History of the People's Republic of China (1976–1989)

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Xiaoping was moving too far in dismantling Mao's legacy and allowing greater freedom of expression. The largest number of them were in the military, which complained about having its budget cut from 10% of China's total GDP in 1978 to 5% by 1982. Several weapons projects that had been in the works during the '70s were dropped due to being too expensive and unnecessary and generals also objected at being asked to produce consumer goods (a common practice in the Soviet Union) instead of receiving badly needed defense modernization. Deng stressed the need for military obedience to party directives, reminding them of Mao's dictum that "The party must control the gun, but the gun must never be allowed to control the party." A higher degree of professionalism was emphasized in the PLA during the 1980s and the system of ranks that had been abolished in 1965 was slowly restored. On

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again put on the table. Deng had insisted on supporting all of Hua's policies in one of the letters the two men exchanged, to which Hua responded that Deng had "made mistakes, and rightfully must continue to receive criticism." The arrest of the Gang of Four, Hua said, did not justify that Deng's "revisionist" ideas should resurface. During a Politburo meeting in March 1977, many members voiced support for Deng's return, to no avail. In a letter to Hua dated April 10, Deng Xiaoping wrote, "I am fully behind Chairman Hua's policies and agenda for the country." This letter would be openly discussed in the Politburo, and in July 1977, Deng Xiaoping was restored in his former posts. In August, the 11th Party Congress was held, which again rehabilitated Deng and confirmed his election as the new Committee Vice-chairman, and the

1768:", meaning that "Whatever Chairman Mao said, we will say, and whatever Chairman Mao did, we will do." Throughout 1977–78, policy efforts centered around economic recovery. Schools began to reopen, and the more extreme aspects of Mao's personality cult were toned down. It was now being said that he was a great leader and thinker, but not an infallible god and that the revolution had been the work of many people and not just him. The Cultural Revolution was said to have been a well-meaning idea that got out of control, and Hua declared that a second Cultural Revolution might be necessary in a few years. Beginning in April 1978, newspapers stopped printing Mao's quotations in bold text. Nuclear weapons testing, missile, and space launches continued apace. 1010: 2962:. The government had already enacted an aggressive family planning policy and fertility rates were already dropping sharply. Simultaneously there were major market-oriented economic reforms, which launched very rapid growth and migration to cities, which also reduced fertility. The policy was highly controversial in rural areas (where children were an asset in farm work) and interfered with the strong demand for sons. It helped solve the problem of famine, but by 2010 was leading to a major demographic disaster, with too many old retired people supported by too few workers. China returned to a two-child policy in 2015, then to a three-child policy in 2021, and finally abolished any limit later that year. Controversies are ongoing. 301: 2190:") criticizing the Cultural Revolution, Mao Zedong, the Gang of Four, and Hua Guofeng. All these were tolerated because of being more-or-less in line with official positions, but some began calling for democracy and open elections. One candidate for a local position even declared his disbelief in communism. This was more than the authorities were willing to tolerate and they quickly stressed that the party would continue to hold power and guide the nation towards socialism. While greater freedom of thought would be allowed, loyalty to the party and socialist thought would still be required. Certain critics were arrested, including 2916:). The editorial was the first in a series of events in an effort to contain the escalating protests through forceful measures. Thereafter, Deng's actions caused the presidency to have much greater power than originally intended. Various leaders sympathetic to the students, most notably Wan Li, then the NPC Chairman with a degree of constitutional powers to prevent full military action, were placed under house arrest after landing in Beijing. Wan's seclusion ensured that Premier Li Peng was able, in cooperation with Deng, then-head of the Central Military Commission, to use the office of the Premier to declare 287: 2472:

as comprising steady harassment by artillery fire, intrusions on land by infantry patrols, naval intrusions, and mine planting both at sea and in the riverways. Chinese clandestine activity (the "sabotage" aspect) for the most part was directed against the ethnic minorities of the border region. According to the Hanoi press, teams of Chinese agents systematically sabotaged mountain agricultural production centers as well as lowland port, transportation, and communication facilities. Psychological warfare operations were an integral part of the campaign, as was what the Vietnamese called "

1611: 965: 940: 1844:, having seen enough of this sort of thing in China with Mao and also took umbrage at being expected to lay a wreath in front of the giant gold-plated statue of Kim in Pyongyang. Deng reportedly expressed his displeasure at how the aid money given to North Korea by China over the years was being spent on statues and monuments honoring Kim. He suggested that they might be better served using that aid to improve their people's living standards. The North Koreans appeared to have gotten the message, for the gold plating was quietly scraped off the Kim statue in Pyongyang afterwards. 349: 2159:, adopted by the Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. This stated that "Comrade Mao Zedong was a great Marxist and a great proletarian revolutionary, strategist and theorist. It is true that he made gross mistakes during the "cultural revolution", but, if we judge his activities as a whole, his contributions to the Chinese revolution far outweigh his mistakes. His merits are primary and his errors secondary." As political ideology was downgraded, numerous statues of Mao were removed around the country and portraits of 2877:

opening to call for greater centralization of economic controls and stricter prohibitions against Western influence. This precipitated a political debate, which grew more heated through the winter of 1988–1989. With demands for political reforms growing, Deng Xiaoping merely reiterated that the Communist Party was necessary to provide stable leadership and economic development and that "China is not ready for democracy. If we were to hold elections tomorrow, the country would be plunged into a civil war."

1899:, and the fact that the army had no system of ranks. Even worse was the fact that the Chinese had not even engaged Vietnam's regular army (which was in Cambodia), but instead fought militia and home guard units. On the other hand, it was a political victory since the Soviet Union had failed to come to its ally's aid and contented itself with verbal protests. In reference to Moscow's inaction, Deng Xiaoping reiterated Mao Zedong's saying that "You can't know how the tiger will react until you poke its backside." 2460:, and Soviet reconnaissance aircraft operated out of Vietnamese airfields. The Vietnamese responded to the Chinese campaign by turning the districts along the China border into "iron fortresses" manned by well-equipped and well-trained paramilitary troops. In all, an estimated 600,000 troops were assigned to counter Chinese operations and to stand ready for another Chinese invasion. The precise dimensions of the frontier operations were difficult to determine, but its monetary cost to Vietnam was considerable. 2546:

public statements that were at odds with official policy). On the state level, Sino-Soviet relations did improve during the 1980s. Trade and cultural exchanges grew substantially, but there was no indication of improved ties on the party level and no sign that the CCP was willing to treat the CPSU as an equal. Nagging foreign policy problems remained such as the presence of Soviet troops and nuclear missiles in Mongolia, as well as continued Soviet support for Vietnam and its occupation of Cambodia.

2342:" or "Nationalist China", and saw great prevalence in the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s. Starting around 1972–1973, following Richard Nixon's visit to China and the beginning of rapprochement and mounting likelihood of diplomatic normalization, the term began to drop in usage significantly. By the early 1980s, it was increasingly rare in mainstream journalism and publications in the Western countries. Since the early 1980s, however, the term remains in use in some circles, particularly 2676:

were to be used to motivate the labor force, including allowing peasants to earn extra income by selling the produce of their private plots on the free market. In the main move toward market allocation, local municipalities and provinces were allowed to invest in industries that they considered most profitable, which encouraged investment in light manufacturing. Thus, Deng's reforms shifted China's development strategy to emphasize light industry and export-led growth.

2212: 2865:. The new leadership of the Central Committee averaged 5.5 years younger, and more than 70% were college educated. However, even with the retirement of the aged Long March veterans, they still retained considerable political pull behind the scenes, and one complaint of the student demonstrators in 1989 was the continued political influence exerted by party officials who were supposed to be retired. It was speculated that the appointment of 1817:) and referred to by Mao as being " obsolete" by 1958, and the short-lived 1975 "Gang of Four" constitution. The new one was patterned after the 1954 constitution and attempted to restore some rule of law and mechanisms for economic planning. In regards to the latter, Hua Guofeng wanted a return to the Soviet-style economics of the mid-1950s. He drew up a ten-year plan which emphasized heavy industry, energy, and capital construction. 123: 2406:, and spurning of Beijing's attempt to repatriate Chinese residents of Vietnam to China. In February 1979 China attacked along virtually the entire Sino-Vietnamese border in a brief, limited campaign that involved ground forces only. The Chinese attack came at dawn on the morning of 17 February 1979, and employed infantry, armor, and artillery. Air power was not employed then or at any time during the war. Within a day, the 24: 2468:, across from Vietnam, thereby demonstrating that a future attack might come from the sea. Low-level conflict continued along the Sino-Vietnamese border as each side conducted artillery shelling and probed to gain high spots in the mountainous border terrain. Border incidents increased in intensity during the rainy season, when Beijing attempted to ease Vietnamese pressure against Cambodian resistance fighters. 2688:. The capital invested in heavy industry largely came from the banking system, and most of that capital came from consumer deposits. One of the first items of the Deng reforms was to prevent reallocation of profits except through taxation or through the banking system; hence, the reallocation in more "advanced" industries was somewhat indirect. In short, Deng's reforms sparked an industrial revolution in China. 2073:

done anything more than follow Mao's orders, saying "I was his dog. Whoever he told me to bite, I bit." and daring the authorities to cut off her head. The others were given life in prison, but Jiang was sentenced to death. However, Mao's memory still lingered strong, and her sentence was later commuted to life. She hanged herself in a Beijing hospital in 1991 while undergoing treatment for throat cancer.

65: 2731:. These have been launched periodically up to the present day and are typically accompanied by the liberal use of capital punishment and occasionally even mass executions. This stands in contrast to the Mao era, where executions were relatively rare after the CCP's consolidation of power during 1950-52 and criminals were generally punished with labor reform and political reeducation. 2480:

are allowed to discuss their experiences on the Internet and correspond with their Vietnamese counterparts. On the other hand, a group of Chinese college students in 2007 discussed online plans for an invasion and conquest of Vietnam. This provoked considerable alarm in Hanoi, but the Chinese government stated that these were in no way officially sanctioned.

