471:(Protect the Emperor Society) and worked, unsuccessfully, for a constitutional monarchy in China. Tan Sitong refused to flee and was executed. An alternative view is that Liang and Kang had a different objective for leaving for Japan which is to not only justify fleeing China but to also solicit intervention by foreign powers like Britain or Japan to rescue Emperor Guangxu.
665:
to the emperor to that effect. In another memorial to the
Emperor written the next day, Song advocated the formation of a federation and the sharing of the diplomatic, fiscal, and military powers of the four countries under a hundred-man committee. Lei Chia-sheng argues that this idea was the reason
518:
in 1905, educational and military modernization patterned after the model of Japan, and an experiment in constitutional and parliamentary government. The suddenness and ambitiousness of the reform effort actually hindered its success. One effect, to be felt for decades to come, was the establishment
673:
reported to his government that
Chinese reforms had been "much injured" by Kang and his friends' actions. However, the British and American governments had been largely unaware of the "federation" plot, which appears to have been Richard's own personal idea. The Japanese government might have been
563:
A mass of Kang and Liang's student reformer followers created a loyalty group called the "Kang Party" (AKA the "Kang dang") which helped set them apart from the other contemporary reformists of their time. This brought a rising fame to their name which put Kang and Liang's name on the top of the
631:
actually did a great deal of harm to the cause by his perceived arrogance in the eyes of the conservatives. Numerous rumors regarding potential repercussions, many of them false, had made their way to the Grand
Council; this was one of the factors in their decision to stage a coup against the
459:– were ordered to be executed. Reforms such as the abolishing of the old writing style was put back into mandate, the removal of offices and agencies were reinstituted, and the establishment of certain newspapers, civil societies and schools were all suspended. The two principal leaders,
243:. While Empress Dowager Cixi supported the principles of the Hundred Days' Reform, she feared that sudden implementation, without bureaucratic support, would be disruptive and that the Japanese and other foreign powers would take advantage of any weakness. She later backed the
657:
to
Beijing. Richard suggested that China appoint Itō as one of many foreign advisors in order to further push China's reform efforts. On September 18, Richard successfully convinced Kang to adopt his plan in which China would join a federation (合邦) of ten nations.
588:
and his allies were hopeless dreamers unaware of the political realities in which they operated. This view argues that the conservative elites were not opposed to change and that practically all of the reforms that were proposed were eventually implemented.
640:
to remove the emperor from power. Many, though not all, of the reforms came to naught. The council, now confident in their power, pushed for the execution of the reformers, an action that was carried out ruthlessly.
635:
The
Emperor set about to enact his reforms by largely bypassing the powerful Grand Council; said councilors, irritated at the Emperor's actions and fearful of losing the political power they had, then turned to the
1843:
596:, in his book "The Dragon Lady", argues that there were several reasons why the reforms failed. Chinese political power at the time was firmly in the hands of the ruling Manchu nobility. The highly xenophobic
277:(1856–1860) Opium Wars. The effort concentrated on providing the armed forces with modern weapons, rather than reforming governance or society. The limitations of this approach were exposed by the
2777:
399:
suspected a foreign plot due to the introduction into the Qing government of foreign advisors like
Timothy Richards and Ito Hirobumi; Duan wanted to expel foreigners completely from China.
1907:
572:
Views of the
Hundred Days' Reform have grown increasingly more complex and nuanced. The traditional view portrayed the reformers as heroes and the conservative elites, particularly the
395:
Opposition to the reforms was intense among the conservative ruling elite who condemned it as too radical and proposed a more moderate and gradualist alternatives. Conservatives like
2463:
308:) and foreign conflicts. Therefore, they developed influential philosophical systems for creating solutions which enacted political reform and a new Chinese reformist movement.
1741:
2502:
323:; Guangxu agreed. Some of Kang's students were also given minor but strategic posts in the capital to assist with the reforms. The goals of these reforms included:
584:
However, some historians in the late 20th century have taken views that are more favorable to the conservatives and less favorable to the reformers. In this view,
418:, and then march on Beijing and arrest Cixi. However, Yuan had previously promised to support Ronglu; rather than kill him, Yuan informed Ronglu of the plot.
