Horse behavior - Knowledge

715:, sometimes indicate appeasement of a more aggressive herd member by extending their necks and clacking their teeth. Horses making a chewing motion with no food in the mouth do so as a soothing mechanism, possibly linked to a release of tension, though some horse trainers view it as an expression of submission. Horses will sometimes extend their upper lip when scratched in a particularly good spot, and if their mouth touches something at the time, their lip and teeth may move in a mutual grooming gesture. A very relaxed or sleeping horse may have a loose lower lip and chin that may extend further out than the upper lip. The curled lip flehmen response, noted above, most often is seen in stallions, but is usually a response to the smell of another horse's urine, and may be exhibited by horses of any sex. Horses also have assorted mouth motions that are a response to a 639:. On the other hand, some humans exhibit fear of a horse, and a horse may interpret this behavior as human submission to the authority of the horse, placing the human in a subordinate role in the horse's mind. This may lead the horse to behave in a more dominant and aggressive fashion. Human handlers are more successful if they learn to properly interpret a horse's body language and temper their own responses accordingly. Some methods of horse training explicitly instruct horse handlers to behave in ways that the horse will interpret as the behavior of a trusted leader in a herd and thus more willingly comply with commands from a human handler. Other methods encourage 499:

turnout (living in pasture) may be psychologically healthy for the horses, pasture breeding presents a risk of injury to valuable breeding stock, both stallions and mares, particularly when unfamiliar animals are added to the herd. It also raises questions of when or if a mare is bred, and may also raise questions as to parentage of foals. Therefore, keeping stallions in a natural herd is not common, especially on breeding farms mating multiple stallions to mares from other herds. Natural herds are more often kept on farms with closed herds, i.e. only one or a few stallions with a stable mare herd and few, if any, mares from other herds.

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frequently foreshadowing aggressive behavior that will soon follow. Sometimes ears laid back, especially when accompanied by a strongly swishing tail or stomping or pawing with the feet are signals used by the horse to express discomfort, irritation, impatience, or anxiety. However, horses with ears slightly turned back but in a loose position, may be drowsing, bored, fatigued, or simply relaxed. When a horse raises its head and neck, the animal is alert and often tense. A lowered head and neck may be a sign of relaxation, but depending on other behaviors may also indicate fatigue or illness.

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of factors, including an individual's need for a particular resource at a given time. It can therefore be variable throughout the lifetime of the herd or individual animal. Some horses may be dominant over all resources and others may be submissive for all resources. This is not part of natural horse behavior. It is forced by humans forcing horses to live together in limited space with limited resources. So called "dominant horses" are often horses with dysfunctional social abilities - caused by human intervention in their early lives (weaning, stable isolation, etc.).