2798:" was launched. Pornography and unacceptable writings were confiscated, people with Western hairstyles were forced to cut their hair, and army units were required to sing "Socialism is Good", a venerable tune that had been banned during the Cultural Revolution for "keeping the people too quiet." However, Deng Xiaoping rather quickly halted the campaign. 2526:, and the presence of American troops in South Korea. By 1984, Sino-US relations had improved and President Reagan visited Beijing in April–May of that year. The trip went well, although a speech made by Reagan that promoted capitalism, democracy, and religious freedom, as well as indirect criticism of the Soviet Union, was not aired on TV in China. 2620:. These parades had been held every year during the 1950s, then called off due to cost reasons. The 1984 event however showed the relative backwardness of China's armed forces, which had only recently reached the technological level of the Soviet Union 25 years earlier. In 1985, Yeh Jianyang and several other elderly party leaders agreed to retire. 2351:

early 2000s, "Red China" still retains some use among more right-wing writers, especially when framing China as an economic or political competitor or opponent (e.g. the "China threat" theory). "Red China" is sometimes used in more mainstream/less overtly partisan journalism for metaphoric or comparative use (e.g. "Red China or Green",

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socialism did not mean shared poverty (thus repudiating the Gang of Four's slogan "We would rather be poor under socialism than rich under capitalism.") Unlike Hua Guofeng, Deng believed that no policy should be rejected out of hand simply because it had not been associated with Mao. Unlike more conservative leaders such as

2569:. These tenets aimed at expanding rural income and incentives, encouraging experiments in enterprise autonomy, reducing central planning, and establishing direct foreign investment in Mainland China. The Plenum also decided to accelerate the pace of legal reform, culminating in the passage of several new legal codes by the 2096:

Hua was replaced by Zhao Ziyang as Premier of the State Council in September 1980, and by Hu Yaobang as Party General Secretary of the party in September 1982. The post of chairman was abolished to ensure that no one person could ever dominate the party as Mao Zedong had done. Until the mid-1990s, Deng Xiaoping was China's

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and 1978 constitutions. The last remaining references to the Cultural Revolution were also removed. Instead, the 1982 constitution stated that the "exploiter" class had been eliminated in China and so class struggle was no longer a relevant issue. Personality cults were also officially denounced at the 12th Congress.

2198:", i.e. democracy. Nonetheless, writers began criticizing corruption, privileges enjoyed by party officials, and unemployment, all things that supposedly could not exist under socialism. It was now officially admitted that 20 million Chinese were unemployed and 100 million did not have enough food to eat. 1980:. Hua was quickly seen as being nothing more than a vacuous party hack with no ideas of his own. This was reflected in the 1978 constitution, which still contained references to proletarian internationalism and continuous revolution. As Vice-Premier in charge of Technology and Education, Deng restored the 2869:, a known political hardliner, as premier was a concession to Deng Xiaoping's opponents. The major policy declaration of the 13th Congress was formal endorsement of "market" socialism and that it was necessary to "adapt the principles of socialism to fit reality rather than bend reality to fit ideology." 2935:

After the protests, the Chinese government faced hordes of criticism from foreign governments for the suppression of the protests, the government reined in remaining sources of dissent that were a threat to order and stability, detained large numbers of protesters, and required political re-education

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After Zhao became the party General Secretary, the economic and political reforms he had championed came under increasing attack from his colleagues. His proposal in May 1988 to accelerate price reform led to widespread popular complaints about rampant inflation and gave opponents of rapid reform the

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with Taiwan stressed. Most importantly, another new constitution was adopted in place of the 1978 document. This version (which remains China's constitution to the present day) emphasized foreign assistance in modernizing and developing the country, thus rejecting the Maoist self-reliance of the 1975

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Despite the freshness of Deng's ideas, in truth his ideas were not really new, but merely an effort to restore China to the situation of the mid-1960s, right before the Cultural Revolution, and in any case, the Politburo continued to be a gerontocracy dominated by men born in the opening years of the

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and subsequent factional fighting had left the country much poorer, weaker, and isolated than it had been in 1965. Scores of capable party officials, bureaucrats, intellectuals, and professionals were languishing in prison or laboring in factories, mines, and fields. Many schools had been closed, and

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In December 1986, student demonstrators, taking advantage of the loosening political atmosphere, staged protests against the slow pace of reform, confirming party elders' fears that the current reform program was leading to a kind of social instability, the same kind that killed hundreds of millions

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Another important focus of the reforms was the need to improve labor productivity. New material incentives and bonus systems were introduced. Rural markets selling peasants' homegrown products and the surplus products of communes were revived. Not only did rural markets increase agricultural output,

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and referred to Brezhnev as an "outstanding champion of world peace". He also expressed his hope for normalized Sino-Soviet relations, but in doing so apparently moved too quickly for the Beijing government, as he was removed from office almost as soon as he returned home (he had a history of making

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Since the early 1980s, China pursued what some observers described as a semi-secret campaign against Vietnam that was more than a series of border incidents and less than a limited small-scale war. The Vietnamese called it a "multifaceted war of sabotage." Hanoi officials have described the assaults

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argued that "one of the primary diplomatic goals behind China's attack was to expose Soviet assurances of military support to Vietnam as a fraud. Seen in this light, Beijing's policy was actually a diplomatic success, since Moscow did not actively intervene, thus showing the practical limitations of

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system and would allow the locals a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years. This "one country, two systems" approach has been touted by the PRC government as a potential framework within which Taiwan could be reunited with the mainland. Deng, however, did not improve relations with the Soviet

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Meanwhile, the Gang of Four went on trial in 1980 on charges of counterrevolution, attempting to overthrow the state, and plotting to assassinate Mao. Only Jiang Qing tried to defend herself, repeatedly interrupting the proceedings with hysterical outbursts and sobbing. She argued that she had never

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in May 1980, when the country was asked to mourn the former president eleven years after his death. During this time, the CCP also established rules for an orderly succession of state and government leaders. Deng Xiaoping proposed mandatory retirement ages despite some protests from party elders and

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In April, Deng began the political rehabilitation of those who were formerly labeled "rightists" and counter-revolutionaries, a campaign led by Hu Yaobang that pardoned the wrongly accused, restoring the reputation of many party elders and intellectuals who were purged during the Cultural Revolution

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to nearly a generation of youth who lacked this opportunity because of the Cultural Revolution, with 680,000 passing the first entrance exams, though some remained cut off from education. He elevated the social status of intellectuals from the lows of the Cultural Revolution to becoming an "integral

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during 1975, provoking the hostility of the Soviet-backed Vietnamese government. In January 1979, Vietnam invaded Cambodia and drove the Khmer Rouge from power. During his U.S. visit, Deng Xiaoping remarked that Vietnam would have to "be taught a lesson". In February, a full-scale Chinese attack was

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Martial law was declared on May 20, 1989. Late on June 3 and early on the morning of June 4, a date now synonymous with the movement in the Chinese language, military units were called from neighboring provinces and brought into Beijing. Armed force was used to clear demonstrators from the streets.

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like never before, and has since then never been seen again. Two prominent schools of thought emerged. One school composed of students and intellectuals who urged greater economic and political reforms; the other, composed of revolutionary party elders, became increasingly skeptical on the pace and

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Contrary to popular misconceptions, Deng's reforms included introduction of planned, centralized management of the macro-economy by technically proficient bureaucrats, abandoning Mao's mass campaign style of economic construction. However, unlike the Soviet model or China under Mao, this management

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In recent years, both countries have pursued good relations and downplayed the years of hostility from 1979 to 1988. As a result, the Sino-Vietnamese conflict is generally not on the list of topics that may be openly mentioned in print or the media in present-day China, although veterans of the war

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of the Party, who were meant to be two separate people. In the original plan, the Party would develop policy, and the state would execute it. Deng's intentions were to have power divided, thus preventing a cult of personality from forming as it did in the case of Mao. The new emphasis on procedure,

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It also instituted sweeping personnel changes, culminating in the elevation of two key supporters of Deng Xiaoping and the reform program, Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang. In contrast to previous leadership changes, Hua would resign his posts one by one, although he remained on the Politburo until 1982.

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In late 1976 and early 1977, the state propaganda machine was working overtime to promote Hua Guofeng. He was billed as being Mao's personally appointed successor (with paintings produced showing him receiving Mao's final blessings) and as having saved China from the Gang of Four. Hua tried to fill

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The death of Hu Yaobang on April 15, 1989, coupled with growing economic hardship caused by high inflation and other social factors, provided the backdrop for a large-scale protest movement by students, intellectuals, and other parts of a disaffected urban population. University students and other

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Although Deng provided the theoretical background and the political support to allow economic reform to occur, few of the economic reforms that Deng introduced were originated by Deng himself. Local leaders, often in violation of central government directives introduced many reforms. If successful

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level. Deng sustained Mao's legacy to the extent that he stressed the primacy of agricultural output and encouraged a significant decentralization of decision-making in the rural economy teams and individual peasant households. At the local level, material incentives rather than political appeals

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reduced the role of ideology in economic decision-making and emphasized policies that had been proven to be empirically effective, stressing the need to "seek truth from facts". Rejecting Mao's idealistic, communitarian values but not necessarily the values of Marx and Lenin, Deng emphasized that

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newspaper published an article, inspected by Deng's supporter Hu Yaobang, titled "Practice sets the only Standard to Examine Truth". The article stressed the importance of uniting theory and practice, denounced the dogmatic euphoria of the Mao era, and was, in fact, an outright criticism on Hua's

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Hard-liners in the party and especially the military stated that "art and literature must serve politics", while moderates were willing to tolerate apolitical material. Nonetheless, writers and artists were still told that their primary job was to "educate the people to believe in socialism". As

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Light industrial output was vital for a developing country that was working with relatively little capital. With its short gestation period, low capital requirements, and high foreign exchange export earnings, the revenues that the light-manufacturing sector generated could be reinvested in more

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who believed in orthodox central planning, and socio-political conformity. This group generally wanted to return to the ways of the 1950s and restore ties with the Soviet Union, believing that the communist world was China's natural friend. In particular, many of the Stalinists thought that Deng

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political discourse and publications; nonetheless, some, including some conservatives, feel the term is not applicable to China in the contemporary period as the country is no longer a "monolithic political entity whose subjects march in lockstep with an all-powerful Communist regime". As of the

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Hua's unimaginative policies received relatively little support, and he was regarded as an unremarkable leader, lacking political support within the Politburo. At the time Deng Xiaoping was still living in seclusion because of "political mistakes," and the issue of his return to politics was yet

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came to the helm to reform the Chinese economy and government institutions in their entirety. Deng, however, was conservative with regard to wide-ranging political reform, and along with the combination of unforeseen problems that resulted from the economic reform policies, the country underwent

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high command henceforth had to assume, for planning purposes, that the Chinese might come again and might not halt in the foothills but might drive on to Hanoi. The border war strengthened Soviet-Vietnamese relations. The Soviet military role in Vietnam increased during the 1980s as the Soviets

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when the latter had ended Stalin's terror state and established the practice of using more peaceful methods to dispose of his political rivals. To that end, CCP figures such as Hua Guofeng were merely demoted to unimportant posts, but otherwise retained their party membership and state pension.

