2515: 2509: 2505: 2502: 2496: 2493: 2490: 2468: 2467: 2456: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2431: 2425: 2422: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2399: 2395: 2389: 2385: 2363: 2362: 2351: 2347: 2344: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2332: 2327: 2323: 2291: 2281:Nabla operator 2277: 2276: 2265: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2252: 2249: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2205: 2177: 2156: 2120: 2109: 2108: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2081: 2078: 2075: 2072: 2069: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2056: 2052: 2049: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2026: 2022: 2019: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2007: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1993: 1990: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1966: 1963: 1960: 1956: 1953: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1940: 1934: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1914: 1911: 1907: 1904: 1900: 1897: 1894: 1891: 1888: 1849:Hooke's dismay 1831:inverse-square 1820: 1817: 1810: 1781: 1778: 1771: 1767:copia materiae 1754:Main article: 1751: 1748: 1744:thermodynamics 1732:Leonhard Euler 1663:René Descartes 1649:Main article: 1646: 1643: 1616: 1613: 1604: 1601: 1572: 1569: 1525: 1471: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1451: 1414:Main article: 1411: 1408: 1383: 1380: 1359: 1356: 1341:described the 1339:Petrus Apianus 1306: 1303: 1295:right triangle 1255: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1231: 1226: 1222: 1216: 1213: 1208: 1205: 1155:Main article: 1152: 1149: 1139: 1136: 1104:Merton College 1091: 1088: 1064: 1061: 1053: 1050: 1021: 1018: 976: 973: 968:Ibn al-Haytham 951:air resistance 917: 914: 902: 899: 868: 867:Bhāskarāchārya 865: 827: 824: 816: 813: 791: 788: 786: 783: 731: 728: 670: 667: 648:centre of mass 635: 632: 608:orbit of Earth 591:theories like 542: 539: 417: 414: 277: 274: 272: 269: 249: 246: 91:, theories of 77: 70: 69: 63: 56: 55: 54: 47: 40: 39: 33: 26: 25: 24: 20: 19: 18: 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9729: 9718: 9715: 9713: 9710: 9709: 9707: 9692: 9684: 9683: 9680: 9674: 9671: 9667: 9664: 9662: 9659: 9658: 9656: 9654: 9651: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9634: 9631: 9629: 9628:Bohr–Einstein 9626: 9625: 9623: 9619: 9613: 9610: 9608: 9605: 9603: 9600: 9598: 9595: 9593: 9590: 9589: 9587: 9583: 9577: 9574: 9570: 9567: 9566: 9565: 9562: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9546: 9544: 9540: 9534: 9531: 9527: 9524: 9522: 9519: 9517: 9514: 9513: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9501: 9499: 9496: 9495: 9493: 9489: 9483: 9482:String theory 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9466: 9463: 9462: 9460: 9459: 9457: 9453: 9445: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9435: 9432: 9431: 9430: 9427: 9423: 9420: 9419: 9418: 9415: 9411: 9408: 9406: 9403: 9401: 9398: 9396: 9393: 9392: 9391: 9388: 9384: 9381: 9379: 9376: 9374: 9371: 9369: 9366: 9365: 9363: 9361: 9358: 9354: 9351: 9350: 9349: 9346: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9333: 9331: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9318: 9316: 9312: 9309: 9308: 9306: 9305: 9303: 9301: 9297: 9289: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9279: 9276: 9274: 9271: 9270: 9269: 9266: 9262: 9259: 9258: 9257: 9254: 9250: 9247: 9245: 9242: 9241: 9240: 9237: 9233: 9232:Metamaterials 9230: 9228: 9225: 9224: 9223: 9220: 9216: 9213: 9212: 9211: 9208: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9195: 9194: 9191: 9187: 