339:, though occasionally a few less-dominant males may remain on the fringes of the group. The reproductive success of the lead stallion is determined in part by his ability to prevent other males from mating with the mares of his harem. The stallion also exercises protective behavior, patrolling around the band, and taking the initiative when the band encounters a potential threat. The stability of the band is not affected by size, but tends to be more stable when there are subordinate stallions attached to the harem. 415: 478: 628:. Horses use a combination of ear position, neck and head height, movement, and foot stomping or tail swishing to communicate. Discipline is maintained in a horse herd first through body language and gestures, then, if needed, through physical contact such as biting, kicking, nudging, or other means of forcing a misbehaving herd member to move. In most cases, the animal that successfully causes another to move is dominant, whether it uses only body language or adds physical reinforcement. 782:. Horses may spend anywhere from four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. However, not all this time is the horse asleep; total sleep time in a day may range from several minutes to two hours. Horses require approximately two and a half hours of sleep, on average, in a 24-hour period. Most of this sleep occurs in many short intervals of about 15 minutes each. These short periods of sleep consist of five minutes of 732: 2494: 121: 545:, however, stallions generally must be kept away from close contact with mares, both to avoid unintentional or unplanned matings, and away from other stallions to minimize fighting for dominance. When horses are lined up for award presentations at shows, handlers keep stallions at least one horse length from any other animal. Stallions can be taught to ignore mares or other stallions that are in close proximity while they are working. 24: 794: 355: 848:, they do best when they are fed on a regular schedule; they are creatures of habit and easily upset by changes in routine. When horses are in a herd, their behavior is hierarchical; the higher-ranked animals in the herd eat and drink first. Low-status animals, that eat last, may not get enough food, and if there is little available feed, higher-ranking horses may keep lower-ranking ones from eating at all. 552:(U.K.) live in bachelor herds on their winter grazing pastures. When managed as domesticated animals, some farms assert that carefully managed social contact benefits stallions. Well-tempered stallions intended to be kept together for a long period may be stabled in closer proximity, though this method of stabling is generally used only by experienced stable managers. An example of this is the stallions of the 2030: 609: 655: 647: 601: 193:). This survival mechanism still exists in the modern domestic horse. Humans have removed many predators from the life of the domestic horse; however, its first instinct when frightened is to escape. If running is not possible, the horse resorts to biting, kicking, striking or rearing to protect itself. Many of the horse's natural behavior patterns, such as herd-formation and 689:, it is possible for a horse to position one ear forward and one ear back, indicative of similar divided visual attention. This behavior is often observed in horses while working with humans, where they need to simultaneously focus attention on both their handler and their surroundings. A horse may turn the pinna back when also seeing something coming up behind it. 696:, head position may indicate where the animal is focusing attention. To focus on a distant object, a horse will raise its head. To focus on an object close by, and especially on the ground, the horse will lower its nose and carry its head in a near-vertical position. Eyes rolled to the point that the white of the eye is visible often indicates fear or anger. 685:, and thus a horse with both ears forward is generally concentrating on something in front of it. Similarly, when a horse turns both ears forward, the degree of tension in the horse's pinna suggests if the animal is calmly attentive to its surroundings or tensely observing a potential danger. However, because horses have strong 843:

grasses in semi-arid regions and traveling significant distances each day in order to obtain adequate nutrition. Thus, they are "trickle eaters," meaning they have to have an almost constant supply of food to keep their digestive system working properly. Horses can become anxious or stressed if there

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Ear position, head height, and body language may change to reflect emotional status as well. For example, the clearest signal a horse sends is when both ears are flattened tightly back against the head, sometimes with eyes rolled so that the white of the eye shows, often indicative of pain or anger,

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action. The result is a rapid rise in blood pressure, resulting in an increased supply of oxygen and glucose for energy to the brain and skeletal muscles, the most vital organs the horse needs when fleeing from a perceived threat. However, the increased supply of oxygen and glucose to these areas is

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motion may also be a form of communication. Slight tail swishing is often a tool to dislodge biting insects or other skin irritants. However, aggressive tail-swishing may indicate either irritation, pain or anger. The tail tucked tightly against the body may indicate discomfort due to cold or, in

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When anxiety over separation occurs while a horse is being handled by a human, the horse is described as "herd-bound". However, through proper training, horses learn to be comfortable away from other horses, often because they learn to trust a human handler. Horses are able to trust a human handler.

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Stallions tend to stay on the periphery of the herd where they fight off both predators and other males. When the herd travels, the stallion is usually at the rear and apparently drives straggling herd members forward, keeping the herd together. Mares and lower-ranked males do not usually engage in

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or "pecking order" is important to reduce aggression and increase group cohesion. This is often, but not always, a linear system. In non-linear hierarchies horse A may be dominant over horse B, who is dominant over horse C, yet horse C may be dominant over horse A. Dominance can depend on a variety

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or small paddock. When stallions are stabled in a manner that allows visual and tactile communication, they will often challenge each another and sometimes attempt to fight. Therefore, stallions are often kept isolated from each other to reduce the risk of injury and disruption to the rest of the