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Although Hua continued in his leadership role, his power began waning the moment Deng Xiaoping returned to Beijing. The two continued to co-rule for a time, but the latter was rapidly gaining power. With Mao and Zhou Enlai gone, there was no one else in China with his experience and leadership

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policy. This article was reprinted in many newspapers across the country, and echoed widespread support amongst party organs and the general populace. Discussions sprung up nationwide in government and military organizations, and Deng's novel and pragmatic stance gained increasing popularity.

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and building an ideal socialist nation, as opposed to the wartime patriotism reflected by the original lyrics. However, Hua faced difficulty legitimizing his power due to continuing factional struggle and the fact that his rule was not legitimized by the NPC until his prior promotion to party

2849:. Hu Yaobang, a protégé of Deng and a leading advocate of reform, was blamed for the protests and forced to resign as the CCP General Secretary in January 1987. In the "Anti Bourgeois Liberalization Campaign", Hu would be further denounced. Premier Zhao Ziyang was made General Secretary and 2148:

After 1979, the Chinese leadership moved toward more pragmatic policies in almost all fields. The party encouraged artists, writers and journalists to adopt more critical approaches, although open attacks on party authority were not permitted. The Chinese government repudiated the Cultural

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The goals of Deng's reforms were summed up by the Four Modernizations: the modernization of agriculture, industry, science and technology, as well as the military. The strategy for achieving these aims, all of which were designed to help China become a modern, industrial nation, was

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In general however, China's foreign policy pronouncements were much more restrained than in the Mao era, and Beijing stated that its aim was now world peace rather than world revolution. Relations with the Soviet Union at last began to show some improvement and Foreign Minister

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Despite this, Sino-US relations took a downward turn in 1981–1982. The Chinese took umbrage at Reagan's vocal anti-communism, even though it was mainly directed at the Soviet Union, as well as continued US arms sales to Taiwan. In December 1981, Premier Zhao Ziyang visited

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However, these changes were not managed without overcoming opposition in the party, bureaucracy, and military. There were still a few extremist followers of the Gang of Four, but not many and efforts were made to weed them from the party. There did exist a large number of

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such, the party took a stand against certain Western ideas and philosophies, as well as abstract theories of human nature. Highly personal poetry and discussions of the subconscious were viewed as representing an "unhealthy" tendency. Officials also took a stand against

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The ten-year plan drafted by Hua Guofeng in 1978 was quickly abandoned on the grounds that China had neither the budget or the technical expertise to carry it out. Instead, a more modest five-year plan was adopted that emphasized light industry and consumer production.

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citizens in Beijing camped out at Tiananmen Square to mourn Hu's death and to protest against those who would slow reform. Their protests, which grew despite government efforts to contain them, although not strictly anti-Government in nature, called for an end to

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China's establishment of diplomatic ties with the United States brought about a mixed reaction from the communist world similar to Richard Nixon's 1972 visit. While the Soviets could not condemn this, they were deeply worried about Sino-US collusion against them.

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which was compatible with official viewpoints in that it presented the communist founding father as a mortal man who lived in a different age and whose theories could not provide the answers for all of China's present-day problems. On the other hand, the writer

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and the West. By participating in such export-led growth, the PRC was able to step up the Four Modernizations by taking advantage of foreign funds, markets, advanced technologies, and management experience. Deng also attracted foreign companies to a series of

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was elected US president in 1980, he gave a speech criticizing the Beijing government and proposing that diplomatic ties with Taiwan be restored. This aroused panic in China, and Reagan was convinced by his advisors to retract these statements. Vice President

2430:, concluded that China's 1979 war against Vietnam was a complete failure: "China failed to force a Vietnamese withdrawal from , failed to end border clashes, failed to cast doubt on the strength of the Soviet power, failed to dispel the image of China as a 2720:'s economic policies, in that they all foresaw a role for private entrepreneurs and markets based on trade and pricing rather than government mandates of production. An interesting anecdotal episode on this note is the first meeting between Deng and 2636:, Deng did not object to policies on the grounds that they were similar to those found in capitalist nations. He merely stated that these ideas were part of the common heritage of mankind and not specifically tied to either capitalism or socialism. 2463:

By 1987, China had stationed nine armies (approximately 400,000 troops) in the Sino-Vietnamese border region, including one along the coast. It had also increased its landing craft fleet and was periodically staging amphibious landing exercises off

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Revolution. A major document presented at the September 1979 Fourth Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committee, gave a "preliminary assessment" of the entire 30-year period of Communist rule. At the plenum, party Vice Chairman

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lost over 20,000 men due to weapons and equipment that were outdated, poorly made, and in short supply (a side effect of the disruption caused by the Cultural Revolution), maps that were decades old, the continued use of human-wave tactics from the

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and several generals warned him about this, saying that he'd better do something before it was too late. Hua was a bit surprised, but he agreed, and on the 6th or 7 October the Gang were arrested. None of them put up any resistance, although one of

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The new, pragmatic leadership emphasized economic development and renounced mass political movements. At the pivotal Third Plenum of the 11th CCP Congress, completed on 22 December 1978, the leadership adopted economic reform policies known as the

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they stimulated industrial development as well. With peasants able to sell surplus agricultural yields on the open market, domestic consumption stimulated industrialization, and also created political support for more difficult economic reforms.

1724:(CCP), died on September 9, 1976. The CCP, in the wake of his death, officially urged " Chairman Mao's revolutionary line and policies in foreign affairs resolutely." At the time of his death, China was in a political and economic quagmire. The 2410:(PLA) had advanced some eight kilometers into Vietnam along a broad front. It then slowed and nearly stalled because of heavy Vietnamese resistance and difficulties within the Chinese supply system. On February 21, the advance resumed against 2505:

where he attacked the US troop presence on the Korean peninsula and stated that it was responsible for the continued division of the country. There were various minor squabbles such as the granting of asylum to a prominent tennis player,

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These reforms were a reversal of the Maoist policy of autarky and economic self-reliance. The PRC decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade, especially the purchase of machinery from

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and other major cities. The Gang of Four symbolized everything that went wrong during the ten years of chaos of the Cultural Revolution, and their demise, the general populace had expected, would mark the beginning of a new era.

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At the 13th Party Congress of the CCP in October–November 1987, Deng Xiaoping and remaining Party elders formally stepped down from power. This included a number of hard-liner Maoists who had resisted Deng's policies, including

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As a further move away from the past, in 1988 the party decided that portraits of Marx, Engels, Lenin, and Stalin would no longer be displayed in Tiananmen Square on national holidays, only portraits of Mao and Sun Yat-sen.

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welcomed the thaw as "a contribution of peaceful coexistence between nations". North Korea also congratulated "our brotherly neighbor for ending long-hostile relations and establishing diplomatic ties with the US" while

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Hanoi's post-incursion depiction of the border war was that Beijing had sustained a military setback if not an outright defeat. Most observers doubted that China would risk another war with Vietnam in the near future.

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not only for students but also for insubordinate party cadre and government officials. Zhao Ziyang would be placed under house arrest until his death some 16 years later, and due to the subject still being largely

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technologically advanced production and further capital expenditures and investments. However, these investments were not government-mandated, in sharp contrast to the similar but much less successful reforms in

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and Vietnam." After the war both China and Vietnam reorganized their border defenses. In 1986, China deployed twenty-five to twenty-eight divisions and Vietnam thirty-two divisions along their common border.

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of the Eleventh National Party Congress, a turning point in China's history. The course was laid for the party to move the world's most populous nation toward the ambitious targets of the Four Modernizations.

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improved markedly during Deng's term, although the People's Republic of China had gained a certain degree of recognition from the West in the late Mao era. In 1968, the government of Canadian Prime Minister

717: 1775:

surrounding his own image alongside Mao's, equating his presence to that of Mao, but pinpointing the focus at a nominally separate era. To provide for distinct identity, Hua attempted his own change of the

2061:

also guidelines were put in place that CCP members who lost their posts or were removed from office could not be jailed or subjected to physical harm. In this regard, Deng borrowed much from Soviet leader

1780:

by further simplifying characters. A small number of these Hua-era simplifications continue to be in use informally, as there was no formal sanction of their legitimacy after Hua left office. In 1978, the

140: 37: 348: 3165: 2153:

declared the Cultural Revolution "an appalling catastrophe" and "the most severe setback to socialist cause since ." The Chinese government's condemnation of the Cultural Revolution culminated in the

2004:, a series of advances in various fields aimed at strengthening the country by adapting to modern standards. By then Deng was poised to make a final political move to grab power. On May 11, 1978, the 2024:

was forced to step down as defense minister in 1978 for health reasons and even with the death of several party elders during the 1970s, the average age of the Central Committee was still around 70.

2821:. Houses of worship were permitted to operate with a license and under the condition that they not oppose the party and socialism. This religious settlement remains in China to the present day. 3676: 1764:

his mentor's shoes by, among other things, sporting an identical haircut. He stated that "in order to honor Chairman Mao, we should govern in accordance with his wishes." and proclaimed the "

1639: 4211: 5838: 3840:"Comrade Mao Zedong's Historical Role and Mao Zedong Thought --Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China (abridged)" 2837:

who gave speeches criticizing Deng's go slow policies, students took to protest. The students were also disenchanted with the amount of control the government exerted, citing compulsory

2117:, vacant since 1968. Li was a believer in central planning, and his appointment to this largely ceremonial position was a compromise move to appease conservative elements in the party. 6475: 4491: 3023:, then under British and Portuguese rule, used left-hand traffic except several parts of metro lines (as they do to this day). The majority of the country's trains drive on the left. 2510:, who feared persecution for refusing to join the CCP. China cancelled several educational and cultural exchange programs with the United States as a result of this episode. The US 1890:

launched on the Vietnamese border. Although China withdrew after three weeks and declared its objectives met, the war had not gone well and demonstrated the country's weakness. The

43: 2312:

equally as "hegemonist" as the United States, yet even more threatening to the PRC because of its closer proximity. Deng brought China conflict with Vietnam in 1979, following the

1870: 1813:

On 5 March 1978, a new constitution was adopted. This was the third one used by the PRC, after the original 1954 document, which was scarcely implemented (particularly after the

2291:

in order to maintain unofficial diplomatic, cultural and economic relations with the governing authorities on Taiwan. One of Deng's achievements was the agreement signed by the

1446: 1366: 1729:

an entire generation of young people were unable to obtain an education, coming of age as a "lost generation", finding it harder to be employed and integrate into social life.