9184: 9182: 9179: 9177: 9174: 9172: 9169: 9168: 9167: 9164: 9160: 9157: 9156: 9155: 9152: 9151: 9149: 9147: 9143: 9138: 9134: 9127: 9122: 9120: 9115: 9113: 9108: 9107: 9104: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9083: 9081: 9077: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9053: 9049: 9046: 9045:Fatio–Le Sage 9042: 9041: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9021: 9019: 9017: 9011:Pre-Newtonian 9009: 8999: 8996: 8994: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8975: 8973: 8967: 8958: 8954: 8953: 8952: 8949: 8944: 8940: 8937: 8933: 8930: 8926: 8923: 8919: 8916: 8912: 8909: 8905: 8902: 8898: 8895: 8891: 8890: 8889: 8888:String theory 8886: 8881: 8877: 8876: 8875: 8872: 8870: 8867: 8865: 8862: 8861: 8859: 8853: 8847: 8844: 8842: 8839: 8838: 8836: 8832: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8798: 8794: 8791: 8787: 8784: 8780: 8779: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8769: 8767: 8763: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8734: 8730: 8729: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8715: 8710: 8706: 8705: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8691: 8687: 8684: 8680: 8679: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8668: 8665: 8663: 8661: 8657: 8653: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8638: 8633: 8629: 8626: 8622: 8621: 8620: 8617: 8616: 8614: 8610: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8596: 8594: 8591: 8590: 8588: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8573: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8557:ADM formalism 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8514: 8512: 8510: 8506: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8481: 8479: 8475: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8457: 8452: 8450: 8445: 8443: 8438: 8437: 8434: 8425: 8424: 8418: 8413: 8412: 8406: 8402: 8400:0-691-02350-6 8396: 8392: 8391: 8385: 8384: 8372: 8365: 8357: 8351: 8346: 8345: 8336: 8328: 8326:9780060531089 8322: 8317: 8316: 8307: 8305: 8296: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8260: 8256: 8252: 8244: 8234: 8227: 8223: 8222: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8203: 8199: 8195: 8191: 8186: 8181: 8178:(6): 061102. 8177: 8174: 8173: 8165: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8145: 8141: 8138:(in German). 8137: 8133: 8126: 8118: 8114: 8110: 8104: 8100: 8093: 8085: 8081: 8077: 8073: 8069: 8066:(in German). 8065: 8061: 8054: 8052: 8043: 8040:(in German). 8039: 8035: 8031: 8025: 8017: 8013: 8009: 8005: 7998: 7991: 7984: 7978: 7976: 7967: 7963: 7959: 7955: 7951: 7948:(in German). 7947: 7943: 7939: 7933: 7925: 7921: 7917: 7913: 7909: 7906:(in German). 7905: 7901: 7897: 7891: 7883: 7879: 7875: 7871: 7867: 7863: 7856: 7840: 7836: 7832: 7826: 7824: 7816: 7814: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7781: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7753: 7749: 7745: 7738: 7722: 7718: 7714: 7713:"Lord Kelvin" 7707: 7699: 7695: 7688: 7684: 7678: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7636: 7632: 7626: 7624: 7622: 7613: 7612: 7606: 7601: 7595: 7587: 7583: 7579: 7575: 7571: 7567: 7563: 7559: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7540: 7532: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7513: 7505: 7499: 7495: 7488: 7480: 7473: 7464: 7456: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7409: 7402: 7398: 7393: 7386: 7381: 7373: 7372: 7367: 7361: 7355: 7354:Poynting 1894 7350: 7342: 7336: 7332: 7331: 7326: 7322: 7316: 7314: 7312: 7304: 7298: 7290: 7284: 7280: 7273: 7271: 7262: 7261: 7253: 7245: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7227: 7223: 7220:(6): 471–74. 