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Some breeders keep horses in semi-natural conditions, with a single stallion amongst a group of mares. This is referred to as "pasture breeding." Young immature stallions are kept in a separate "bachelor herd." While this has advantages of less intensive labor for human caretakers, and full-time

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in origin, that include wood chewing, stall walking (walking in circles stressfully in the stall), wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth) and other problems. These have been linked to a number of possible causal factors, including a lack of environmental stimulation and early weaning

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Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements. However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it

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A recent supplemental theory posits that there is "distributed leadership", and no single individual is a universal herd leader. A 2014 study of horses in Italy, described as "feral" by the researcher, observed that some herd movements may be initiated by any individual, although higher-ranked

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The horse does not use its mouth to communicate to the degree that it uses its ears and tail, but a few mouth gestures have meaning beyond that of eating, grooming, or biting at an irritation. Bared teeth, as noted above, are an expression of anger and an imminent attempt to bite. Horses,

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into the brain, and it effectively reverses the effects of noradrenaline – metabolic rate, blood pressure and heart rate all decrease and the increased oxygen and glucose being supplied to the muscles and brain are returned to normal. This is also known as the "rest and digest" state.

635:. If socialized to human contact, horses usually respond to humans as a non-threatening predator. Humans do not always understand this, however, and may behave in a way, particularly if using aggressive discipline, that resembles an attacking predator and triggers the horse's 507:

stable. If stallions are provided with access to paddocks, there is often a corridor between the paddocks so the stallions cannot touch each other. In some cases, stallions are released for exercise at different times of the day to ensure they do not see or hear each another.

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may become dominant in a domestic herd. Usually dominance in these cases is a matter of age and, to some extent, temperament. It is common for older animals to be dominant, though old and weak animals may lose their rank in the herd. There are also studies suggesting that a

346:, the only remaining truly wild horse, family groups are formed by one adult stallion, one to three mares, and their common offspring that stay in the family group until they are no longer dependent, usually at two or three years old. 386:. The fillies usually join another band soon afterward, and the colts driven out from several herds usually join in small "bachelor" groups until those who are able to establish dominance over an older stallion in another herd. 592:, or herds where a gelding is dominant over the rest of the herd; for example if the mares in the herd are quite young or of low status, may be more anxious as a group and less relaxed than those where a mare is dominant. 373:

Most young horses in the wild are allowed to stay with the herd until they reach sexual maturity, usually in their first or second year. Studies of wild herds have shown that the herd stallion will usually drive out both

147:. Their first reaction to a threat is often to flee, although sometimes they stand their ground and defend themselves or their offspring in cases where flight is untenable, such as when a foal would be threatened. 332:(sometimes called the "lead mare" or the "boss mare"). The composition of bands changes as young animals are driven out of their natal band and join other bands, or as stallions challenge each other for dominance. 1293:"VanDierendonck MC, de Vries H, Schilder MBH (1995) An Analysis of Dominance, Its Behavioural Parameters and Possible Determinants in a Herd of Icelandic orses in Captivity. Netherl J Zool 45, 362–385 (PDF)" 707:

some cases, pain. The horse may demonstrate tension or excitement by raising its tail, but also by flaring its nostrils, snorting, and intently focusing its eyes and ears on the source of concern.

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Vervaecke H, Stevens J, Vandemoortele H, Sigurjönsdöttir H, De Vries H (2007) Aggression and dominance in matched groups of subadult Icelandic horses (Equus caballus). J Ethol 25, 239–248. doi:

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Relaxed ear position of a bored or resting horse. Lower lip is loose, also indicating relaxation. The sclera of this horse's eye shows a bit of white, but it is not rolled back in fear or anger.

