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including solids, liquids and gases. In his work, he narrowed down the causes of diseases to a substance called "acid humour", which would affect flow of blood causing unbalance and detrimental chemical reactions, eventually causing malfunctioning of the human body. In a different example, it is documented that
Boerhaave observed a certain "medullary oil" existed inside of bones which was very important for creating the "heat and vital motion" disturbances that could lead to an ill state of the body. A certain accumulation of a fluid in these joints of the body would lead to disastrous stagnancy which would be characterized eventually by gangrenous or unhealthy tissue where this occurred. This medical state was coined as "imposthumation". Boerhaave is, perhaps, most well known in the realm of iatrochemistry for his discussions and understanding of the nervous system. Historians believe that Boerhaave's understanding of the human body and mechanisms in relation to the nervous and physical anatomy came from his personal interactions with soldiers in wars between the Dutch and Spanish. Through his understanding of the human body and chemistry he was able to develop a medicine for physical injuries. Boerhaave attributed fevers to the body's response to a stressful situation or shock, similar to the way that chemical reactions produce heat, in which the body encountered an unexpected onset of heat or freezing temperatures.
221:(1614–1672), is best known in 18th-century European medicine for his contributions to the understanding of the biochemistry of the body and the tubercles, and as one of the co-founders of an iatrochemical school. In continuation of humoral medicine, Sylvius did deem that diseases resulted from excesses of the humors in the body, but he saw it as a more chemically driven excess, specifically one of too much acid or alkali solution in the body. Sylvius had his own laboratory in which he ran experiments on acids and alkali solutions to see the result when different mixtures were made. Much of his theories of the human body were based on the digestive processes. His understanding was that digestion helped food undergo a fermentation reaction. He rationalized that the body functioned mainly as a result of chemical reactions, of which acids and alkali were the essential reactants and were products which needed to be kept in balance to be in a healthy state. Although Sylvius did not take on the more observation-based style of medicine that was being so championed in the 17th and 18th centuries, his emphasis on the chemical reactions and knowledge helped support this more observation-driven scientific approach to medicine. It is known that many of Sylvius' inquiries did help in the future discoveries of certain enzymes driving food digestion and bodily reactions.
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creation of new products and new uses for common substances in nature. The people of
Ayurvedic medicine categorize the materials in nature into three categories: 'Janagama,' substances from animals such as milk, urine, blood, and meat, 'Audbhida' or substances from plants such as stems, roots or leaves, and 'Paarthiwa' or metal/mineral substances such as gold, silver, copper or sulfur. There was especially an emphasis on the element, Mercury, in this culture. The name of these specific practices in Ayurvedic medicine, were termed 'Rasashaastra', which means the "Science of Mercury". which has eventually become known as Iatrochemistry in current terminology. Much of the focus of 'Rasashaastra' was on the processing of these metals to become ingestible by the human body. The therapeutic effect of the materials such as metals and minerals that were known to be indigestible by the human body were combined with plants or animal materials to increase their delivery ability to human body.
148:(1493–1541). He put his effort into the transmutation of metals and emphasized iatrochemistry in his works. Paracelsus believed that diseases were caused by poisons, but that poisons were not entirely negative. He suggested that poisons, or diseases, could also be cured by poisons; thus, poisons could have beneficial medical effects. Paracelsus's claim led to many chemically prepared medicines in this period which contained toxic components: arsenic, antimony, mercury, lead, and other heavy metals. However, his views were not accepted by many scholars until his writings were organized into systematic form by his followers. Gradually, many physicians accepted Paracelsian remedies, although some disagreed with Paracelsus's philosophy.
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called this substance "specific smoke" (i.e., that which contained the essence of its former material substance) and applied the term "gas." Van
Helmont's work included defining operations of the body in chemical terms. He described the body's functions as the chemical reactions of effervescence, fermentation, and putrefaction as the basis of all physiology. Using the texts of Paracelsus and Quercetanus as a guide, he determined that acid was the digestive agent in the stomach, demonstrating a major chemical process within bodily function. He also offered new methods derived from Paracelsus for preparing chemical medicines, advancing in particular recipes involving mercury.
232:(1659), Willis rejected the four Aristotelian elements of earth, air, fire and water, stating that they provided no special insight into "the more secret recesses of nature". Willis settled on a view on the organization of natural things based strictly on chemistry. Such a view, he wrote, "resolves all Bodies into Particles of Spirit, Sulphur, Salt, Water, and Earth ... Because this Hypothesis determinates Bodies into sensible parts, and cutts open things as it were to the life, it pleases us before the rest." Willis derived many of his conclusions from observations on distillation. It was eventually realized that these explanations were not accurate.