3737: 2801:

During the 1980s, religious freedom was restored in China after having been virtually outlawed in 1966–1976. The state restored de facto recognition of five official faiths,

2920:

in Beijing and order the military crackdown of the protests. This was in direct opposition to the wishes of the Party General Secretary Zhao Ziyang and other members of the

2640:

and promising, these reforms would be adopted by larger and larger areas, and ultimately introduced nationally. Many other reforms were influenced by the experiences of the

2971: 368: 187: 2654: 2535: 2186:

as a "completely a revolutionary event", many emboldened people began staging rallies and protests in Beijing. They erected a large number of wall posters (the so-called "

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In 1978, Deng Xiaoping was able to wield political power without necessarily holding any official or formally significant party or government positions at any given time.

159: 6623: 2921: 2765:

emerged. The 1980s saw a surge in intellectual material as the country emerged from the conformity of the Cultural Revolution; the time period between 1982 and 1989 saw

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was to be transferred to the PRC in 1997. With the 99-year lease on the New Territories coming to an end, Deng agreed that the PRC would not interfere with Hong Kong's

1009: 1881:

that they should stop expecting Chinese aid and that the old historical feud between the two countries would erupt again. China also gave its support to the genocidal

1632: 166: 4061: 3556: 2260:

to the People's Republic of China and met with Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai. On February 22, 1973, the United States and the PRC agreed to establish liaison offices.

5731: 4413: 2794:

In late 1983, there appeared to be a brief revival of the Cultural Revolution when, after a speech by Deng Xiaoping condemning "spiritual contamination", the "

173: 6830: 4229:

Late Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping had Taiwan in mind when he designed the "one country, two systems" framework that Xi Jinping praised in Hong Kong on Friday.

2275:

Deng traveled abroad and had a series of amicable meetings with western leaders, traveling to the United States in 1979 to meet President Jimmy Carter at the

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and for the defense of freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution of the People's Republic of China. Protests also spread through many other cities, including

6764: 4282: 1922:, reportedly because it was the first western nation to recognize the PRC, and made a fierce attack on Soviet expansionism and hegemony. Later, he visited 1540: 2853:, a staunch conservative who was unpopular with the masses, formerly Vice Premier and Minister of Electric Power and Water Conservancy, was made Premier. 2279:. Carter finally recognized the People's Republic, which had replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China as the sole Chinese government recognized by the 155: 5878: 2387:

of the East" and called the treaty a military alliance. Incidents along the Sino-Vietnamese border increased in frequency and violence. In December 1978

2106: 2084:

After a decade of turmoil brought about by the Cultural Revolution, the new direction set at this meeting was toward economic development and away from

5803: 5689: 2402:'s part. These included Vietnamese intimacy with the Soviet Union, mistreatment of ethnic Chinese living in Vietnam, hegemonistic "imperial dreams" in 5694: 2609: 2427: 2121: 1036: 3345: 2242:

on October 13, 1970. Canada and China established resident diplomatic missions in 1971, and it led to a series of diplomatic successes in the west.

5753: 4182: 3072: 2141: 1993: 2594:

In September 1982, the 12th Party Congress convened in Beijing. The United States and the Soviet Union were again criticized for imperialism and

2435: 4393: 2439:

the Soviet-Vietnamese military pact. ... China achieved a strategic victory by minimizing the future possibility of a two-front war against the

2423: 2145:

however, seemed largely undermined by Deng himself, who assumed none of the official titles on the grounds that they should go to younger men.

2125: 2114: 590: 2476:"—encouragement of Vietnamese villagers along the border to engage in smuggling, currency speculation, and hoarding of goods in short supply. 6299: 4039: 2834: 2728: 1315: 3310: 5957: 5194: 4918: 2862: 2137: 1733: 1579: 1000: 611: 300: 180: 5204: 3620:"United States Policy Regarding Nationalization of American Investments: The People's Republic of China's Nationalization Decree of 1950" 1665: 1253: 1046: 5534: 2668:

was indirect, through market mechanisms, and much of it was modeled after economic planning and control mechanisms in Western nations.

1383: 3522: 4913: 4572: 4097: 3134: 2092:" and offered a full self-criticism. Replacing the old focus of class struggles was the new policy focused on economic construction. 1956: 1453: 1211: 4630: 3839: 3650: 5873: 5858: 5758: 5615: 5573: 4727: 3467: 2681: 2238:

initiated negotiations with the People's Republic of China that led to the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and

1821: 4769: 1717: 1673: 1061: 564: 1743:

had assumed the post of party chairman. Hua was unaware that the Gang of Four were plotting his downfall until Defense Minister

6628: 5779: 5107: 4844: 2578: 1388: 1343: 3978: 2398:

China's twenty-nine-day incursion into Vietnam in February 1979 was a response to what China considered to be provocations on

2338:, to describe the Communist side to differentiate from Western bloc countries that recognized the Republic of China (ROC) as " 2069:

In 1979, the CCP made a pledge to the nation that it would never again embark on mass campaigns like the Cultural Revolution.

1930:

news. He displayed some restraint, however, and decided against making what would have been a highly provocative visit to the

6480: 5868: 4930: 4908: 4586: 4522: 4485: 4473: 4372: 3923: 2724:. Deng pressed the industrialist and former investor in Lenin's Soviet Union for as much information on the NEP as possible. 1910:

and the US withdrawal from Vietnam. The US agreed to recognize the PRC as China's sole government. Diplomatic relations with

1657: 1348: 665: 1902:

China finally fully established diplomatic relations with the United States on January 1, 1979. This had been planned since

353:

Land controlled by the People's Republic of China shown in dark green; land claimed but not controlled shown in light green.

6115: 5848: 5345: 3619: 3050: 1528: 1221: 1134: 4541:

Wang, Shu-Shin (1986). "The Rise and Fall of the Campaign against Spiritual Pollution in the People's Republic of China".

3242:

Chen, Yixin (1999). "Lost in revolution and reform: The socioeconomic pains of China's red guards generation, 1966–1996".

1877:

suddenly turned hostile in 1979. These two countries had once been allies, but in 1972 Mao Zedong told Vietnamese premier

1785:

was changed to reflect pure communist ideology rather than revolutionary drive, inserting lyrics exclusively dealing with

5843: 5214: 4963: 3593:"A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: China" 3078: 2407: 1795: 1535: 1243: 1129: 3816: 3764: 6840: 5743: 5578: 4958: 3837: 3105: 2910:, which was subsequently broadcast on national media, denouncing all recent actions of protest as a form of "turmoil" ( 2339: 1051: 4405: 1914:

were terminated, but unofficial and commercial ties remained. Deng Xiaoping visited the U.S. in February and met with

5588: 5565: 5529: 5385: 5380: 5177: 4120: 4013: 3086: 2795: 2740: 2511: 1508: 1353: 1248: 1181: 224: 206: 104: 51: 6556: 6551: 6326: 5863: 5519: 4925: 4445: 2644:. Among other things, it was now being admitted that Taiwan's per-capita GDP was three times that of the mainland. 2049: 1841: 1523: 1283: 1164: 1109: 4259: 75: 6546: 6294: 6038: 5967: 5524: 5252: 5219: 5092: 4900: 1513: 1498: 1174: 286: 4280: 2383:) and signed the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in 1978, China branded Vietnam the " 2156:

Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China

1755:

The demise and arrest of the Gang of Four prompted nationwide celebrations, including parades in the streets of

6835: 6603: 6243: 4072: 3877: 2664:, Deng remarked that the Soviet system suffered from an inflexibility and rigidness that did not affect China. 2627:

and that the duty of the party was to perfect "socialism with Chinese characteristics." This interpretation of

2219: 1216: 721: 144: 2928:

Official PRC estimates place the number of deaths at between two and three hundred, whilst groups such as the

5726: 5716: 5514: 5509: 2770:

the ultimate goals of the reform program, as it deviated from the intended direction of the Communist Party.

2570: 2372: 1939: 1680: 1231: 642: 3949: 6726: 6721: 6133: 5446: 5392: 5360: 5187: 4240: 3498:"UNTITLED REPORT FROM BRUN, POLISH INTELLIGENCE STATION TOKYO, CONCERNING HUA GUOFENG'S VISIT TO PYONGYANG" 2243: 1114: 1056: 1026: 884: 6633: 6511: 6496: 6103: 6060: 5996: 5979: 5853: 5375: 5122: 4885: 3838:

Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (June 27, 1981).

2791:

which suggested that the Communist Party was not infallible, nor should it be followed without question.

2272:

arrived in Washington as China's liaison on May 30. Full diplomatic relations were established in 1979.

1960: 1891: 1373: 2845:. Students called for campus elections, the chance to study abroad, and greater availability of western 2326:

was a frequent appellation for the PRC between the Communist ascendancy and the mid-late 1970s with the

6148: 6028: 5784: 5738: 5721: 5704: 5451: 5415: 5262: 4837: 4578: 3349: 2717: 2624: 2497:(who had been liaison officer to China from 1972 to 1978) then apologized for the president's remarks. 1697: 1428: 894: 820: 2661: 2088:. The plenum endorsed major changes in the political, economic, and social system. Hua renounced his " 6751: 6343: 6167: 6048: 6001: 5945: 5410: 5355: 5082: 4968: 4895: 3106:"Mao Tse-Tung Dies In Peking At 82; Leader Of Red China Revolution; Choice Of Successor Is Uncertain" 2257: 1503: 1393: 1328: 1320: 4615: 2020:

20th century, all of whom had participated in the Long March and Chinese civil war. The 81 year old

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In regards to foreign policy, Hua made his first trip abroad in May 1978. This was a visit to the

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Greenhalgh, Susan (June 2003). "Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy".

4216: 2727:

Concurrent with economic reforms, China began a major crackdown on crime in what became known as

2559: 2183: 2076:

The power transition from Hua to Deng was confirmed in December 1978, at the Third Plenum of the

2006: 1848: 1782: 1721: 1468: 1398: 1273: 678: 324: 133: 5164: 6714: 6521: 6355: 6311: 6289: 5986: 5436: 5340: 5147: 4890: 4761:

Junsen Zhang, "The evolution of China's one-child policy and its effects on family outcomes."

4748:

Thomas Scharping, "Abolishing the One-Child Policy: Stages, Issues and the Political Process."

2531: 2284: 2235: 2029: 1814: 1333: 1169: 1081: 480: 2334:). The term was first used, before the establishment of the PRC, in the late 1940s during the 6704: 6699: 6654: 6590: 6501: 6204: 6153: 6091: 5813: 5650: 5638: 5628: 5397: 5030: 4830: 4640: 4005: 3893:

Chubb, Andrew (September 2016). "Democracy Wall, Foreign Correspondants, and Deng Xiaoping".