608:
by-passed the Grand
Council and appointed four reformers to advise him. These reformers were chosen after a series of interviews, including the interview of
1836:
2507:
2343:
661:
Kang nonetheless asked fellow reformers Yang
Shenxiu (楊深秀) and Song Bolu (宋伯魯) to report this plan to the Guangxu Emperor. On September 20, Yang sent a
662:
612:, who was rejected by the Emperor and had far less influence than Kang's later boasting would indicate. At the suggestion of the reform advisors, the
2784:
864:
The Defeat That
Changed China's History: The First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95 altered China's past and has left the nation in reflection ever since
304:(梁啓超) saw the utter destruction and political problems of China at this time, such as political division, insurrection, opium addiction (due to the
225:
was a failed 103-day national, cultural, political, and educational reform movement that occurred from 11 June to 22 September 1898 during the late
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1922:
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2298:
1917:
1373:
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1999:
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why Cixi, who had just returned from the Summer Palace on September 19, decided to put an end to the reforms with the September 21 coup.
597:
1880:
1212:
Hua, Shiping (September 2004). "The Meiji Restoration (1868) and the Late Qing Reform (1898) revisited: Strategies and philosophies".
1987:
1972:
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aware of Richard's plan, since his accomplice was the former Japanese prime minister, but there is no evidence to this effect yet.
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2049:
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1982:
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703:
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1962:
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Emperor. Kang, like many of the reformers, grossly underestimated the reactionary nature of the vested interests involved.
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1614:
494:. Dong Fuxiang and the Muslim Gansu Army stationed in Beijing during the Hundred Days' Reform later participated in the
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2427:
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forces within China. Changes within the establishment were seen to be largely hopeless, and the overthrow of the whole
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1789:
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building a modern education system (studying mathematics and science instead of focusing mainly on Confucian texts)
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1042:
2644:
1887:
1574:
1460:
1263:
Kwong, Luke S. K. (2000). "Chinese Politics at the Crossroads: Reflections on the Hundred Days Reform of 1898".
1162:
Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of China, Presented to Both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty
2228:
2094:
1862:
1609:
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1518:
1508:
653:(伊藤博文) arrived in China on September 11, 1898, about the same time that Kang Youwei invited British missionary
190:
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31:
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1977:
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45:
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With the support of the conservatives and the armed forces commanded by Yuan and Ronglu, Cixi launched a
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266:
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862:
670:
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1699:
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774:
Wong, Young-Tsu (1992). "Revisionism Reconsidered: Kang Youwei and the Reform Movement of 1898".
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establishing trade schools for the manufacture of silk, tea, and other traditional Chinese crafts
361:
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as a place where sciences, liberal arts and the Chinese classics would all be available for study
288:, which had undergone comprehensive reforms during the same period. The defeat led to additional
278:
980:
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and were seeking ways to expel all Western influence from China. When implementing reform, the
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2522:
2189:
2151:
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2019:
1937:
1736:
1719:
1584:
1553:
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Learning to Be Human: Ren 仁, Modernity, and the Philosophers of China's Hundred Days' Reform
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2014:
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328:
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8:
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rapid industrialization of all of China through manufacturing, commerce, and capitalism
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government increasingly appeared to be the only viable way to save China. Despite the
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2004:
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1139:戊戌變法檔案史料 , Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1959, p. 15.「臣尤伏願我皇上早定大計，固結英、美、日本三國，勿嫌『合邦』之名之不美。」
1048:
979:. The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. p. 13. Archived from
952:
841:
803:
693:
621:
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341:
244:
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and his reform-minded supporters. Following the issuing of the reformative edicts, a
510:
The court put into effect some reform measures a decade later, starting with Cixi's
428:
235:
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2619:
2542:
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2009:
1870:
1816:
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1624:
1528:
1453:
1421:
1302:
1272:
1234:
Rethinking the 1898 Reform Period: Political and Cultural Change in Late Qing China
1221:
1183:
1023:
783:
698:
683:
392:" and that innovation must be accompanied by institutional and ideological change.