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322:. The iatrochemists rejected the traditional medical theory, mostly from Galenic traditionalists. Galen traditionalists sought to establish the balance of temperament within the bodies. There are two pairs of qualities, hot and cold, and wet and dry. Sickness came from the imbalance of one quality. That is, a cold was an excess of heat (hot quality), so it can be cured by reducing hot quality or by increasing cold quality. The iatrochemists, influenced by Paracelsus's belief, believed that the sickness was from the outside source, not because of the imbalance of the body.
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of "chymistry" as a way of understanding and curing the body. Although he began as a follower of
Paracelsus, van Helmont rejected many of his theories, most notably Galenic concept of the macrocosm with microcosm. In addition, van Helmont refused to accept the Paracelsian first principles (sulphur, salt, and mercury) as pre-existent in matter, believing instead that sulphur, salt and mercury were products of reactions that involved heat.
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228:(1621–1675), considered the effect of diaphoretics (sweat-promoting drugs) as resulting from the mechanisms of the drug entering the blood and associating or disturbing blood and flow which produces a state of heat and sweat. He also hypothesized that the working of opiates came from an interaction with a salt in the body that created a painless and woozy feeling when it reached the brain. In his treatise
342:(Sanskrit rasaśāstra, रसशास्त्र). Alchemical texts start to be composed in Sanskrit in South Asia from the end of the first millennium CE, and a flourishing literature developed and continued even into the twentieth century. These works contain extensive chapters on the use of alchemical recipes for healing.
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book of human anatomy. Boerhaave featured human beings participating in daily activities but with a transparency to them so that their organs could be seen. His fascination with chemistry led him to model the human body in terms of its chemistry in the flows and interactions of the different phases
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began a seven-year period of individual research, hoping to explore nature through chemistry, ultimately hoping to replace traditional learning. Van
Helmont used chemical methods to study bodily products such as urine and blood. He studied the human body and its functions, and applied his knowledge
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contributed greatly to the understanding of respiration by showing that air (or oxygen), which is required for fire in combustion reactions, is also needed for human breathing. Despite this, Boyle's works on the mechanical origin of qualities were generally rather remote from
Helmontian chemistry;
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In
Germany, van Helmont's philosophy was already a matter of dispute by 1649, and despite censures, Helmontianism gained a large number of followers in Germany. In France, van Helmont's works were immediately perceived as a threat to classical medicine. Guy Patin, a strenuous opponent of chemistry
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Additionally, Galenic traditionalists argued that chemically prepared medicines were poisonous, and the iatrochemists were inadequately trained. The former was true, and, in some cases, both were correct. Since
Paracelsus claimed that poisons could have beneficial medical effects, the number of
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Another controversy between
Galenic traditionalists and iatrochemists was the way to use herbs. The Galenic traditionalists thought that the strength of remedies relied on the amount of plant materials that was used. The iatrochemists, however, supported the chemical preparation of materials of
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Much of van
Helmont's medical philosophy was concerned with the activity of vital spirit in nature, which he believed originated from spiritual seeds planted in elementary water. To find the invisible seeds of bodies, van Helmont chemically studied the smoke from combusted solids and liquids. He
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The use of plants, minerals and metals in medical therapeutics also existed in India. In Ayurvedic medicine, substances used in these therapeutics were known as 'Rasa dravyas.' Ayurvedic medicine instills the belief that every material had the potential to be used as a substance. This drove the
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Van Helmont had a bias towards the unity of things. In examining body fluids, he postulated the notion of "latex", attempting to relate latex to secretions and thirst. This implied a common pool of it fluid, participating in more than one of what the Galenists took to be distinct humours. His
158:(1527) one of the most reissued chemical-medicine books of the 16th and 17th centuries. This documentation of knowledge was a trend that began in the mid-16th century and it allowed knowledge that was typically limited to those in apprenticeships to be accessible to anyone.
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however, Boyle's philosophy and Helmontian iatrochemistry were not mutually exclusive. Like van Helmont, Boyle claimed that spirit of human blood, like other ingredients obtained by the chemical analysis of blood, was no simple substance.
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had been published in five languages. The diffusion of his medical ideas varied by region. In Italy the diffusion of Helmontian ideas was concentrated mainly in Venice, where two influential Helmontians lived: the German physician
178:(1648). In it, Helmont shows that the Galenists are in confusion, supposing urine and sweat both to be separated blood serum, and serum itself to be the humour yellow bile, a fluid quite evidently different from it.
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and the Maceratese Ludovico Conti. There is also evidence that Helmontian iatrochemistry was widely diffused in Naples, as attested in the works of two prominent physicians, Lucantonio Porzio and Lionardo di Capua.