7219: 7215: 7211: 7204: 7196: 7190: 7182: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7154: 7152: 7144: 7139: 7132: 7127: 7119: 7114: 7106: 7099: 7094: 7086: 7085: 7077: 7071:, p. 93. 7070: 7065: 7058: 7052: 7044: 7042:1-888009-28-4 7038: 7034: 7030: 7024: 7017: 7011: 7003: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6979: 6972: 6967: 6965: 6958:, p. 42. 6957: 6952: 6937:. 16 May 2019 6936: 6935: 6930: 6924: 6917: 6912: 6896: 6892: 6891: 6886: 6880: 6872: 6870:9780486495422 6866: 6862: 6855: 6848: 6844: 6839: 6832: 6826: 6815: 6814: 6806: 6798: 6796:9780226162263 6792: 6788: 6787: 6779: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6762: 6754: 6746: 6740: 6736: 6735: 6727: 6725: 6717: 6716:Wallace 2004b 6712: 6704: 6702:9789401137300 6698: 6694: 6693: 6685: 6677: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6642: 6640: 6633:, p. 27. 6632: 6627: 6619: 6617:9781451647631 6613: 6609: 6608: 6600: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6554: 6552: 6543: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6528: 6523: 6517: 6510: 6503: 6496: 6481: 6480: 6475: 6468: 6461: 6460:Wallace 2004a 6456: 6454: 6452: 6443: 6436: 6421: 6417: 6410: 6408: 6406: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6351: 6345:, p. 41. 6344: 6339: 6337: 6335: 6333: 6331: 6323: 6320: 6316: 6309: 6307:0-684-10114-9 6303: 6299: 6298: 6290: 6283: 6278: 6276:9780415124119 6272: 6268: 6261: 6253: 6251:9780691165851 6247: 6243: 6242: 6234: 6226: 6225: 6217: 6208: 6200: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6176: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6133: 6118: 6112: 6108: 6107: 6099: 6088: 6087: 6082: 6081:Bháskarácárya 6076: 6068: 6067: 6062: 6058: 6057:Bháskarácárya 6054: 6048: 6040: 6036: 6029: 6023: 6007: 6006: 5999: 5997: 5988: 5982: 5978: 5971: 5963: 5957: 5953: 5946: 5938: 5937: 5929: 5921: 5915: 5911: 5910: 5902: 5887: 5886:www.eoht.info 5883: 5877: 5869: 5865: 5862:(1940). "2". 5861: 5855: 5847: 5841: 5837: 5836: 5828: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5771: 5763: 5757: 5753: 5752: 5744: 5737: 5732: 5726: 5722: 5721: 5713: 5705: 5704: 5696: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5670: 5662: 5651: 5650: 5645: 5638: 5631: 5627: 5621: 5617: 5616: 5608: 5600: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5585: 5577: 5569: 5563: 5559: 5558: 5550: 5534: 5530: 5529: 5522: 5515: 5503: 5497: 5489: 5487:9780198152484 5483: 5479: 5478: 5470: 5462: 5460:9781780221984 5456: 5452: 5451: 5443: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5414: 5399: 5395: 5389: 5387: 5371: 5367: 5360: 5345: 5341: 5334: 5326: 5322: 5321: 5316: 5310: 5303: 5298: 5292: 5289:. Routledge. 5288: 5287: 5279: 5272: 5268: 5262: 5258: 5257: 5249: 5241: 5235: 5231: 5230: 5222: 5214: 5208: 5204: 5203: 5195: 5179: 5175: 5169: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5105: 5103: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5067: 5052: 5046: 5044: 5035: 5029: 5024: 5023: 5017: 5011: 5003: 5001:0-521-33328-8 4997: 4993: 4989: 4984: 4983: 4974: 4967: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4931: 4923: 4922: 4917: 4910: 4902: 4901: 4896: 4889: 4881: 4877: 4872: 4871: 4865: 4859: 4851: 4849:90-04-13228-7 4845: 4841: 4837: 4830: 4828: 4826: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4784:Sayili, Aydin 4779: 4777: 4775: 4770: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4744:string theory 4739: 4730: 4723: 4718: 4711: 4710:James Challis 4706: 4699: 4692: 4685: 4681: 4675: 4666: 4657: 4648: 4641: 4637: 4636:trace fossils 4633: 4628: 4621: 4615: 4608: 4606: 4599: 4592: 