321:"herds" are usually made up of several separate, small "bands" which share a territory. Size may range from two to 25 individuals, mostly mares and their offspring, with one to five stallions. 158:

horses thousands of years ago, and they have been used by humans ever since. Through selective breeding, some breeds of horses have been bred to be quite docile, particularly certain large

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Heitor F, do Mar Oom M, Vicente L (2006) Social relationships in a herd of Sorraia horses Part I. Correlates of social dominance and contexts of aggression. Behav Process 73, 170–177. doi:

1292: 556:, which travel, train and are stabled in close proximity. In these settings, more dominant animals are kept apart by stabling a young or less dominant stallion in the stall between them. 430:, stallions tend to act more aggressively to keep the mares within the herd, however, most of the time, the stallion is relaxed and spends much of his time "guarding" the herd by 1646: 306:

Since it is not possible to form interspecies herds, humans cannot be part of a horse herd hierarchy and therefore can never take the place of "lead-mares" or "lead-stallions".

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Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept entirely alone may not sleep well because its

291:". Newer research shows that there is no "pecking order" in horse herds. Free ranging, wild horses are mostly communicating via positive reinforcement and less via punishment. 2004:

McCall C.A (Professor of Animal Sciences, Auburn University) 2006, Understanding your horses’ behaviour, Alabama Co-operative Extension System, Alabama, viewed 21/10/13,

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secretions into the bloodstream. When a horse reacts to a threat, it may initially "freeze" in preparation to take flight. The fight-or-flight reaction begins in the

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automatically engages the stay apparatus when their muscles relax. The horse engages the stay apparatus in the hind legs by shifting its hip position to lock the

1346:, Flauger, B., Farmer, K., & Hemelrijk, C. (2014). Movement initiation in groups of feral horses. Behavioural Process., 103, 91–101. viewed January 9, 20144, 398:

of females, though he usually engages in herding and protective behavior. Rather, the horse that tends to lead a wild or feral herd is most commonly a dominant

454:, one stallion could potentially sire thousands of offspring annually, though in practice, economic considerations usually limit the number of foals produced. 302:

where they cannot see other animals, may require a stable companion such as a cat, goat, or even a small pony or donkey, to provide company and reduce stress.

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Keiper R, Receveur H (1992) Social interactions of free-ranging Przewalski horses in semi-reserves in the Netherlands. Appl Anim Behav Sci 33, 303–318. doi:

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Keiper RR (1988) Social interactions of the Przewalski horse (Equus przewalskii Poliakov, 1881) herd at the Munich Zoo. Appl Anim Behav Sci 21, 89–97. doi:

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Ear position is often one of the most obvious behaviors that humans notice when interpreting horse body language. In general, a horse will direct the

1864: 1731: 526:). While many domesticated stallions become too aggressive to tolerate the close presence of any other male horse without fighting, some tolerate a 402:. The mare "guides the herd to food and water, controls the daily routine and movement of the herd, and ensures the general wellbeing of the herd." 294:

Horses are able to form companionship attachments not only to their own species, but with other animals as well, most notably humans. In fact, many

255:. Catecholamine hormones, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent 2289: 1299: 534:, who lived with a gelding companion named "Pumpkin". Other stallions may tolerate the close presence of an immature and less dominant stallion. 1946: 643:

to teach the horse to respond in a desired way to human body language, but also teach handlers to recognize the meaning of horse body language.

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horses will become anxious, flighty, and hard to manage if they are isolated. Horses kept in near-complete isolation, particularly in a closed

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Horses' instincts can be used to human advantage to create a bond between human and horse. These techniques vary, but are part of the art of

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dominance behavior from its dam, and at maturity seek to obtain the same rank in a later herd that its mother held when the horse was young.

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Fights for dominance are normally brief; sometimes, displays which do not involve physical contact are sufficient to maintain the hierarchy.

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Domesticated stallions, with human management, often mate with ("cover") more mares in a year than is possible in the wild. Traditionally,

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Stevens, Elizabeth Franke (1990). "Instability of Harems of Feral Horses in Relation to Season and Presence of Subordinate Stallions".

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Tense, backward ear position indicating apprehension. Mouth and lips are also tense, which may indicate an increased tendency to bite.

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were developed for speed, agility, alertness, and endurance; building on natural qualities that extended from their wild ancestors.