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advocated the extraction of the "essence" of both plants and minerals. He often used two relatively new substances during this period: an alcohol distilled from wine and strong mineral acids. Later, "
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Iatrochemistry was a new practice in the 17th century, a time when traditional medicines were based on a legacy from the 4th and 5th centuries B.C. Much of this tradition was derived from
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Clericuzio, Antonio (1993). "From van Helmont to Boyle. A study of the transmission of Helmontian chemical and medical theories in seventeenth-century England".
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toxic ingredients used in chemical medicines had increased. Galenic traditionalists later adapted medical method and some remedies to use in their own fields.
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The understanding of iatrochemists helped to drive new knowledge of how drugs work and treat medical conditions. Specifically, one English iatrochemist,
154:, who wrote some of the first books on chemical medicine, paved the way for a closer link between alchemy and medicine. His lucid, concise prose made
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fell out of use in Europe since the rise of modern establishment medicine. Iatrochemistry was popular between 1525 and 1660, especially in the
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as a mysterious key to transformations (from mash to beer or from health to fevers), engraved and published by Gerbrandus Schagen in Amsterdam
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at Sedan in 1653, and, four years later, Helmontian iatrochemistry was censured in a book published by the Paris physician Gabriel Fontaine.
209:(1668–1738) approached phenomena in medicine with a scientific process of observation and experiments. He is most famous for recreating the
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Vol.IIA, pp. 581–787 provides an extensive survey of the primary and secondary sources for Indian iatrochemical literature.
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Van Helmont's writings had a widespread influence on 17th-century European medical theory, and by 1709, twelve editions of
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Moran, Bruce T. (1996). "A Survey of Chemical Medicine in the 17th Century: Spanning Court, Classroom, and Cultures".
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Clericuzio, Antonio (2008). ""The White Beard of Chemistry". Alchemy, Paracelsianism and the "prisca Sapientia"".
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102:. Iatrochemical therapies and concepts are still in wide use in South Asia, East Asia and amongst their
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The most effective and vocal proponent of iatrochemistry was Theophrastus von Hohenheim, also known as
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Mary Lindemann, "Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe." Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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The preparation of medicines had become a part of alchemy by the early modern period. Around 1350,
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Lawrence M. Principe, "The Secrets of Alchemy." The University of Chicago Press, 2013.
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remedies to increase the effectiveness of the materials or to find the stronger medicine.
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and champion of Greek medicine, sharply attacked van Helmont, while J. Didier published a
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403:"Books of Distillation: Science, Technique and the Printing Press in Early Modern Europe"
94:, an important Swiss alchemist of the 16th century. Iatrochemists believed that physical
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Cook, Harold J. (2011-01-01). "The History of Medicine and the Scientific Revolution".
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Cook, Harold J. (2011). "The History of Medicine and the Scientific Revolution".
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Earles, M.P. (2006). "Early theories of the mode of action of drugs and poisons".
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Iatrochemistry is an example in which science in medicine turned into speculation.
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Possibly being one of the most famous physicians of the 17th and 18th centuries,
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White, David Gordon (1996). "Ch. 5: Tantric and Siddha Alchemical Literature".
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63:) is an archaic pre-scientific school of thought that was supplanted by modern
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Lawrence M. Principe, "Transmutations: Alchemy in Art." CHP publications.
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670:"Franciscus Sylvius on Clinical Teaching, Iatrochemistry and Brain Anatomy"
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137:" (i.e. the body of work attributed to, but not necessarily written by,
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Diatribae duae medico-philosophicae - quarum prior agit de fermentatione
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Refutation de la doctrine nouvelle du Sieur Helmont touchant es fievres
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collected works were edited and published by his son under the title
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141:) picked up and helped in expanding John of Rupescissa's theory.
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861:"Introduction to 'Rasashaastra'- the Iatrochemistry of Ayurveda"
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Science and the Practice of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century
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75:, iatrochemistry sought to provide chemical solutions to
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Lindeboom, G.A. (1968). "Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738)".
380:. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. p. 93.
338:Iatrochemical principles form a major part of the
243:
823:, reprinted in 1984 and 1998 and still available.
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1760:Suspicions about the Hidden Realities of the Air
932:The Western Medical Tradition: 800 BC To AD 1800
832:
1537:Book of the Silvery Water and the Starry Earth
570:The British Journal for the History of Science
2996:
2017:
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795:
674:The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences
1168:pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana (Balīnūs/Balīnās)
425:Medicine and society in early modern Europe
282:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
55: 'physician, medicine'; also known as
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3285:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
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2010:
1284:John of Rupescissa (Jean de Roquetaillade)
1004:
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817:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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3626:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
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1572:Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz
930:Conrad, Lawrence; Nutton, Vivian; et al.