4591:Abu'l-Barakat 4588: 4583: 4579: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4549: 4547: 4546:Planck length 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4510: 4500: 4498: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4477:In 2015, the 4476: 4475: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4462: 4459: 4458:Irwin Shapiro 4455: 4451: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4433: 4429: 4426: 4422: 4419: 4418: 4417: 4411: 4408: 4404: 4401: 4400:Kerr solution 4397: 4394: 4390: 4389:event horizon 4386: 4382: 4378: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4358: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4351:metric tensor 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4327:David Hilbert 4324: 4316: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4290: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4263: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4227: 4226: 4225: 4205: 4202: 4198: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4179: 4176: 4172: 4164: 4163: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4117: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4093: 4084: 4083: 4067: 4064: 4061: 4058: 4055: 4052: 4045: 4044: 4043: 4035: 4033: 4008: 4004: 3995: 3984: 3981: 3976: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3950: 3947: 3943: 3933: 3926: 3925: 3924: 3909: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3855: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3828: 3819: 3818: 3802: 3799: 3796: 3793: 3789: 3786: 3783: 3776: 3775: 3774: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3748: 3718: 3715: 3707: 3703: 3696: 3692: 3686: 3681: 3674: 3671: 3664: 3656: 3652: 3643: 3634: 3627: 3626: 3625: 3609: 3605: 3579: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3559: 3555: 3552: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3536: 3529: 3528: 3527: 3525: 3524:d'Alembertian 3508: 3487: 3463: 3460: 3457: 3454: 3447: 3446: 3445: 3430: 3409: 3401: 3391: 3388: 3378: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3357:Based on the 3350: 3348: 3325: 3322: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3298: 3295: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3274: 3271: 3266: 3263: 3259: 3251: 3250: 3249: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3201: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3187: 3182: 3177: 3174: 3165: 3164: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3126: 3125: 3124: 3122: 3118: 3113: 3098: 3077: 3069: 3050: 3047: 3043: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2988: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2961: 2952: 2951: 2935: 2932: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2913: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2903: 2901: 2897: 2887: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2860: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2841:Hermann Bondi 2837: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2780: 2776: 2774: 2770: 2769:string theory 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2725: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2698: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2674: 2664: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2623: 2618: 2613: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2590: 2589:Edmond Halley 2586: 2582: 2578: 2577:Immanuel Kant 2573: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2532: 2513: 2507: 2503: 2500: 2494: 2491: 2488: 2481: 2480: 2479: 2477: 2473: 2454: 2445: 2441: 2432: 2423: 2420: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2397: 2393: 2387: 2383: 2372: 