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animal in the wild. Lying down makes an animal more vulnerable to predators. Horses are able to sleep standing up because a "

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Stallions live peacefully in bachelor herds in the wild and in natural management settings. For example, the stallions in the

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practices. Research is ongoing to investigate the neurobiological changes involved in the performance of these behaviors.

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stud farms limited stallions to breeding with between 40 and 60 mares a year. By breeding mares only at the peak of their

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animals, adapted to eating small amounts of the same kind of food all day long. In the wild, the horse adapted to eating

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Once the horse has removed itself from immediate danger, the body is returned to more "normal" conditions via the

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Horses have evolved to live in herds. As with many animals that live in large groups, establishment of a stable

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Horses evolved from small mammals whose survival depended on their ability to flee from predators (for example:

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Horses can sleep both standing up and lying down. They can sleep while standing, an adaptation from life as a

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horses indicate that horses appear to benefit from a strong female presence in the herd. Groupings of all

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as a companion, particularly one that has a very calm temperament. One example of this was the racehorse

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One ear forward and one ear back, usually indicating divided attention or environmental monitoring.

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Once a dominance hierarchy is established, horses more often than not will travel in rank order.

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Horses can interpret the body language of other creatures, including humans, whom they view as

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associated with isolation, some stallions are provided with a non-horse companion, such as a

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When confined with insufficient companionship, exercise or stimulation, horses may develop

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of an ear toward the source of input it is also looking at. Horses have a narrow range of

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Williams, Carey A.Ph.D., Extension Specialist. "The Basics of Equine Behavior," FS #525

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http://www.rug.nl/research/behavioural-ecology-and-self-organization/_pdf/kr_ea_bp14.pdf

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Horses have a strong grazing instinct, preferring to spend most hours of the day eating

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at the expense of "non-essential" flight organs, such as the skin and abdominal organs.

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Padgett, David; Glaser, R (August 2003). "How stress influences the immune response".

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involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing. This condition differs from

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Horses obtain needed sleep by many short periods of rest. This is to be expected of a

723:, some indicating relaxation and acceptance, others indicating tension or resistance. 2523: 2304: 2106: 1995: 1924: 1683: 1652: 1631: 1504: 1096: 948: 519: 229: 1427: 450:, a few thoroughbred stallions have mated with over 200 mares per year. With use of 2126: 2121: 1496: 1405: 1088: 822: 686: 682: 467: 419: 336: 154:

horses are also suited to a number of work and entertainment-related tasks. Humans

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Williams, Carey A.,Ph.D., Extension Specialist. "The Basics of Equine Nutrition"

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Walking the Way of the Horse: Exploring the Power of the Horse-Human Relationship

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manure piles and urination spots to communicate his dominance as herd stallion.

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Horses are not particularly vocal, but do have four basic vocalizations: the

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Scott, Laurel. "Equine Expressions: Understanding Your Horse's Body Language"

1598:"The Natural Horse and Unnatural Behaviour." Reproduced with permission from 1508: 1072: 889: 760: 663: 625: 568:

usually requires stallions to be isolated from other horses, either mares or

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Riley, Christopher B.; Cregier, Sharon E.; Fraser, Andrew F. (2022-05-10).

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Basics of Equine Behaviour - Equine Behaviour & Training Association

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FS #038, Equine Science Center, Rutgers University, Revised: April 2004.

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the Proceedings of the BEVA Specialist Days on Behaviour and Nutrition.

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Horses need to lie down occasionally, and prefer soft ground for a nap.

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Contrary to popular belief, the herd stallion is not the "ruler" of a

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Kinsey, J. M.; Denison, Jennifer (2008). "Inside Your Horse's Mind".

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Mature, domesticated stallions are commonly kept by themselves in a

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of activities, are directly related to their being a prey species.

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animal, that needs to be ready on a moment's notice to flee from

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Do Horses Sleep Standing Up? Web site, accessed March 23, 2007

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An older theory of hierarchy in herd of horses is the "linear

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joint, a "hook" structure on the inside bottom end of the

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such as nickering, squealing or whinnying; touch, through

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members are followed more often by other herd members.