274:
151:
76:
1187:
1027:
2805:
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2356:
1811:
1774:
1724:
1684:
1634:
1579:
1448:
914:
654:
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605:
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on the Hundred Day's Reform and agreed that the reform movement was ill-advised.
547:
495:
320:
270:
230:
1011:
650:
617:
2614:
2487:
2253:
2216:
1664:
1654:
1594:
1012:"Kang Youwei's propaganda adjustments after the Hundred Days Reform, 1898–1900"
289:
1276:
1225:
1148:
Song Bolu, "Zhang Shandong dao jiancha yushi Song Bolu zhe" 掌山東道監察御史宋伯魯摺 , in
2845:
2726:
2692:
2657:
2273:
2263:
2079:
1470:
1295:
China's Alternative: Kang Youwei's Confucian Reforms in the Late Qing Dynasty
1135:
Yang Shenxiu, "Shandong dao jiancha yushi Yang Shenxiu zhe" 山東道監察御史楊深秀摺 , in
437:
649:
According to Professor Lei Chia-sheng (雷家聖), Japanese former prime minister
530:
On the other hand, the failure of the reform movement gave great impetus to
2815:
2746:
2443:
2385:
2074:
2056:
1912:
1382:
688:
535:
511:
499:
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on September 22, 1898, and took over the government. Guangxu was put under
369:
modernizing China's military and adopting modern training and drill methods
316:
301:
226:
158:
83:
1178:
Chang, Hao (1980). "Intellectual change and the reform movement, 1890–8".
974:"The China Relief Expedition Joint Coalition Warfare in China Summer 1900"
2830:
2810:
2682:
2403:
2124:
2119:
1152:, p. 170.「渠(李提摩太)之來也，擬聯合中國、日本、美國及英國為合邦，共選通達時務、曉暢各國掌故者百人，專理四國兵政稅則及一切外交等事。」
628:
609:
585:
557:
553:
524:
460:
456:
407:
312:
297:
282:
1249:
A Mosaic of the Hundred Days: Personalities, Politics, and Ideas of 1898
486:
were called to Beijing and helped put an end to the movement along with
2350:
2194:
2144:
2114:
1957:
1306:
795:
531:
491:
479:
448:
402:
In addition to the reforms, the reformers plotted to forcefully remove
305:
293:
1351:
1284:
576:, as villains unwilling to reform because of their selfish interests.
2139:
2129:
483:
351:
in all provinces and schools and colleges in all provinces and cities
787:
311:
Elements of the Qing government were sufficiently alarmed to permit
2624:
2369:
2316:
2258:
2134:
2109:
520:
334:
2609:
487:
415:
337:(positions that provided little or no work but provided a salary)
1044:
Pioneers of Modern China: Understanding the Inscrutable Chinese
452:
411:
206:
2333:
1892:
396:
285:
2792:
2503:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
1992:
616:
also held secret talks with former Japanese Prime Minister
443:
The reforms were reversed and their chief advocates – the "
366:
applying principles of capitalism to strengthen the economy
763:. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. pp. 278–280.
292:
as European powers took advantage of China's weakness. As
239:
was perpetrated by powerful conservative opponents led by
933:. G. Routledge & Sons, Limited. 1914. pp. 572–.
360:
changing the government from an absolute monarchy to a
669:
On October 13, following the coup, British ambassador
16:
1898 failed reform movement in late Qing dynasty China
163:
88:
947:
Wenguang Shao (2022). "5. The Turn of the Century".
388:
The reformers declared that China needed more than "
2508:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
1208:(6th edn, Oxford University Press 1999) pp 408–418.
579:
357:
encouraging imperial family members to study abroad
627:It has also been suggested, controversially, that
467:, fled to Japan to seek refuge where they founded
1251:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.
2843:
1126:康南海自訂年譜 , Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe 文海出版社, p. 67.
1908:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
1040:
644:
265:China embarked on an effort to modernize, the
2778:
2328:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
2299:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
1367:
1232:Karl, Rebecca E. and Peter Gue Zarrow, eds.,
949:China's Foreign Policy and Practice: A Survey
946:
125:
111:
50:
36:
1325:, The University of British Columbia Press.