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859:S.S. Savrikar and B. Ravishankar (2011).
685:
640:
422:
302:Learn how and when to remove this message
802:
333:
113:
18:
410:Joint Meeting of BSHS, CSHPS/SCHPS, HSS
98:was dependent on a specific balance of
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1360:George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes)
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667:
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2005:
1440:Thomas Vaughan (Eugenius Philalethes)
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926:. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). 1911.
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3525:Physical medicine and rehabilitation
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835:History of Indian Medical Literature
833:Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan (1999–2002).
826:
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280:adding citations to reliable sources
247:
109:
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1591:De consideratione quintae essentiae
729:
400:
13:
3661:Medical Scientist Training Program
908:
868:Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med
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14:
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791:. Chicago: University of Chicago.
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1986:
1985:
1558:Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit
655:10.1001/jama.1968.03150100047010
252:
3794:
1525:Liber de compositione alchemiae
1249:(pseudo-)Arnaldus de Villa Nova
1208:pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)
1056:Hermes Trismegistus (legendary)
852:
780:
702:
244:Challenge to Galenic physiology
90:. Its most notable leader was
16:Early modern branch of medicine
3651:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
3085:Oral and maxillofacial surgery
1774:Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine
661:
634:
499:
427:. Cambridge University Press.
423:Lindemann, Mary (2013-01-01).
416:
394:
368:
1:
2291:Interface and colloid science
2045:Glossary of chemical formulae
1841:Theatrum chemicum Britannicum
837:. Groningen: Egbert Forsten.
361:
3631:Bachelor of Medical Sciences
3398:Neurosurgical anesthesiology
3010:
616:Bruniana & Campanelliana
7:
2568:Bioorganometallic chemistry
2055:List of inorganic compounds
1813:Deutsches Theatrum Chemicum
1799:Bibliotheca chemica curiosa
349:
340:Indian alchemical tradition
10:
3846:
2494:Dynamic covalent chemistry
2465:Enantioselective synthesis
2445:Physical organic chemistry
2398:Organolanthanide chemistry
1692:Rosary of the Philosophers
1678:Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis
1617:Liber Hermetis de alchemia
936:Cambridge University Press
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2083:Electroanalytical methods
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1981:
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1783:
1502:
1493:
1453:
1355:pseudo-Bernard of Treviso
1337:
1236:
1188:Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith)
1158:Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes)
1148:
1122:
1089:
1028:
1019:
803:Mukherji, Bhudeb (1926).
723:10.1080/00033796100202571
582:10.1017/S0007087400031071
217:A German-born physician,
161:In 1609, Flemish chemist
3585:Transplantation medicine
3476:Clinical neurophysiology
3393:Obstetric anesthesiology
3313:Interventional radiology
3073:Digestive system surgery
2838:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
2754:Supramolecular chemistry
2393:Organometallic chemistry
1203:Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber)
1036:Agathodaemon (legendary)
946:The English Paracelsians
163:Jan Baptista van Helmont
3456:Intensive care medicine
3430:Mass gathering medicine
3275:Maternal–fetal medicine
2776:Combinatorial chemistry
2687:Food physical chemistry
2650:Environmental chemistry
2534:Bioorthogonal chemistry
2460:Retrosynthetic analysis
2281:Chemical thermodynamics
2264:Spectroelectrochemistry
2207:Computational chemistry
1395:Jan Baptist van Helmont
1135:Stephanus of Alexandria
923:Encyclopædia Britannica
801:E.g., the multi-volume
106:communities worldwide.
3048:Cardiothoracic surgery
2848:of element discoveries
2694:Agricultural chemistry
2682:Carbohydrate chemistry
2573:Bioinorganic chemistry
2438:Alkane stereochemistry
2383:Coordination chemistry
2212:Mathematical chemistry
2078:Instrumental chemistry
1228:al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis)
917:"Iatrochemistry"
880:10.4314/ajtcam.v8i5s.1
668:Parent, Andre (2016).
126:
79:and medical ailments.