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The Horse Trust - Equine Clinical Animal Behaviour Hub

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Margioris, Andrew; Tsatsanis, Christos (April 2011).

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In bands, there is usually a single "herd" or "lead"

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Barakat, Christine. "Is your horse sleep deprived?"

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is activated almost simultaneously and releases the

1116:"Glands at a Glance – The horses' endocrine system" 1019: 204:response involves nervous impulses which result in 48:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1671: 1644: 1249: 559: 309: 2024:Case Studies of Equine Behaviour - FAB Clinicians 1822: 457: 2510: 1967:Equine Science Center, Rutgers University, 2004. 1879: 1359: 1144:. University of Utah Press. 2002. Archived from 1078: 1648:Fraser's The Behaviour and Welfare of the Horse 994: 437: 1391: 616:Horses communicate in various ways, including 537:Stallions and mares often compete together at 162:. On the other hand, most light horse riding 2055: 1565: 1107: 942: 844:are long periods of time between meals. When 1988:Budiansky, Stephen. 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(1997). 1176:The Horses' World', Ultimate Horse Care 418:A stallion (foreground) exhibiting the 409: 2511: 1732:"Audio Samples of Common Horse Sounds" 1721:Equisearch.com. Accessed July 2, 2010 1169: 970:"Understanding your horses' behaviour" 967: 342:In modern reintroduced populations of 267:. This is triggered by the release of 135:is best understood from the view that 2043: 1835:"How Horses Sleep Pt. 2 - Power Naps" 1709: 1113: 835:. Horses and other equids evolved as 1368:"Horses in Company (no issue given)" 1365: 1025: 974:Alabama Cooperative Extension System 46:adding citations to reliable sources 17: 1976:Web site accessed February 14, 2007 771:, preventing the leg from bending. 13: 1953:Web site accessed February 9, 2007 1706:, February 2007, issue 353, p. 34. 1606:Website accessed June 22, 2007 at 995:Greene, B.; Comerford, P. (2009). 816: 426:this herding behavior. During the 275: 14: 2535: 2372:Mountain and moorland pony breeds 2008: 1232:"Horse Brain Discussion: Part II" 726: 328:. Each band is led by a dominant 2493: 2492: 2028: 997:"Horse Fight vs Flight instinct" 806:, which horses may suffer from. 595: 522:was particularly fond of a barn 476: 284:that prefer to live in a group. 22: 1956: 1913: 1899: 1808: 1783: 1772: 1749: 1724: 1696: 1665: 1638: 1612: 1592: 1523: 1480: 1434: 1385: 1223: 692:Due to the nature of a horse's 560:Dominance in domesticated herds 310:Social organization in the wild 33:needs additional citations for 1675:Seabiscuit: An American Legend 1604:Equine Veterinary Journal Ltd. 1443:"The Secret Life of Stallions" 1056:. Endotext.org. Archived from 988: 961: 870:considered bad habits, mostly 866:, an assortment of compulsive 786:, followed by five minutes of 458:Domesticated stallion behavior 265:parasympathetic nervous system 177:The "fight-or-flight" response 150:Nonetheless, because of their 143:animals with a well-developed 1: 2490:Lists of horse-related topics 1982: 1882:"Sleep patterns in the horse" 1093:10.1016/S1471-4906(03)00173-X 220:and secretion of the hormone 2157:Glossary of equestrian terms 1054:"ACTH Action on the Adrenal" 895:Glossary of equestrian terms 438:Ratio of stallions and mares 7: 1672:Hillenbrand, Laura (2001). 