1094:力挽狂瀾：戊戌政變新探 , Taipei: Wanjuan Lou 萬卷樓, 2004.
620:with the aim of using his experience in the
567:
384:establishing a bureau for railways and mines
1097:
840:] (in Chinese). 中国财政经济出版社. p. 23.
546:directly contributed to the success of the
216:
2785:
2771:
1374:
1360:
474:During the Hundred Days' Reform, generals
375:utilizing unused military land for farming
2821:Six gentlemen of the Hundred Days' Reform
1988:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
942:
940:
451:, Kang Guangren (Kang Youwei's brother),
1837:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
1106:Forty-five Years in China: Reminiscences
2444:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
1381:
1340:力挽狂瀾：戊戌政變新探 . Taipei: Wanjuan lou 萬卷樓.
1034:
624:to lead China through similar reforms.
281:(1894–1895) when China was defeated by
2844:
1009:
937:
904:
514:. These included the abolition of the
221:'Reform of the Wuxu year') or
2766:
2742:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
1983:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
1355:
1338:Liwan kuanglan: Wuxu zhengbian xintan
1262:
1177:
1092:Liwan kuanglan: Wuxu zhengbian xintan
1005:
1003:
1001:
860:
758:
754:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
709:Economic history of China (1912–1949)
704:Economic history of China before 1912
1963:Ministry of Posts and Communications
971:
773:
742:
740:
738:
736:
734:
732:
730:
728:
726:
724:
2711:History of Qing (People's Republic)
1211:
819:Empress Dowager Cixi: A Pocket Book
13:
2428:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
1797:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
1790:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
1670:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
1494:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
1291:
1171:
1164:(London, 1899.3), No. 401, p. 303.
1047:. World Scientific. pp. 10–.
998:
831:
564:court conservatives' most wanted.
414:, take control of the garrison at
14:
2883:
2717:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
2558:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
2433:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
1585:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
1016:Journal of Modern Chinese History
721:
229:. It was undertaken by the young
2528:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
1844:Articles of Favourable Treatment
1600:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
580:Failure as Kang's responsibility
550:in 1911, barely a decade later.
1575:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
1461:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
1155:
1142:
1129:
1116:
1084:
1061:
523:, which, in turn, gave rise to
2229:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
1519:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
1321:Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2018).
1180:The Cambridge History of China
965:
921:
905:Monson, Lucien Mathot (2021).
898:
854:
825:
816:
810:
767:
455:, Yang Shenxiu, Yang Rui, and
329:traditional examination system
269:, following its defeat in the
211:
202:
194:
164:
126:
112:
89:
51:
37:
1:
2663:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
2438:Islam during the Qing dynasty
2294:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
1978:Provincial military commander
1968:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
1953:Imperial Household Department
1780:Preparative Constitutionalism
1484:Sino-Russian border conflicts
1188:10.1017/CHOL9780521220293.006
1028:10.1080/17535654.2020.1763667
861:Pumin, Yin (18 August 2014).
406:from power. Tan Sitong asked
2422:Researches on Manchu Origins
1827:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
1437:Transition from Ming to Qing
1427:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
776:The Journal of Asian Studies
505:
372:establishing a naval academy
254:
7:
2322:Changzhou School of Thought
1832:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
1807:Railway Protection Movement
1785:1909 Parliamentary election
1770:British expedition to Tibet
1680:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
1640:Self-Strengthening Movement
1615:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
1336:Lei Chia-sheng 雷家聖 (2004).
1150:Wuxu bianfa dang'an shiliao
1137:Wuxu bianfa dang'an shiliao
677:
645:Richard's federation theory
267:Self-Strengthening Movement
261:Self-Strengthening Movement
247:after the invasions of the
10:
2888:
2722:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
1610:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
1549:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
1539:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
1509:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
1323:Yuan Shikai: A Reappraisal
258:
2857:Economic history of China
2801:
2732:Names of the Qing dynasty
2675:
2643:
2600:
2593:
2462:
2380:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
2307:
2239:
2160:
2065:
1861:
1752:
1710:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
1705:Gongche Shangshu movement
1650:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
1562:
1499:Chinese Rites controversy
1469:
1399:
1390:
1292:Li, ZongFang (May 2018).