2371: 2370: 2369:particle by: 2368: 2349: 2345: 2342: 2339: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2325: 2313: 2312: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2282: 2263: 2259: 2256: 2253: 2250: 2247: 2239: 2235: 2225: 2221: 2212: 2207: 2192: 2191: 2190: 2175: 2154: 2145: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2118: 2090: 2024: 1981: 1977: 1932: 1877: 1876: 1875: 1871: 1866: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1855: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1841: 1836: 1835:Edmond Halley 1832: 1826: 1809: 1804: 1802: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1770: 1768: 1761: 1757: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1727: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1658: 1652: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1626: 1622: 1612: 1610: 1599: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1587: 1577: 1568: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1555: 1550: 1549: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1524: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1475: 1468: 1450: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1422: 1417: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1388: 1379: 1377: 1373: 1364: 1354: 1353: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1311: 1302: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1291:Codex Arundel 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1260: 1246: 1242: 1229: 1224: 1220: 1214: 1211: 1206: 1203: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1185:Nicole Oresme 1182: 1181:uniform speed 1178: 1171:Nicole Oresme 1169: 1164: 1158: 1148: 1145: 1135: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1110:rejected the 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1084: 1080: 1079: 1074: 1069: 1059: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 981: 972: 969: 965: 960: 956: 952: 948: 947: 942: 938: 934: 931: 922: 912: 908: 901:Islamic world 897: 892: 890: 886: 882: 878: 874: 863: 861: 854: 852: 848: 844: 840: 832: 822: 812: 809: 808: 801: 797: 785:Byzantine era 782: 780: 779: 774: 770: 769: 764: 760: 756: 745: 736: 726: 723: 717: 715: 712: 708: 707: 702: 698: 694: 690: 689: 684: 680: 676: 666: 663: 662:buoyant force 659: 658: 653: 649: 641: 631: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 596: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 556: 552: 548: 538: 536: 532: 528: 527: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 430: 422: 413: 411: 407: 403: 399: 396: 391: 389: 388: 383: 382: 377: 373: 365: 361: 356: 354: 350: 349: 336: 332: 328: 327: 308: 305: 302: 299: 290: 282: 267: 263: 259: 255: 245: 243: 239: 238:string theory 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 198: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 173:modified the 172: 168: 164: 156: 151: 142: 137: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 94: 90: 80: 74: 66: 60: 50: 44: 36: 30: 16: 9597:The Martians 9261:Spectroscopy 9209: 9203:Aerodynamics 9181:Field theory 9013:theories and 8846:Supergravity 8659: 8655: 8517:Introduction 8498: 8426:. Routledge. 8422: 8414:. Routledge. 