1518: 1298: 776: 704: 2256:

on the island of Taiwan. In February 1972, US President Richard Nixon made an unprecedented

6430: 6378: 6238: 6033: 6008: 5935: 5930: 5765: 5657: 5633: 5491: 4973: 3371: 2882: 2766: 2754: 2288: 1886: 1545: 1408: 1099: 1031: 4087: 3781: 3497: 1976:

abilities and his ideas seemed fresh and appealing as opposed to Hua's stale promotion of

1943: 1186: 8: 6731: 6576: 6470: 6465: 6435: 6393: 6316: 6279: 6199: 6184: 6013: 5974: 5681: 5295: 5199: 4950: 3843: 2713: 2595: 2566: 2366: 2317: 2280: 2195: 2001: 1964: 1772: 1725: 1568: 1278: 1198: 1193: 1124: 1119: 828: 691: 1732:

Chinese people mourned him, but not in the more emotional way they had mourned the late

1683:

was left with no central authority figure, either symbolically or administratively. The

6618: 6613: 6598: 6450: 6418: 6413: 6306: 6228: 6216: 6125: 5791: 5711: 5699: 5667: 5322: 5317: 5235: 4935: 4798:

Donnithorne, Audrey. "Prolonged Readjustment: Zhao Ziyang on Current Economic Policy."

4766: 4708: 4603: 4121:"China celebrates 50 years of being in the UN – and it's determined to keep Taiwan out" 3983: 3718: 3557:"Record of Meeting between Prime Minister Fukuda and Vice Premier Deng (First Meeting)" 3442: 3286: 3221: 3110: 2523: 1786: 1594: 1589: 1563: 1094: 1066: 749: 466: 451: 431: 6677: 6669: 6383: 6250: 6221: 6179: 6108: 6065: 6023: 5890: 5830: 5602: 5539: 5401: 5182: 5152: 4978: 4704: 4665: 4582: 4518: 4481: 3873: 3722: 3290: 3082: 2959: 2906: 2657: 2641: 2494: 2434:, and failed to draw the United States into an anti-Soviet coalition." Nevertheless, 2335: 2305: 2261: 2253: 2062: 1907: 1599: 1310: 1303: 513: 493: 6795: 6788: 6687: 6682: 6608: 6536: 6455: 6370: 6360: 6331: 6267: 6262: 6096: 6070: 6055: 5940: 5918: 5902: 5808: 5257: 5247: 5087: 4880: 4865: 4857: 4700: 4554: 4550: 4162: 3902: 3710: 3701:

Jain, Girilal (September 2010). "From the Archives: The US–Soviet–China Triangle".

3413: 3405: 3278: 3251: 3213: 2991: 2955: 2949: 2709: 2473: 2172: 2164: 2102: 1946:

hailed it as "an outstanding event in the service of peace", while Yugoslav leader

1584: 1493: 1423: 873: 543: 521: 441: 415: 257: 4368: 4167: 4148: 2452:

provided arms to Vietnam; moreover, Soviet ships enjoyed access to the harbors at

6403: 6398: 6321: 6272: 6233: 5897: 5479: 5285: 5172: 4773: 4304: 4295: 4286: 4153: 3768: 3714: 3315: 2846: 2628: 2613: 2555: 2538: 1947: 1473: 1338: 1159: 527: 524: 461: 446: 436: 4034: 3044: 81:

The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of

6804: 6736: 6659: 6506: 6460: 6445: 6440: 6423: 6408: 6194: 5549: 5544: 5474: 5060: 3396:

De Heer, P. (1978). "The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China".

3202:

Fontana, Dorothy Grouse (March 1982). "Background to the Fall of Hua Guofeng".

3139: 2999: 2995: 2672: 2542: 2518:

met with Chinese disapproval, and the two countries took opposing sides on the

2515: 2403: 2353: 2292: 2187: 2168: 2109:, but not the chief offices of the State, government, or the Party. Meanwhile, 2085: 1288: 1203: 1071: 506: 86: 3282: 3269:

Onate, Andres D. (1978). "Hua Kuo-feng and the Arrest of the "Gang of Four"".

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Trying to crawl out of its international isolation, China mended fences with

1829: 1765: 1692: 1478: 911: 601: 554: 518: 383: 370: 292: 4812:

Rosen, Stanley. "China in 1987: The year of the thirteenth party congress."

4728:"China scraps fines, will let families have as many children as they'd like" 3592: 3409: 2787:, who had been in and out of favor since 1957, was criticized for his novel 2745:

Activities of the People’s Liberation Army During Tiananmen Protests of 1989

2581:". It opened a new era in Chinese history known as "Reforms and Opening up"( 6809: 6694: 6566: 6531: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5117: 5112: 5102: 5020: 5015: 4450: 4092: 3548: 3204: 2842: 2838: 2762: 2758: 2457: 2376: 2347: 2230: 2222: 1927: 1923: 1915: 1866: 1855: 1684: 1615: 1463: 1154: 473: 4571:

Levy, Richard; Cheng, Linsun (2016). "Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign".

2749:

At the same time, political dissent as well as social problems, including

2375:

began to deteriorate seriously in the mid-1970s. After Vietnam joined the

1708: 1691:

insisted on continuing Maoist policies. After a bloodless power struggle,

6388: 5305: 5290: 5097: 5055: 5050: 4998: 3954: 2917: 2806: 2775: 2649: 2502: 2431: 2313: 2276: 2150: 2110: 2033: 2021: 1931: 1882: 1825: 1803: 1744: 1740: 1688: 1488: 1403: 1238: 1086: 622: 617: 596: 580: 570: 549: 4212:"The View From Taiwan on Xi's Celebration of 'One Country, Two Systems'" 3782:"Speech at the Closing Session of the Central Committee Work Conference" 3418: 6561: 5469: 5280: 5008: 4817: 4793: 4788:

Dittmer, Lowell. "China in 1981: Reform, Readjustment, Rectification."

4712: 4183:"Taiwan rejects China's 'one country, two systems' plan for the island" 3906: 3225: 2830: 2784: 2712:, especially in its early stages, was in some ways parallel to Lenin's 2447:

The 1979 attack confirmed Hanoi's perception of China as a threat. The

2343: 2331: 2309: 2300: 2269: 2248: 2246:

in 1971, replacing the international legitimacy previously held by the

2129: 2053: 1963:

would deteriorate over the course of the next six years, ending in the

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General Information of the People's Republic of China (PRC): Languages

2211: 1959:

openly denounced Beijing as traitors to the cause of world socialism.

1918:. Meanwhile, Hua Guofeng headed to Europe in May. He first stopped in 6571: 6526: 5464: 5405: 3166:"From Mao to Deng: China's Changing Relations with the United States" 3016: 2929: 2900:

On April 26, the central leadership, under Deng Xiaoping, issued the

2890: 2826: 2750: 2604: 2296: 2160: 1837: 1824:, where he was given a warm reception and joined North Korean leader 1413: 3217: 2671:

This trend did not impede the general move toward the market at the

1836:. In September, Deng Xiaoping also visited the North Korean capital 1752:'s housekeepers reportedly spat at her as she was being taken away. 122: 6646: 6639: 5952: 4574:

Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign Fǎnjīngshén Wūrǎn Yùndòng 反精神污染运动

3927: 2886: 2858: 2814: 2633: 2415: 2411: 2098: 1798:'s vice-chairman, Deng guaranteed the elevation of his supporters, 906: 808: 804: 652: 530: 403: 3762:《光明日报》评论：实践是检验真理的唯一标准, retrieved from Sina.com. Dated May 11, 1978 1696:

another political crisis, culminating in the crackdown of massive

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China's Elite Politics: Political Transition And Power Balancing

3015:

Motor vehicles and metros drive on the right in mainland China.

1967:

of diplomatic correspondence between the two countries in 1978.

6741: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4431: 2818: 2453: 2414:

in the far north and against the all-important regional hub of

2239: 1981: 1977: 1919: 1911: 1807: 823: 3435:"The Constitution - People's Republic of China Legal Research" 4853: 4566: 4564: 3677:"Hua Calls for Reunification of Germany During Visit to Bonn" 3020: 3003: 2937: 2932:

believe the number to be in the two to three thousand range.

2810: 2693: 2507: 2399: 2283:

in 1971. In response to Carter's recognition of the PRC, the

1862:

including a clause that denounced Soviet "hegemony" in Asia.

1859: 1653: 1418: 4428: 3346:"One-time Hua cult now central issue for Chinese leadership" 2647:

This is in sharp contrast to the economic restructuring, or

2541:'s funeral in November 1982. Huang met with his counterpart 2940:

in China, Zhao has not yet been politically rehabilitated.

2448: 2440: 2384: 2316:, under this subject of border disputes, and fought in the 1952: 899: 4561: 2032:

in 1957. Prominent politically disgraced people including

156:"History of the People's Republic of China" 1976–1989 4515:

How China escaped shock therapy: the market reform debate

4480:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 320. 4125: 3541: 1771:

Hua's reliance on Maoist orthodoxy led him to continue a

4807:

The era of Zhao Ziyang: power struggle in China, 1986-88

4631:"Freedom of Religion in China: A Historical Perspective" 3472:

Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business

3135:"The Cost of the Cultural Revolution, Fifty Years Later" 2304:

Union. He continued to adhere to the Maoist line of the

2244:

The People's Republic of China joined the United Nations

4536: 4534: 2972:

List of vice premiers of the People's Republic of China

2741:

Activities of the PLA During Tiananmen Protests of 1989

2701:, where capitalist business practices were encouraged. 1709:

Hua Guofeng and the return of Deng Xiaoping (1976–1978)

2201: 4636:

Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs

2000:

legislative body, and stressed the importance of the

1865:

There was little sign of improved relations with the

4531: 3863: 3861: 3694: 3523:"Tito Gets Huge Welcome as He Begins Visit to China" 3197: 3195: 3193: 2379:-dominated Council for Mutual Economic Cooperation ( 2048:

were given belated rank-appropriate funerals at the

1703: 4666:"China allows three children in major policy shift" 4659: 4657: 4079: 3729: 3547: 3159: 3157: 147:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3668: 3651:"Hua Guofeng Is in Paris at Start of Western Tour" 3461: 3459: 3320: 2618:35th anniversary of the People's Republic of China 2182:In late 1978, after an official evaluation of the 2028:and other campaigns going all the way back to the 1906:'s visit in February 1972, but was delayed by the 4719: 4446:"The Bitter Legacy of the 1979 China-Vietnam War" 4140: 3858: 3190: 2549: 2330:between China and the West (generally within the 735:4th plennary session of the CCP Central Committee 6822: 4654: 3587: 3585: 3426: 3363: 3154: 2136:, with actual power resting in the hands of the 1994:National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party 1970: 3979:"China Joins U.N. Council, Assails Superpowers" 3918: 3916: 3738:"Tito, Ceausescu Warmly Welcome Sino-U.S. Ties" 3456: 3100: 3098: 4684: 4149:"Hong Kong: Still "One Country, Two Systems"?" 3901:(3). University of British Columbia: 567–589. 3212:(3). University of California Press: 237–260. 2483: 2360: 2308:era, which stated that the Soviet Union was a 2295:and the PRC on December 19, 1984, under which 1001:History of the People's Republic of China 6489: 4838: 4622: 4474:"The succession to Mao and the end of Maoism" 4006:"Nixon in China Itinerary, Feb. 17 -28, 1972" 3582: 3304: 3302: 3300: 2954:In 1979, the Chinese government instituted a 2911: 2835:University of Science and Technology of China 2582: 1633: 861: 855: 849: 761:9,596,961 km (3,705,407 sq mi) 330: 249: 4517:. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, N.Y: Routledge. 3913: 3624:California Western International Law Journal 3237: 3235: 3095: 2734: 4471: 3970: 3642: 2107:Chairman of the Central Military Commission 1666:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 1254:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 1047:Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries 52:Learn how and when to remove these messages 4845: 4831: 4690: 3297: 2206: 1640: 1626: 6831:History of the People's Republic of China 4570: 4166: 3842:. Chinese Communist Party. Archived from 3417: 3232: 3070: 2829:and the founding of the PRC. Inspired by 2612:(October 1) 1984, China staged its first 2138:Premier of the People's Republic of China 225:Learn how and when to remove this message 207:Learn how and when to remove this message 105:Learn how and when to remove this message 4663: 4444:Nguyen, Minh Quang (February 23, 2017). 4403: 4203: 3886: 2210: 1842:Kim Il-sung's extensive personality cult 1739:. Meanwhile, Mao's designated successor 4146: 3617: 3395: 3201: 2105:, retaining only the official title of 1790:chairman was legally ratified in 1977. 1062:Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence 6823: 5780:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 4443: 4112: 4085: 3976: 3867: 3806: 3674: 3308: 3173:Cold War International History Project 2579:socialism with Chinese characteristics 4826: 4800:Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 4725: 4512: 4404:Friedman, Thomas L. (June 30, 2006). 4118: 4086:Steele, Jonathan (January 30, 1979). 3892: 3735: 3648: 3465: 3432: 3343: 3268: 3132: 1822:Democratic People's Republic of Korea 4540: 4416:from the original on October 5, 2012 4209: 4147:Canning, Craig N. (September 2001). 4088:"America puts the flag out for Deng" 3809:"The People's Republic Of China: IV" 3736:Dobbs, Michael (December 21, 1978). 3700: 3675:Getler, Michael (October 23, 1979). 3241: 3163: 1873:to be null and void. Relations with 1529:2020 Hong Kong national security law 1222:Campaign against spiritual pollution 145:adding citations to reliable sources 116: 58: 17: 6476:Major Historical and Cultural Sites 4375:from the original on March 13, 2007 4258:. November 28, 1949. Archived from 3977:Tanner, Henry (November 24, 1971). 3779: 3599:. United States Department of State 3466:Cohen, Jerome Allen (Spring 1979). 3079:World Scientific Publishing Company 3053:from the original on April 11, 2008 2943: 2202:Boluan Fanzheng and economic reform 1244:1986 Chinese student demonstrations 13: 5614: 4852: 4809:(AB Books & Stationery, 1989). 4782: 4672:. British Broadcasting Corporation 4664:McDonell, Stephen (May 31, 2021). 4119:Yeung, Jessie (October 25, 2021). 3819:from the original on June 15, 2010 3780:Hua, Guofeng (December 13, 1978). 2841:and not being allowed to dance at 2623:Deng argued that China was in the 1871:1950 Sino-Soviet friendship treaty 1389:South–North Water Transfer Project 1316:US bombing of the Belgrade embassy 1212:Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign 1052:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns 424:Recognised regional languages 406:(metropolitan area and urban area) 14: 6852: 5771:Political Consultative Conference 4693:Population and Development Review 4543:Asian Affairs: An American Review 4494:from the original on July 1, 2019 4476:. In Roderick MacFarquhar (ed.). 4349:from the original on May 20, 2011 4323:from the original on May 20, 2011 4100:from the original on June 9, 2023 4014:University of Southern California 3872:. New York City: The Free Press. 3649:Lewis, Flora (October 16, 1979). 3570:from the original on May 22, 2024 2796:Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign 2395:regime, and overran the country. 2264:became the first U.S. liaison to 1989:part of socialist construction." 1869:, and Deng Xiaoping declared the 1704:Power struggles after Mao's death 1354:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation 1349:Forum on China–Africa Cooperation 1249:Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration 33:This article has multiple issues. 6557:Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty 6552:Four Masters of the Ming dynasty 4763:Journal of Economic Perspectives 4705:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2003.00163.x 4628: 3369: 3344:Loong, Paul (October 28, 1980). 3311:"Successor who held true to Mao" 3309:Dickie, Mure (August 22, 2008). 3006:, alongside traditional Chinese. 2408:Chinese People's Liberation Army 2050:Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery 1982:University Entrance Examinations 1832:to withdraw its troops from the 1609: 1165:1978 Truth Criterion Controversy 1110:Seven Thousand Cadres Conference 1008: 963: 938: 347: 299: 285: 121: 63: 22: 6547:Four Paragons of the Early Tang 5744:Political parties and movements 5108:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 5093:Northern and Southern dynasties 4755: 4742: 4726:Cheng, Evelyn (July 21, 2021). 4506: 4465: 4397: 4387: 4361: 4335: 4309: 4274: 4244: 4234: 4175: 4055: 4027: 3998: 3942: 3831: 3800: 3773: 3755: 3611: 3515: 3490: 3468:"China's Changing Constitution" 3433:Zhang, Nongji (April 6, 2023). 3389: 3337: 3262: 2958:to try to control its rapidly 2194:, who put up a poster about a " 2179:portrait remained until 1989. 1514:China International Import Expo 132:needs additional citations for 41:or discuss these issues on the 4555:10.1080/00927678.1986.10553661 4472:MacFarquhar, Roderick (1987). 4073:President of the United States 3126: 3064: 3037: 3009: 2984: 2550:Economic Reform and Opening up 2514:and stationing of missiles in 1984:in 1977, opening the doors of 1217:Sino-British Joint Declaration 983: 565:Chairman and General Secretary 331: 1: 4750:Journal of Contemporary China 4343:""Red china" - Google Search" 4317:""Red china" - Google Search" 4252:"HONG KONG: The Last Citadel" 4168:10.1525/curh.2001.100.647.285 3786:Wilson Center Digital Archive 3502:Wilson Center Digital Archive 3372:"The Chinese National Anthem" 3244:Journal of Contemporary China 3030: 2373:Socialist Republic of Vietnam 2113:was appointed to the post of 1971:Deng becomes Paramount Leader 1687:was purged, but new Chairman 1509:China–United States trade war 1182:China–United States relations 5849:Ministry of National Defense 5188:Chinese Communist Revolution 4076:. Retrieved on 27 June 2022. 3715:10.1080/09700161.2010.501611 3164:Chen, Jian (November 2019). 2922:Politburo Standing Committee 2616:since 1959 to celebrate the 1524:2019–2020 Hong Kong protests 1115:Socialist Education Movement 7: 6512:Flowers of the Four Seasons 6497:Four Treasures of the Study 6116:Water supply and sanitation 5844:Central Military Commission 5839:Outline of military history 5589:Province-level subdivisions 4772:September 29, 2019, at the 4285:September 28, 2007, at the 4210:Wang, Joyu (July 1, 2022). 3133:Osnos, Evan (May 6, 2016). 2965: 2789:A Different Kind Of Loyalty 2484:Foreign policy of 1980–1989 2371:China's relations with the 2361:Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979 1796:Central Military Commission 1672:. In September 1976, after 959:Jiang Zemin's rise to power 697:17 February – 16 March 1979 10: 6857: 5785:Primary stage of socialism 5727:National People's Congress 5195:People's Republic of China 4579:Berkshire Publishing Group 3868:Mosher, Steven W. (1983). 3767:February 10, 2012, at the 3439:Harvard Law School Library 3350:United Press International 2947: 2738: 2625:primary stage of socialism 2571:National People's Congress 2553: 2364: 1885:regime that took power in 1840:. He was unimpressed with 1681:People's Republic of China 643:National People's Congress 243:People's Republic of China 6841:Cold War history of China 6782: 6750: 6668: 6589: 6369: 6175: 6166: 6124: 6084: 5926: 5917: 5829: 5680: 5610: 5601: 5564: 5535:UNESCO Biosphere Reserves 5490: 5424: 5333: 5271: 5243: 5234: 5163: 5041: 4989: 4949: 4873: 4864: 3283:10.1017/s0305741000042557 3256:10.1080/10670569908724345 3004:Tibetan Autonomous Region 2912: 2825:between the years of the 2735:Tiananmen Square protests 2583: 2520:Falkland Islands conflict 1504:Xinjiang internment camps 1479:Meeting with Ma Ying-Jeou 1329:China Western Development 1321:Persecution of Falun Gong 979: 917: 905: 893: 883: 862: 856: 850: 835: 815: 800: 796: 786: 782: 775: 765: 755: 748: 744: 731: 722:Tiananmen Square protests 714: 701: 688: 675: 662: 658: 648: 638: 634: 608: 587: 561: 540: 536: 512: 500: 487: 472: 460: 422: 410: 399: 358: 346: 315: 281: 276: 266:Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó 250: 241: 6710:Catholic Church in China 5854:People's Liberation Army 5821:One country, two systems 4513:Weber, Isabella (2021). 2977: 2655:Soviet general secretary 2587:) to the Outside World. 2536:Soviet general secretary 2389:Vietnam invaded Cambodia 1992:Deng chaired the (11th) 1986:post-secondary education 1778:Chinese written language 1484:2016 G20 Hangzhou summit 1459:Belt and Road Initiative 1454:Anti-corruption campaign 1294:One country, two systems 1227:Bourgeois liberalization 1105:Two Bombs, One Satellite 1077:Hundred Flowers Campaign 6542:Four Pillars of Destiny 6327:Regional discrimination 5749:Chinese Communist Party 4752:28.117 (2019): 327-347. 4217:The Wall Street Journal 3597:Office of the Historian 3410:10.1163/157303578x00218 3398:Review of Socialist Law 3071:Zhiyue Bo, ed. (2007). 