1277:10.1017/S0026749X00003814
1226:10.1007/s12140-004-0020-0
1124:Kang Nanhai ziding nianpu
1072:. Encyclopædia Britannica
1010:Xiaoye, Jia (June 2020).
568:Differing interpretations
542:in the early 1900s, such
440:until his death in 1908.
175:
157:
150:
145:
141:
133:
119:
105:
100:
82:
75:
70:
66:
58:
44:
30:
26:
21:
2653:Great Qing Treasure Note
2473:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
2183:Administrative divisions
2000:Administrative divisions
1928:Flag of the Qing dynasty
1206:The Rise of Modern China
1070:"Hundred Days of Reform"
714:
498:and became known as the
107:Traditional Chinese
101:Alternative Chinese name
32:Traditional Chinese
22:Hundred Days' Reform
2249:Chengde Mountain Resort
2050:Three Eastern Provinces
1700:First Sino-Japanese War
1675:Northern Chinese Famine
1534:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
1432:Qing invasion of Joseon
1236:. (Harvard UP, 2002).
1041:Khoon Choy Lee (2005).
761:The Far East since 1500
759:Eckel, Paul E. (1948).
362:constitutional monarchy
279:First Sino-Japanese War
121:Simplified Chinese
46:Simplified Chinese
2630:Great Qing Copper Coin
2518:Convention of Tientsin
2451:Annotated Bibliography
2399:Qing official headwear
1442:Battle of Shanhai Pass
951:. Taylor and Francis.
600:faction dominated the
421:
319:to propose reforms to
2704:Draft History of Qing
2563:Treaty of Shimonoseki
2344:performance criticism
1948:Imperial Commissioner
1938:Great Qing Legal Code
1737:Eight-Nation Alliance
1720:Third plague pandemic
1630:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
1554:White Lotus Rebellion
445:Six Gentlemen of Wuxu
249:Eight-Nation Alliance
2826:Empress Dowager Cixi
2795:Hundred Days' Reform
2635:Great Qing Gold Coin
2568:Treaty of Tarbagatai
2513:Convention of Peking
2393:Pentaglot Dictionary
2375:Literary inquisition
2085:Ever Victorious Army
1918:Deliberative Council
1822:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
1775:1905 Batang uprising
1715:Hundred Days' Reform
1605:Small Swords Society
1265:Modern Asian Studies
1182:. pp. 274–338.
972:Leonhard, Robert R.
838:This century of ours
638:Empress Dowager Cixi
574:Empress Dowager Cixi
516:Imperial Examination
404:Empress Dowager Cixi
349:agricultural schools
241:Empress Dowager Cixi
183:Hundred Days' Reform
137:Hundred Days' Reform
2688:Anti-Qing sentiment
2538:Treaty of the Bogue
2478:Treaty of Nerchinsk
2410:Complete Tang Poems
2090:Green Standard Army
1973:Provincial governor
1943:Imperial Clan Court
1923:Diplomatic missions
1898:Consultative Bureau
1645:Tongzhi Restoration
1524:Afaqi Khoja revolts
1504:Ten Great Campaigns
1412:Jurchen unification
1111:Frederick A. Stokes
1090:Lei Chia-sheng雷家聖,
1067:See, for instance,
930:The China Year Book
191:traditional Chinese
2573:Treaty of Tientsin
2284:Western Qing tombs
2279:Eastern Qing tombs
2105:Peking Field Force
1849:Manchu Restoration
1742:Declaration of war
1695:Jindandao incident
1514:Lhasa riot of 1750
1247:Kwong, Luke S. K.
1204:Hsü, Immanuel C.