1620:"We have the technology..." 1602:Ed. P.A.Harris et al. Pub. 1209:Equine Education Connection 878: 10: 2540: 2280:Ancient and Imperial China 2069: 1867:November 14, 2007, at the 885:Domestication of the horse 855: 820: 739:sleeping while standing up 577:will "inherit" or perhaps 566:domestication of the horse 461: 2485: 2400: 2341: 2303: 2257: 2167:List of equestrian sports 2145: 2077: 1880:Belling Jr, T.H. (1990). 1588:. iUniverse. p. 144. 1230:Butcher-Gray, M. (2011). 280:Horses are highly social 1629:originally published in 930: 788:rapid eye movement sleep 637:fight-or-flight response 624:or nuzzling; smell; and 145:fight-or-flight response 1501:10.1163/156853990X00167 1472:McGreevy, Paul (2004). 1205:"Equine Nervous System" 852:Psychological disorders 753:equine forelimb anatomy 452:artificial insemination 324:Bands are defined as a 1566:Kincaid, A.T. (2008). 1531:"Wild Horses Behavior" 798: 740: 659: 651: 613: 605: 518:donkey or a goat (the 422: 359: 350:Hierarchical structure 129: 2037:at Wikimedia Commons 1921:The Nature of Horses. 1769:Accessed July 2, 2010 1584:Hallberg, L. (2008). 968:McCall, C.A. (2006). 796: 734: 670:, the squeal and the 657: 649: 611: 603: 554:Spanish Riding School 417: 390:Role of the lead mare 357: 251:, and suppresses the 123: 1919:Budiansky, Stephen. 1398:Journal of Mammalogy 1178:. Ringpress books UK 1081:Trends in Immunology 1032:tellingtonttouch.com 641:operant conditioning 410:Role of the stallion 42:improve this article 2290:Indian subcontinent 1767:Practical Horseman. 1476:. Saunders Company. 1170:Burton, F. (1999). 1122:on November 3, 2013 493:3–6 times per day. 364:hierarchical system 289:dominance hierarchy 195:social facilitation 2323:American Civil War 2078:Equine science and 1972:2007-04-07 at the 1949:2007-04-08 at the 1923:Free Press, 1997. 1791:"How Horses Sleep" 1761:2011-06-17 at the 1625:2011-03-07 at the 1353:2014-01-09 at the 1114:Kilby, E. (1997). 945:Backcountry Basics 799: 759:in place. At the 741: 660: 652: 614: 606: 423: 360: 344:Przewalski's horse 243:, which increases 130: 2506: 2505: 2033:Media related to 1689:978-0-449-00561-3 1658:978-1-78924-210-2 1635:, March 12, 2002. 1632:Daily Racing Form 1618:Bergstein, Stan. 1453:on March 28, 2007 1366:Hood, R. (2017). 1148:on August 8, 2013 1026:Hood, R. (2001). 954:978-0-911647-84-6 520:Godolphin Arabian 235:(adrenaline) and 230:neurotransmitters 118: 117: 110: 92: 2531: 2496: 2495: 2064: 2057: 2050: 2041: 2040: 2032: 1977: 1960: 1954: 1937: 1931: 1917: 1911: 1910: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1886: 1877: 1871: 1859: 1850: 1849: 1847: 1846: 1837:. Archived from 1831: 1820: 1819: 1812: 1806: 1805: 1803: 1802: 1793:. Archived from 1787: 1781: 1776: 1770: 1765:September 2000, 1753: 1747: 1746: 1744: 1743: 1734:. Archived from 1728: 1722: 1716: 1707: 1700: 1694: 1693: 1669: 1663: 1662: 1642: 1636: 1616: 1610: 1608:Effem-Equine.com 1596: 1590: 1589: 1581: 1575: 1574: 1572: 1563: 1557: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1547:on June 30, 2007 1546: 1540:. Archived from 1535: 1527: 1521: 1520: 1495:(3/4): 149–161. 1484: 1478: 1477: 1469: 1463: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1449:. Archived from 1447:Horse Connection 1438: 1432: 1431: 1413: 1389: 1383: 1382: 1380: 1378: 1363: 1357: 1341: 1326: 1320: 1314: 1313: 1311: 1310: 1304: 1298:. 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