2833:, a physicist from the 2729:"Strike Hard" campaigns 2662:Encyclopædia Britannica 2560:Chinese economic reform 2332:capitalist/Western bloc 2207:A new page in diplomacy 2184:1976 Tiananmen Incident 2171:, were taken down from 2128:was conceived of as a " 1961:Sino-Albanian relations 1849:President of Yugoslavia 1722:Chinese Communist Party 1404:Three Links with Taiwan 1399:2008 Sichuan earthquake 1374:2002–2004 SARS outbreak 1274:Shanghai Stock Exchange 982: 411:Official languages 325:March of the Volunteers 6295:Science and technology 5968:Special economic zones 5220:persecution of Uyghurs 5148:Century of humiliation 2699:Special Economic Zones 2285:United States Congress 2236:Pierre Elliott Trudeau 2226: 2030:Anti-Rightist Movement 1815:Anti-Rightist Movement 1698:pro-democracy protests 1541:2020–2021 reform spree 1499:Persecution of Uyghurs 1429:West–East Gas Pipeline 1334:Hainan Island incident 1175:Special economic zones 1170:Reforms and Opening Up 1082:Anti-Rightist Campaign 946:China under Mao Zedong 481:Ethnic groups in China 6836:20th century in China 6502:Four Great Inventions 5886:People's Armed Police 4816:28.1 (1988): 35–51. 4765:31.1 (2017): 141-60. 4641:Georgetown University 4478:The Politics of China 4406:"Red China Or Green?" 4303:May 20, 2011, at the 4294:May 20, 2011, at the 4062:Exec. Order No. 11771 2960:increasing population 2391:, quickly ousted the 2268:on May 14, 1973, and 2214: 1700:in Tiananmen Square. 1394:Qinghai–Tibet railway 1299:Handover of Hong Kong 767:• Water (%) 6481:World Heritage Sites 6009:Foreign aid received 5717:Environmental policy 5515:Environmental policy 5510:Environmental issues 4792:22.1 (1982): 33–46. 3618:Pinnard, LA (1984). 3555:(October 23, 1978). 3325:on December 10, 2022 3114:. September 10, 1976 2767:freedom of the press 2755:political corruption 2534:led a delegation to 2524:Palestinian question 2289:Taiwan Relations Act 2122:Chinese Constitution 2120:With changes to the 1546:2022 Winter Olympics 1447:2012–present: Xi era 1409:2008 Summer Olympics 1344:Accession to the WTO 1284:Deng's southern tour 1267:1989–2002: Jiang era 1100:Great Chinese Famine 1057:First five-year plan 1032:Land Reform Movement 727:21 May – 9 June 1989 705:Constitution adopted 141:improve this article 6727:History of religion 6722:Freedom of religion 6577:Four Pests campaign 6522:Four Classic Novels 6134:Automotive industry 6014:Foreign aid program 5705:Pro-democratisation 5200:Cultural Revolution 4805:Lam, Willy Wo-Lap. 4699:(2): 163, 176–179. 4043:. February 17, 2022 3958:. September 7, 2005 3950:"China-Canada ties" 3742:The Washington Post 3681:The Washington Post 3271:The China Quarterly 2883:official corruption 2714:New Economic Policy 2567:Four Modernizations 2512:invasion of Grenada 2426:, in his 1985 book 2367:Sino-Vietnamese War 2318:Sino-Vietnamese War 2281:UN Security Council 2196:fifth modernization 2002:Four Modernizations 1828:in calling for the 1773:cult of personality 1726:Cultural Revolution 1652:The time period in 1279:Pudong New District 1199:Sino-Vietnamese War 1194:Four Modernizations 1148:1976–1989: Deng era 1135:Richard Nixon visit 1125:Cultural Revolution 829:China Standard Time 692:Invasion of Vietnam 666:Death of Mao Zedong 380: / 338:Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ 6634:Population history 6614:Internal migration 6229:Harmonious Society 6104:Telecommunications 6061:Standard of living 5980:Online advertising 5732:Standing Committee 4802:8 (1982): 111–126. 4410:The New York Times 4010:US-China Institute 3984:The New York Times 3907:10.5509/2016893567 3703:Strategic Analysis 3655:The New York Times 3527:The New York Times 3443:Harvard Law School 3111:The New York Times 3049:, chinatoday.com, 2252:Government of the 2227: 2056:was given a large 1978:Mao Zedong Thought 1787:Mao Zedong Thought 1668:is often known as 1664:in 1976 until the 1384:Visit of Lien Chan 1095:Great Leap Forward 1067:Bandung Conference 1020:1949–1976: Mao era 474:Ethnic groups 467:Simplified Chinese 384:39.917°N 116.383°E 6818: 6817: 6778: 6777: 6585: 6584: 6162: 6161: 6149:Shipping industry 5913: 5912: 5879:Strategic Support 5754:General Secretary 5739:National security 5722:Foreign relations 5676: 5675: 5597: 5596: 5560: 5559: 5263:Natural disasters 5230: 5229: 5183:Chinese Civil War 5178:Republic of China 5153:Taiping Rebellion 5026:Spring and Autumn 4931:Foreign relations 4588:978-0-9770159-4-8 4524:978-0-429-49012-5 4487:978-0-521-58863-8 4191:. August 10, 2022 3846:on April 15, 2010 3529:. August 31, 1977 3175:(Working paper). 2658:Mikhail Gorbachev 2642:East Asian Tigers 2495:George H. W. Bush 2336:Chinese Civil War 2306:Sino-Soviet Split 2262:David K. E. Bruce 2254:Republic of China 2177:Joseph's Stalin's 2142:General Secretary 2115:Chinese President 2078:Central Committee 2063:Nikita Khrushchev 1944:Nicolae Ceaușescu 1908:Watergate scandal 1834:Republic of Korea 1650: 1649: 1536:COVID-19 pandemic 1367:2002–2012: Hu era 1304:Handover of Macau 1187:Three Communiqués 1130:UN representation 994: 993: 975: 974: 971: 970: 951: 950: 494:Religion in China 235: 234: 227: 217: 216: 209: 191: 115: 114: 107: 56: 6848: 6798: 6791: 6688:Tibetan Buddhism 6683:Chinese Buddhism 6537:Four Holy Beasts 6487: 6486: 6339:Social relations 6268:Standard Chinese 6263:Chinese language 6173: 6172: 5958:Economic history 5924: 5923: 5903:Maritime Militia 5612: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5579:Border crossings 5574:Baseline islands 5269: 5268: 5241: 5240: 5205:Tiananmen Square 5088:Sixteen Kingdoms 4896:Military history 4871: 4870: 4847: 4840: 4833: 4824: 4823: 4776: 4759: 4753: 4746: 4740: 4739: 4737: 4735: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4677: 4661: 4652: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4626: 4620: 4619: 4613: 4609: 4607: 4599: 4597: 4595: 4568: 4559: 4558: 4538: 4529: 4528: 4510: 4504: 4503: 4501: 4499: 4469: 4463: 4462: 4460: 4458: 4441: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4421: 4401: 4395: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4365: 4359: 4358: 4356: 4354: 4339: 4333: 4332: 4330: 4328: 4313: 4307: 4278: 4272: 4271: 4269: 4267: 4262:on June 13, 2008 4248: 4242: 4238: 4232: 4231: 4226: 4224: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4198: 4196: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4161:(647): 285–290. 4144: 4138: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4116: 4110: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4083: 4077: 4070: 4067:(March 18, 1974) 4066: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4050: 4048: 4035:"Nixon in China" 4031: 4025: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4002: 3996: 3995: 3993: 3991: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3924:"Democracy Wall" 3920: 3911: 3910: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3865: 3856: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3835: 3829: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3813:History of China 3804: 3798: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3788:. 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3250:(21): 219–239. 3240: 3233: 3218:10.2307/2644028 3200: 3191: 3181: 3179: 3168: 3162: 3155: 3145: 3143: 3131: 3127: 3117: 3115: 3104: 3103: 3096: 3089: 3069: 3065: 3056: 3054: 3043: 3042: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3027: 3014: 3010: 3002:is used in the 2989: 2985: 2980: 2968: 2952: 2946: 2759:urban migration 2747: 2739:Main articles: 2737: 2629:Chinese Marxism 2614:military parade 2562: 2556:Boluan Fanzheng 2554:Main articles: 2552: 2539:Leonid Brezhnev 2486: 2428:Defending China 2369: 2363: 2258:eight-day visit 2229:Relations with 2209: 2204: 2007:Guangming Daily 1973: 1948:Josip Broz Tito 1904:President Nixon 1783:National Anthem 1711: 1706: 1646: 1610: 1608: 1551: 1550: 1474:APEC China 2014 1449: 1439: 1438: 1434:High-speed rail 1369: 1359: 1358: 1339:APEC China 2001 1325: 1269: 1259: 1258: 1208: 1160:Boluan Fanzheng 1150: 1140: 1139: 1091: 1022: 999: 990: 964: 939: 879: 819: 789: 768: 758: 737: 724: 710:4 December 1982 707: 694: 681: 668: 626: 621: 614: 600: 593: 579: 574: 567: 553: 546: 462:Official script 456: 423: 414: 389:39.917; 116.383 388: 386: 382: 379: 374: 371: 369: 367: 366: 365: 354: 342: 311: 310: 309: 307:National Emblem 304: 296: 295: 290: 272: 271: 264: 255: 244: 231: 220: 219: 218: 213: 202: 196: 193: 150: 148: 138: 126: 111: 100: 94: 91: 80: 74:has an unclear 68: 64: 27: 23: 12: 11: 5: 6854: 6844: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6816: 6815: 6813: 6812: 6807: 6800: 6799: 6792: 6784: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6756: 6754: 6748: 6747: 6745: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6718: 6717: 6712: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6691: 6690: 6685: 6674: 6672: 6666: 6665: 6663: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6651: 6650: 6643: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6595: 6593: 6587: 6586: 6583: 6582: 6580: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6507:Four Gentlemen 6504: 6499: 6493: 6491: 6490:Fours of China 6484: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6427: 6426: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6375: 6373: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6347: 6346: 6336: 6335: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6309: 6304: 6303: 6302: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6276: 6275: 6270: 6260: 6255: 6254: 6253: 6248: 6247: 6246: 6231: 6226: 6225: 6224: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6176: 6170: 6164: 6163: 6160: 6159: 6157: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6139:Civil aviation 6136: 6130: 6128: 6122: 6121: 6119: 6118: 6113: 6112: 6111: 6101: 6100: 6099: 6088: 6086: 6085:Infrastructure 6082: 6081: 6079: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6052: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6039:Semiconductors 6036: 6031: 6021: 6019:Historical GDP 6016: 6011: 6006: 6005: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5984: 5983: 5982: 5972: 5971: 5970: 5965: 5955: 5950: 5949: 5948: 5938: 5933: 5927: 5921: 5915: 5914: 5911: 5910: 5908: 5907: 5906: 5905: 5895: 5894: 5893: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5835: 5833: 5827: 5826: 5824: 5823: 5818: 5817: 5816: 5811: 5801: 5800: 5799: 5797:Vice President 5789: 5788: 5787: 5777: 5776: 5775: 5774: 5773: 5763: 5762: 5761: 5756: 5741: 5736: 5735: 5734: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5708: 5707: 5697: 5692: 5686: 5684: 5678: 5677: 5674: 5673: 5671: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5654: 5653: 5643: 5642: 5641: 5636: 5626: 5620: 5618: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5570: 5568: 5562: 5561: 5558: 5557: 5555: 5554: 5553: 5552: 5547: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5525:National parks 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5505:Climate policy 5502: 5500:Climate change 5496: 5494: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5484: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5428: 5426: 5422: 5421: 5419: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5406:Central Plains 5395: 5390: 5389: 5388: 5383: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5337: 5335: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5327: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5310: 5309: 5308: 5303: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5277: 5275: 5266: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5253:Extreme points 5250: 5244: 5238: 5232: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5224: 5223: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5185: 5175: 5169: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5158: 5157: 5156: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5079: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5061:Three Kingdoms 5058: 5053: 5047: 5045: 5039: 5038: 5036: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5031:Warring States 5028: 5023: 5013: 5012: 5011: 5001: 4995: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4983: 4982: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4961: 4955: 4953: 4947: 4946: 4944: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4922: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4891:Historiography 4888: 4883: 4877: 4875: 4868: 4862: 4861: 4850: 4849: 4842: 4835: 4827: 4821: 4820: 4810: 4803: 4796: 4784: 4781: 4778: 4777: 4754: 4741: 4718: 4683: 4653: 4629:Lamb, Olivia. 