1103:Richard, Timothy,
986:on 6 December 2016
556:corresponded with
390:self-strengthening
199:simplified Chinese
62:Wuxu (year) reform
2839:
2838:
2760:
2759:
2671:
2670:
2583:Treaty of Whampoa
2578:Treaty of Wanghia
2553:Treaty of Nanking
2523:Li–Lobanov Treaty
2498:Chefoo Convention
2493:Burlingame Treaty
2364:Kangxi Dictionary
2269:Old Summer Palace
2100:Firearm Battalion
1903:Cup of Solid Gold
1857:
1856:
1802:Manchurian plague
1765:Late Qing reforms
1756:(1901–1912)
1690:Sikkim expedition
1620:Panthay Rebellion
1590:Taiping Rebellion
1566:(1801–1900)
1544:Sino-Nepalese War
1489:Dzungar–Qing Wars
1475:(1683–1799)
1403:(1616–1683)
1197:978-1-139-05478-2
1122:Kang Youwei 康有為,
1054:978-981-256-618-8
694:Late Qing reforms
622:Meiji Restoration
594:Sterling Seagrave
548:Xinhai Revolution
540:late Qing reforms
342:Peking University
245:late Qing reforms
219:
179:
178:
171:
170:
152:Standard Mandarin
96:
95:
77:Standard Mandarin
2879:
2787:
2780:
2773:
2764:
2763:
2737:New Qing History
2620:Qianlong Tongbao
2598:
2597:
2543:Treaty of Canton
2483:Unequal treaties
2289:Fuling Mausoleum
1888:Advisory Council
1817:Wuchang Uprising
1757:
1660:Tianjin Massacre
1625:Second Opium War
1567:
1529:Sino-Burmese War
1476:
1454:Battle of Penghu
1422:Seven Grievances
1404:
1397:
1396:
1376:
1369:
1362:
1353:
1352:
1318:
1300:
1288:
1229:
1201:
1165:
1159:
1153:
1146:
1140:
1133:
1127:
1120:
1114:
1101:
1095:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1038:
1032:
1031:
1007:
996:
995:
993:
991:
985:
978:
969:
963:
962:
944:
935:
934:
925:
919:
918:
902:
896:
895:
889:
885:
883:
875:
873:
871:
858:
852:
851:
829:
823:
822:
814:
808:
807:
771:
765:
764:
756:
699:Economy of China
684:History of China
671:Claude MacDonald
463:and his student
290:unequal treaties
273:(1839–1842) and
220:
217:
213:
204:
196:
167:
166:
143:
142:
129:
128:
115:
114:
92:
91:
68:
67:
54:
53:
40:
39:
19:
18:
2887:
2886:
2882:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2876:
2872:Reform in China
2862:1911 Revolution
2852:Boxer Rebellion
2842:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2806:Guangxu Emperor
2797:
2791:
2761:
2756:
2752:Willow Palisade
2698:Chuang Guandong
2667:
2639:
2589:
2548:Treaty of Kulja
2533:Treaty of Aigun
2466:
2458:
2357:History of Ming
2309:
2303:
2241:
2235:
2161:Special regions
2156:
2095:Imperial Guards
2061:
1853:
1812:1911 Revolution
1758:
1755:
1748:
1725:Boxer Rebellion
1685:Sino-French War
1635:Amur Annexation
1580:First Opium War
1568:
1565:
1558:
1477:
1474:
1465:
1449:Great Clearance
1405:
1402:
1386:
1380:
1298:
1198:
1174:
1172:Further reading
1169:
1168:
1160:
1156:
1147:
1143:
1134:
1130:
1121:
1117:
1102:
1098:
1089:
1085:
1075:
1073:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1039:
1035:
1008:
999:
989:
987:
983:
976:
970:
966:
959:
945:
938:
927:
926:
922:
903:
899:
887:
886:
877:
876:
869:
867:
859:
855:
848:
830:
826:
815:
811:
788:10.2307/2057948
772:
768:
757:
722:
717:
680:
655:Timothy Richard
647:
614:Guangxu Emperor
606:Guangxu Emperor
582:
570:
508:
496:Boxer Rebellion
424:
327:abolishing the
321:Emperor Guangxu
263:
257:
231:Guangxu Emperor
134:Literal meaning
59:Literal meaning
17:
12:
11:
5:
2885:
2875:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2790:
2789:
2782:
2775:
2767:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2707:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2672:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2649:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2615:Kangxi Tongbao
2612:
2606:
2604:
2595:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2488:Boxer Protocol
2480:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2456:
2455:
2454:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2418:
2413:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2389:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2360:
2353:
2348:
2347:
2346:
2336:
2331:
2324:
2319:
2313:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2254:Forbidden City
2251:
2245:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2217:General of Ili
2214:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2200:List of ambans
2197:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2175:
2170:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2148:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2071:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2059:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2002:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1878:
1867:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1840:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1787:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1761:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1665:Margary Affair
1662:
1657:
1655:Mudan incident
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1595:Nian Rebellion
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1571:
1569:
1564:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1480:
1478:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1463:
1458:
1457:
1456:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1414:
1408:
1406:
1401:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1379:
1378:
1371:
1364:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1334:
1319:
1289:
1271:(3): 663–695.