8410: 8389: 8370: 8364: 8343: 8335: 8314: 8258: 8254: 8243: 8232: 8175: 8170: 8164: 8139: 8135: 8125: 8098: 8092: 8067: 8063: 8041: 8037: 8030:Nordström, G 8024: 8007: 8003: 7990: 7982: 7949: 7945: 7932: 7907: 7903: 7890: 7865: 7861: 7855: 7843:. Retrieved 7839:the original 7834: 7812: 7809: 7793: 7789: 7786:Haber, Heinz 7780: 7751: 7748:EMBO Reports 7747: 7737: 7725:. Retrieved 7721:the original 7716: 7706: 7697: 7693: 7677: 7665:. Retrieved 7645: 7641: 7609: 7594: 7553: 7549: 7539: 7522: 7518: 7512: 7493: 7487: 7472: 7463: 7422: 7418: 7408: 7400: 7392: 7384: 7380: 7369: 7360: 7349: 7329: 7302: 7297: 7278: 7259: 7252: 7217: 7213: 7203: 7162: 7138: 7126: 7117: 7105: 7093: 7083: 7076: 7064: 7056: 7051: 7032: 7023: 7015: 7010: 6987: 6978: 6951: 6939:. Retrieved 6932: 6923: 6911: 6899:. Retrieved 6895:the original 6888: 6879: 6860: 6854: 6846: 6838: 6830: 6825: 6812: 6805: 6785: 6778: 6760: 6753: 6733: 6711: 6691: 6684: 6651: 6647: 6626: 6606: 6599: 6587:. Retrieved 6567: 6563: 6526: 6516: 6505: 6501: 6495: 6483:. Retrieved 6479:Ars Technica 6477: 6467: 6441: 6435: 6423:. Retrieved 6419: 6396:Academia.edu 6394:– via 6367: 6363: 6350: 6321: 6318: 6295: 6289: 6280: 6266: 6260: 6240: 6233: 6223: 6216: 6207: 6184: 6175: 6142: 6138: 6132: 6120:. Retrieved 6105: 6098: 6085: 6075: 6065: 6053:Áryabhat́t́a 6047: 6027: 6022: 6010:. Retrieved 6004: 5976: 5970: 5951: 5945: 5935: 5928: 5908: 5901: 5889:. Retrieved 5885: 5876: 5863: 5854: 5834: 5827: 5784: 5780: 5770: 5750: 5743: 5734: 5719: 5712: 5702: 5695: 5686: 5682: 5669: 5659:– via 5653:. Retrieved 5647: 5637: 5629: 5614: 5607: 5583: 5576: 5556: 5549: 5537:. Retrieved 5533:Heath, T. L. 5527: 5521: 5513: 5506:. Retrieved 5496: 5476: 5469: 5449: 5442: 5430:. Retrieved 5426: 5413: 5401:. Retrieved 5397: 5374:, retrieved 5369: 5359: 5347:. Retrieved 5343: 5333: 5324: 5318: 5309: 5300: 5285: 5278: 5270: 5255: 5248: 5228: 5221: 5201: 5194: 5182:. Retrieved 5177: 5168: 5156:. Retrieved 5121:(1): 23–40. 5118: 5114: 5079:(1): 60–84. 5076: 5072: 5066: 5054:. Retrieved 5021: 5010: 4981: 4973: 4964: 4944: 4940: 4930: 4919: 4909: 4898: 4888: 4874:. New York: 4869: 4858: 4835: 4791: 4787: 4738: 4729: 4717: 4705: 4691: 4680:Pierre Duhem 4674: 4665: 4656: 4647: 4627: 4614: 4603: 4598: 4582: 4558:Anti-gravity 4512: 4497:neutron star 4494: 4415: 4407:cosmological 4355: 4339:simultaneous 4319: 4312: 4264: 4261: 4223: 4041: 4029: 3901: 3764: 3740: 3596: 3479: 3397: 3384: 3369:(1908), and 3356: 3344: 3247: 3114: 3034: 2904: 2893: 2861: 2838: 2827: 2799:Edwin Hubble 2785: 2726: 2699: 2676: 2649:Maurice Lévy 2626: 2614: 2574: 2567:in 1763, by 2556: 2554: 2550:his own book 2535: 2530: 2528: 2475: 2471: 2470:At distance 2469: 2367:free-falling 2364: 2278: 2146: 2110: 1873: 1868: 1858: 1852: 1838: 1828: 1806: 1800: 1798: 1788: 1766: 1763: 1759: 1728: 1692:Robert Hooke 1660: 1628: 1606: 1596: 1584: 1582: 1546: 1544: 1539: 1535: 1532: 1522: 1510: 1480: 1447: 1430:Simon Stevin 1427: 1424:Simon Stevin 1410:Simon Stevin 1399: 1393: 1369: 1348: 1345:of gravity: 1331:its rotation 1321:had written 1316: 1275:metaphysical 1265: 1243: 1193: 1174: 1143: 1141: 1119: 1096:Jean Buridan 1093: 1076: 1063:14th century 1042:Shlomo Pines 1037: 1033: 1023: 986: 963: 958: 954: 944: 927: 894: 884: 870: 859: 856: 837: 806: 793: 776: 766: 741: 719: 704: 686: 672: 655: 637: 616:heliocentric 597: 559: 544: 524: 488: 468: 435: 412:was formed. 393:The ancient 392: 385: 379: 357: 346: 324: 298:pre-Socratic 295: 262:Epicureanism 214:Isaac Newton 199: 187:Jean Buridan 138: 86: 65:Isaac Newton 15: 9521:Higgs boson 8815:Causal sets 8709:Brans–Dicke 8527:Mathematics 8070:(13): 533. 7667:3 September 7374:(in Latin). 7325:Druyan, Ann 7321:Sagan, Carl 7159:Zenneck, J. 6992:Crew, Henry 6589:16 February 6485:11 February 5864:Tetrabiblos 5802:2066/219256 5736:gravitation 5539:13 November 5376:11 February 5349:26 February 5327:: 85. 2015. 5320:Philosophia 4698:Merton rule 4622:below them. 4472:PSR 1913+16 4385:geometrized 3387:Max Abraham 3385:Meanwhile, 2857:singularity 2834:dark matter 2823:dark energy 2797:. However, 2761:Oskar Klein 2702:Lord Kelvin 2657:Paul Gerber 2647:. In 1890, 1702:(1690) and 1671:curvilinear 1513:Paolo Sarpi 1442:Nieuwe Kerk 885:Golādhyāyah 881:Bhāskarā II 847:astronomers 839:Brahmagupta 826:Brahmagupta 796:Alexandrian 778:Tetrabiblos 722:quicksilver 628:tidal range 618:cosmology. 