4621: 4612:|website= 4587: 4560: 4530: 4523: 4505: 4486: 4464: 4427: 4396: 4386: 4360: 4334: 4308: 4273: 4243: 4233: 4202: 4174: 4139: 4111: 4078: 4054: 4026: 3997: 3969: 3941: 3912: 3885: 3878: 3857: 3830: 3799: 3772: 3754: 3728: 3709:(5): 786–791. 3693: 3667: 3641: 3610: 3581: 3540: 3514: 3489: 3455: 3425: 3388: 3362: 3336: 3296: 3261: 3231: 3189: 3153: 3140:The New Yorker 3125: 3094: 3087: 3063: 3035: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3026: 3025: 3008: 3000:Tibetan script 2996:Inner Mongolia 2982: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2975: 2974: 2967: 2964: 2948:Main article: 2945: 2942: 2907:People's Daily 2902:4-26 Editorial 2780:Marx In London 2736: 2733: 2573:in June 1979. 2551: 2548: 2543:Andrei Gromyko 2516:Western Europe 2485: 2482: 2404:Southeast Asia 2365:Main article: 2362: 2359: 2354:New York Times 2293:United Kingdom 2225:, January 1979 2208: 2205: 2203: 2200: 2188:Democracy Wall 2086:class struggle 1972: 1969: 1710: 1707: 1705: 1702: 1679:'s death, the 1648: 1647: 1645: 1644: 1637: 1630: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1605: 1604: 1603: 1602: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1582: 1574: 1573: 1572: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1553: 1552: 1549: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1532: 1531: 1521: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1469:Supercomputing 1466: 1461: 1456: 1450: 1445: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1370: 1365: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1357: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1324: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1301: 1291: 1289:1992 consensus 1286: 1281: 1276: 1270: 1265: 1264: 1261: 1260: 1257: 1256: 1251: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1235: 1234: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1207: 1206: 1204:Beijing Spring 1201: 1196: 1191: 1190: 1189: 1179: 1178: 1177: 1167: 1162: 1157: 1151: 1146: 1145: 1142: 1141: 1138: 1137: 1132: 1127: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1090: 1089: 1084: 1079: 1074: 1072:Sufan movement 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1023: 1018: 1017: 1014: 1013: 1005: 1004: 992: 991: 989: 988: 980: 977: 976: 973: 972: 969: 968: 961: 952: 949: 948: 943: 931: 930: 925: 915: 914: 909: 903: 902: 897: 891: 890: 887: 881: 880: 878: 877: 866: 843: 839: 837: 833: 832: 817: 813: 812: 802: 798: 797: 794: 793: 790: 787: 784: 783: 780: 779: 773: 772: 769: 766: 763: 762: 759: 756: 753: 752: 746: 745: 742: 741: 738: 732: 729: 728: 725: 715: 712: 711: 708: 702: 699: 698: 695: 689: 686: 685: 682: 676: 673: 672: 669: 663: 660: 659: 656: 655: 650: 649:Historical era 646: 645: 640: 636: 635: 632: 631: 615: 609: 606: 605: 594: 588: 585: 584: 568: 562: 559: 558: 547: 541: 538: 537: 534: 533: 516: 510: 509: 504: 498: 497: 489: 485: 484: 476: 470: 469: 464: 458: 457: 455: 454: 452:various others 449: 444: 439: 434: 428: 426: 420: 419: 412: 408: 407: 401: 397: 396: 360: 356: 355: 352: 344: 343: 341: 340: 335: 328: 320: 313: 312: 305: 298: 297: 291: 284: 283: 282: 279: 278: 274: 273: 270: 269: 262: 246: 245: 242: 233: 232: 215: 214: 129: 127: 120: 113: 112: 76:citation style 71: 69: 62: 57: 31: 30: 28: 21: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6853: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6828: 6826: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6802: 6797: 6793: 6790: 6786: 6785: 6781: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6757: 6755: 6753: 6749: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6716: 6715:Protestantism 6713: 6711: 6708: 6707: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6700:Folk religion 6698: 6696: 6693: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6680: 6679: 6676: 6675: 6673: 6671: 6667: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6648: 6644: 6641: 6637: 6636: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6604:Ethnic groups 6602: 6600: 6597: 6596: 6594: 6592: 6588: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6517:Four Beauties 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6494: 6492: 6488: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6425: 6422: 6421: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6376: 6374: 6372: 6368: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6356:Urban society 6354: 6352: 6349: 6345: 6342: 6341: 6340: 6337: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6314: 6313: 6312:Social issues 6310: 6308: 6305: 6301: 6298: 6297: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6290:Rural society 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6265: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6252: 6249: 6245: 6242: 6241: 6240: 6237: 6236: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6223: 6220: 6219: 6218: 6215: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6197: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6190:Chinese Dream 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6177: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6155: 6154:Space program 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6131: 6129: 6127: 6123: 6117: 6114: 6110: 6107: 6106: 6105: 6102: 6098: 6095: 6094: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6083: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6026: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5989: 5988: 5985: 5981: 5978: 5977: 5976: 5973: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5960: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5928: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5916: 5904: 5901: 5900: 5899: 5896: 5892: 5889: 5888: 5887: 5884: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5856: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5832: 5828: 5822: 5819: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5806: 5805: 5804:State Council 5802: 5798: 5795: 5794: 5793: 5790: 5786: 5783: 5782: 5781: 5778: 5772: 5769: 5768: 5767: 5764: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5751: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5733: 5730: 5729: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5690:Civil service 5688: 5687: 5685: 5683: 5679: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5652: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5644: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5631: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5600: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5571: 5569: 5567: 5563: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5542: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5497: 5495: 5493: 5489: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5462: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5429: 5427: 5423: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5378: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5338: 5336: 5332: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5315: 5314: 5311: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5296:South Central 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5278: 5276: 5274: 5270: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5245: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5233: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5197: 5196: 5193: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5180: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5166: 5162: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5140: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5083:Jin (266–420) 5081: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5063: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5048: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5018: 5017: 5014: 5010: 5007: 5006: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4992: 4988: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4966: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4952: 4948: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4926:Ethnic groups 4924: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4906: 4904: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4878: 4876: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4848: 4843: 4841: 4836: 4834: 4829: 4828: 4825: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4808: 4804: 4801: 4797: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4786: 4775: 4771: 4768: 4764: 4758: 4751: 4745: 4729: 4722: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4687: 4671: 4667: 4660: 4658: 4642: 4638: 4637: 4632: 4625: 4617: 4605: 4590: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4575: 4567: 4565: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4537: 4535: 4526: 4520: 4516: 4509: 4493: 4489: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4468: 4453: 4452: 4447: 4440: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4432: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4400: 4394: 4390: 4374: 4370: 4364: 4348: 4344: 4338: 4322: 4318: 4312: 4306: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4284: 4281: 4277: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4247: 4241: 4237: 4230: 4219: 4218: 4213: 4206: 4190: 4189: 4184: 4178: 4169: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4155: 4150: 4143: 4128: 4127: 4122: 4115: 4099: 4095: 4094: 4089: 4082: 4075: 4074: 4063: 4058: 4042: 4041: 4040:Nixon Library 4036: 4030: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4001: 3986: 3985: 3980: 3973: 3957: 3956: 3951: 3945: 3929: 3925: 3919: 3917: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3889: 3881: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3862: 3845: 3841: 3834: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3803: 3787: 3783: 3776: 3770: 3766: 3763: 3758: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3697: 3682: 3678: 3671: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3634:September 27, 3629: 3625: 3621: 3614: 3598: 3594: 3588: 3586: 3569: 3565: 3563: 3562:Wilson Center 3558: 3554: 3553:Fukuda, Takeo 3550: 3549:Deng Xiaoping 3544: 3528: 3524: 3518: 3503: 3499: 3493: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3462: 3460: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3420: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3392: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3323: 3318: 3317: 3312: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3265: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3238: 3236: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3206: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3178: 3177:Wilson Center 3174: 3167: 3160: 3158: 3142: 3141: 3136: 3129: 3113: 3112: 3107: 3101: 3099: 3090: 3088:9789814476966 3084: 3081:. p. 7. 3080: 3076: 3075: 3067: 3052: 3048: 3047: 3040: 3036: 3022: 3018: 3012: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2987: 2983: 2973: 2970: 2969: 2963: 2961: 2957: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2933: 2931: 2925: 2923: 2919: 2909: 2908: 2903: 2898: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2854: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2843:rock concerts 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2822: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2803:Protestantism 2799: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2781: 2777: 2771: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2746: 2742: 2732: 2730: 2725: 2723: 2722:Armand Hammer 2719: 2715: 2711: 2706: 2702: 2700: 2695: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2674: 2673:microeconomic 2669: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2656: 2652: 2651: 2645: 2643: 2637: 2635: 2630: 2626: 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