1260:
1245:
1230:
1209:
1202:
1196:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1154:
1141:
1128:
1115:
1096:
1083:
1060:
1053:
1033:
997:
964:
957:
936:
920:
897:
888:|website=
853:
846:
832:德熙, 冷 (2001).
824:
809:
782:(3): 513–544.
766:
719:
718:
716:
713:
712:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
679:
676:
646:
643:
581:
578:
569:
566:
507:
504:
423:
420:
386:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
370:
367:
364:
358:
355:
352:
345:
338:
331:
256:
253:
177:
176:
173:
172:
169:
168:
161:
155:
154:
148:
147:
146:Transcriptions
139:
138:
135:
131:
130:
123:
117:
116:
109:
103:
102:
98:
97:
94:
93:
86:
80:
79:
73:
72:
71:Transcriptions
64:
63:
60:
56:
55:
48:
42:
41:
34:
28:
27:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2884:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2867:1898 in China
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2800:
2796:
2788:
2783:
2781:
2776:
2774:
2769:
2768:
2765:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2727:Manchu people
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2693:Canton System
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2658:Hubu Guanpiao
2656:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2596:
2592:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2461:
2453:
2452:
2448:
2447:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2423:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2345:
2342:
2341:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2308:Society &
2306:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2274:Summer Palace
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2264:Mukden Palace
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2240:Palaces &
2238:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2080:Eight Banners
2078:
2076:
2073:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1933:Grand Council
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1753:20th century
1751:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1570:
1563:19th century
1561:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1472:
1468:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1447:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1377:
1372:
1370:
1365:
1363:
1358:
1357:
1354:
1347:
1346:957-739-507-4
1343:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1331:9780774837781
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1297:
1296:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1258:
1257:0-674-58742-1
1254:
1250:
1246:
1243:
1242:0-674-00854-5
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1175:
1163:
1158:
1151:
1145:
1138:
1132:
1125:
1119:
1112:
1108:
1107:
1100:
1093:
1087:
1071:
1064:
1056:
1050:
1046:
1045:
1037:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1006:
1004:
1002:
982:
975:
968:
960:
958:9781000787474
954:
950:
943:
941:
932:
931:
924:
916:
912:
908:
901:
893:
881:
866:
865:
857:
849:
847:9787500547761
843:
839:
835:
828:
820:
813:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
770:
762:
755:
753:
751:
749:
747:
745:
743:
741:
739:
737:
735:
733:
731:
729:
727:
725:
720:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
681:
675:
672:
667:
664:
659:
656:
652:
642:
639:
633:
630:
625:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
602:Grand Council
599:
595:
592:For example,
590:
587:
577:
575:
565:
561:
559:
555:
551:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
532:revolutionary
528:
526:
522:
517:
513:
503:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
472:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
441:
439:
438:Summer Palace
435:
431:
430:
419:
417:
413:
409:
405:
400:
398:
393:
391:
383:
380:
377:
374:
371:
368:
365:
363:
359:
356:
353:
350:
347:establishing
346:
343:
340:establishing
339:
336:
332:
330:
326:
325:
324:
322:
318:
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2676:Other topics
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2075:Beiyang Army
2057:Zongli Yamen
1913:Da-Qing Bank
1730:Red Lanterns
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1383:Qing dynasty
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863:
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821:. DeepLogic.