610:around the 521:final cause 517:prime mover 509:fixed stars 183:Brahmagupta 167:Alexandrian 102:Middle Ages 93:gravitation 9706:Categories 9542:By periods 9360:Geophysics 9332:Cosmology 9029:CGHS model 9016:toy models 8268:1710.05833 8261:(2): L12. 8185:1602.03837 7952:(7): 443. 7754:(3): 236. 7727:16 October 7700:: 559–574. 7479:"Voltaire" 7366:Newton, I. 7120:: 205–282. 6420:New Advent 6145:(2): 141. 5158:8 November 4878:. p. 4678:Physicist 4569:References 4445:, and the 4374:black hole 4343:non-linear 4281:fabric of 2803:Paul Dirac 2789:include a 2741:his theory 2671:See also: 2667:Modern era 2579:published 2308:divergence 2279:Using the 1823:See also: 1655:See also: 1619:See also: 1404:kinematics 1376:Luca Ghini 1366:Luca Ghini 1323:an outline 1299:hypotenuse 1161:See also: 1056:See also: 1038:mayl qasri 1001:Al-Khazini 905:See also: 877:astronomer 819:See also: 640:Archimedes 634:Archimedes 593:Democritus 585:Epicureans 577:resistance 551:mechanical 473:geocentric 448:without a 364:Empedocles 360:cosmogonic 335:Anaxagoras 314: 535 307:Heraclitus 284:Heraclitus 252:See also: 204:put forth 9585:By groups 9569:Astronomy 9405:Molecules 9239:Mechanics 9154:Astronomy 9034:RST model 8820:DGP model 8797:Spin foam 8741:Whitehead 8733:Nordström 8662:) gravity 8612:Classical 8586:Paradigms 8537:Resources 8295:217162243 8218:124959784 8117:646798828 7586:123592786 7578:0080-4614 7455:121166354 7439:0021-1753 7244:125953814 7189:cite book 6890:The Hindu 6676:145152521 6584:254299572 6570:: 21–27. 6392:0039-3681 6189:Routledge 6167:250809354 6059:(1150) . 6039:607846741 5819:219925047 5811:0021-1753 5655:20 August 5432:27 August 5403:27 August 5184:23 August 5145:2053-4477 5128:1312.4057 5018:(2011) . 4961:2786-2984 4947:: 11–28. 4766:Citations 4605:Al-Biruni 4574:Footnotes 4530:gravitons 4283:spacetime 4277:into the 4239:∝ 4206:ν 4203:μ 4199:η 4189:ψ 4180:ν 4177:μ 4146:ν 4132:μ 4118:ν 4115:μ 4056:∫ 4053:δ 4009:μ 4001:∂ 3996:ψ 3993:∂ 3985:ψ 3966:ν 3958:∂ 3951:ν 3948:μ 3940:∂ 3934:− 3910:ψ 3884:ν 3870:μ 3856:ν 3853:μ 3849:η 3845:− 3832:τ 3797:τ 3790:ψ 3787:∫ 3784:δ 3719:˙ 3716:φ 3697:μ 3682:μ 3675:˙ 3657:μ 3649:∂ 3644:φ 3641:∂ 3635:− 3565:φ 3556:⁡ 3509:◻ 3488:ρ 3464:ρ 3458:φ 3455:◻ 3431:φ 3326:τ 3316:ν 3299:τ 3289:μ 3275:ρ 3267:ν 3264:μ 3230:ν 3216:μ 3202:ν 3199:μ 3191:− 3178:τ 3143:τ 3137:∫ 3134:δ 3099:ν 3078:μ 3051:ν 3048:μ 3044:η 3017:ν 3003:μ 2989:ν 2986:μ 2982:η 2978:− 2965:τ 2930:τ 2924:∫ 2921:δ 2839:In 1957, 2828:In 1922, 2807:Alan Guth 2751:observed 2677:In 1900, 2531:Principia 2495:− 2489:φ 2438:∂ 2433:φ 2430:∂ 2424:− 2346:ρ 2340:π 2331:φ 2322:∇ 2290:∇ 2260:ρ 2254:π 2232:∂ 2218:∂ 2213:φ 2204:∂ 2176:φ 2155:ρ 2144:in 1797. 2119:∝ 1982:× 1933:∝ 1801:Principia 1661:In 1644, 1501:Aristotle 1394:In 1551, 1317:By 1514, 1128:free fall 1083:antipodes 1032:. In his 989:Al-Biruni 983:Al-Biruni 975:Al-Biruni 701:Vitruvius 693:Lucretius 569:free fall 507:near the 424:Aristotle 416:Aristotle 398:Leucippus 292:Leucippus 248:Antiquity 195:free fall 177:with the 155:Vitruvius 141:Aristotle 35:Aristotle 9691:Category 9516:timeline 9503:Graphene 9465:timeline 9434:timeline 9422:timeline 9395:timeline 9336:timeline 9321:timeline 9311:timeline 9273:timeline 9244:timeline 9227:timeline 9215:timeline 9198:timeline 9171:timeline 9159:timeline 9137:timeline 9091:Graviton 8901:F-theory 8894:M-theory 8470:Standard 8319:. 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History of gravitational theory

Index