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689:Qing dynasty
668:
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651:Itō Hirobumi
648:
634:
626:
618:Itō Hirobumi
591:
583:
571:
562:
552:
529:
512:New Policies
509:
500:Kansu Braves
476:Dong Fuxiang
473:
469:Baohuang Hui
465:Liang Qichao
442:
434:house arrest
427:
425:
401:
394:
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333:eliminating
317:Liang Qichao
310:
302:Liang Qichao
264:
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227:Qing dynasty
222:
210:
186:
182:
180:
165:bǎirì wéixīn
159:Hanyu Pinyin
84:Hanyu Pinyin
2831:Yuan Shikai
2811:Kang Youwei
2683:Aisin Gioro
2645:Paper money
2404:Qing poetry
2125:Wuwei Corps
2120:Shuishiying
1881:Family tree
1307:10267/33646
1220:(3): 3–22.
1076:12 November
629:Kang Youwei
610:Kang Youwei
586:Kang Youwei
558:Gu Hongming
554:Leo Tolstoy
461:Kang Youwei
457:Liu Guangdi
447:" (戊戌六君子):
429:coup d'état
408:Yuan Shikai
397:Prince Duan
313:Kang Youwei
300:(康有爲), and
298:Kang Youwei
236:coup d'état
212:Wùxū Biànfǎ
187:Wuxu Reform
90:wùxū biànfǎ
2846:Categories
2793:People in
2351:Four Wangs
2242:mausoleums
2195:Golden Urn
2168:Inner Asia
2145:Xiang Army
2115:Hushenying
2040:Liangguang
2020:Liangjiang
1958:Lifan Yuan
1863:Government
1301:(Thesis).
990:31 October
915:2532030025
909:(Thesis).
870:3 February
544:sentiments
525:warlordism
492:Ma Fuxiang
480:Ma Anliang
449:Tan Sitong
306:opium wars
294:Tan Sitong
259:See also:
2173:Manchuria
2140:Huai Army
2130:Yong Ying
2015:Shaan-Gan
1471:High Qing
1417:Later Jin
1315:198926006
1214:East Asia
890:ignored (
880:cite book
804:154815023
598:iron hats
506:Aftermath
484:Ma Haiyan
335:sinecures
255:Beginning
223:Wuxu Coup
2625:Hongqian
2594:Currency
2464:Treaties
2370:Kaozheng
2317:Booi Aha
2259:Hetu Ala
2212:Timeline
2207:Xinjiang
2178:Mongolia
2135:Chu Army
2110:New Army
2067:Military
2005:Viceroys
911:ProQuest
817:Lu, Ji.
678:See also
663:memorial
521:New Army
416:Tientsin
410:to kill
2610:Zhiqian
2602:Coinage
2339:Economy
2310:culture
2045:Yun-Gui
2035:Min-Zhe
2030:Sichuan
2025:Huguang
1871:Emperor
1392:History
834:我们这一个世纪
796:2057948
519:of the
488:Ma Fulu
436:in the
296:(譚嗣同),
2224:Taiwan
1400:Early
1385:topics
1344:
1329:
1313:
1285:313144
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1113:(1916)
1109:publ.
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482:, and
453:Lin Xu
412:Ronglu
275:Second
209::
207:pinyin
201::
193::
2416:Queue
2334:Dibao
2190:Tibet
2010:Zhili
1893:Amban
1311:S2CID
1299:(PDF)
1281:JSTOR
984:(PDF)
977:(PDF)
836:[
800:S2CID
792:JSTOR
715:Notes
286:Japan
283:Meiji
271:First
2152:Navy
1993:Ejen
1876:List
1342:ISBN
1327:ISBN
1253:ISBN
1238:ISBN
1192:ISBN
1078:2011
1049:ISBN
992:2010
953:ISBN
892:help
872:2022
842:ISBN
536:Qing
490:and
315:and
218:lit.
203:戊戌变法
195:戊戌變法
181:The
127:百日维新
113:百日維新
52:戊戌变法
38:戊戌變法
1303:hdl
1273:doi
1222:doi
1184:doi
1024:doi
784:doi
422:End
185:or
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