71:. Having its roots in
38:
29:
3820:Alchemical traditions
3699:Personalized medicine
3558:Reproductive medicine
3483:Occupational medicine
3437:Evolutionary medicine
2843:Timeline of chemistry
2740:Post-mortem chemistry
2725:Clandestine chemistry
2655:Atmospheric chemistry
2578:Biophysical chemistry
2410:Solid-state chemistry
2360:Equilibrium chemistry
2269:Photoelectrochemistry
1664:Nabataean Agriculture
1551:Books of the Balances
1400:Johann Rudolf Glauber
1370:Giovanni da Correggio
334:History in South Asia
117:
22:
3830:History of chemistry
3719:Traditional medicine
3679:Alternative medicine
3546:Addiction psychiatry
3360:Transfusion medicine
3355:Medical microbiology
3270:Gynecologic oncology
3122:Reproductive surgery
2833:History of chemistry
2788:Chemical engineering
2563:Bioorganic chemistry
2313:Structural chemistry
2050:List of biomolecules
1909:In art/entertainment
1319:(pseudo-)Roger Bacon
1081:Zosimos of Panopolis
1076:Paphnutia the Virgin
376:Bynum, W.F. (1994).
276:improve this section
235:Natural philosopher
156:Coelum philosophorum
119:Coelum philosophorum
3825:History of medicine
3741:History of medicine
3724:Veterinary medicine
3531:Preventive medicine
3383:Adolescent medicine
3225:Infectious diseases
2856:The central science
2810:Ceramic engineering
2735:Forensic toxicology
2708:Chemistry education
2606:Radiation chemistry
2588:Interdisciplinarity
2541:Medicinal chemistry
2479:Fullerene chemistry
2355:Microwave chemistry
2224:Molecular mechanics
2219:Molecular modelling
1929:Philosophers' stone
1924:Pill of Immortality
1820:Fasciculus chemicus
1767:Turba philosophorum
1685:Physika kai mystika
1415:Michael Sendivogius
1294:pseudo-Michael Scot
1130:pseudo-Olympiodorus
1071:Ostanes (legendary)
789:The Alchemical Body
687:10.1017/cjn.2016.14
473:Pharmacy in History
123:Philippus Ulstadius
3689:Molecular oncology
3646:Doctor of Medicine
3636:Master of Medicine
3553:Radiation oncology
3425:Emergency medicine
3378:Addiction medicine
3345:Clinical chemistry
3340:Clinical pathology
3132:Transplant surgery
3090:Orthopedic surgery
3068:Colorectal surgery
2899:Chemical substance
2761:Chemical synthesis
2730:Forensic chemistry
2611:Actinide chemistry
2553:Clinical chemistry
2234:Molecular geometry
2229:Molecular dynamics
2184:Elemental analysis
2137:Separation process
1827:Musaeum Hermeticum
1753:Summa perfectionis
1732:(pseudo-Aristotle)
1722:Secret of Creation
1671:Ordinal of Alchemy
1314:pseudo-Ramon Llull
1218:Maslama al-Qurṭubī
219:Franciscus Sylvius
131:John of Rupescissa
127:
39:
3807:
3806:
3641:Master of Surgery
3605:
3604:
3590:Tropical medicine
3536:Prison healthcare
3451:Hospital medicine
3415:Disaster medicine
3405:Aviation medicine
3220:Hospital medicine
3127:Surgical oncology
3112:Pediatric surgery
3106:
3053:Endocrine surgery
2978:
2977:
2914:Quantum mechanics
2879:Chemical compound
2862:Chemical reaction
2800:Materials science
2718:General chemistry
2713:Amateur chemistry
2641:Photogeochemistry
2626:Stellar chemistry
2596:Nuclear chemistry
2517:Molecular biology
2484:Polymer chemistry
2455:Organic synthesis
2450:Organic reactions
2415:Ceramic chemistry
2405:Cluster chemistry
2335:Chemical kinetics
2323:Molecular physics
2202:Quantum chemistry
2115:Mass spectrometry
1999:
1998:
1857:
1856:
1834:Theatrum chemicum
1650:Mirror of Alchimy
1602:Tabula Smaragdina
1579:Clavis sapientiae
1518:Aurora consurgens
1489:
1488:
1425:Pierre-Jean Fabre
1375:Heinrich Khunrath
1289:Magister Salernus
1264:Guido di Montanor
1051:pseudo-Democritus
1013:Alchemy (general)
977:978-0-521-42592-6
967:978-0-226-92378-9
844:978-90-6980-124-7
711:Annals of Science
649:(10): 2297–2301.
434:978-0-521-42592-6
387:978-0-521-27205-6
312:
311:
304:
110:History in Europe
61:chemical medicine
3837:
3797:
3796:
3787:
3777:
3776:
3767:
3766:
3757:
3756:
3461:Medical genetics
3446:General practice
3323:Nuclear medicine
3198:Gastroenterology
3154:Vascular surgery
3104:
3031:
3030:
3005:
2998:
2991:
2982:
2981:
2966:
2965:
2954:
2942:
2941:
2930:
2929:
2874:Chemical element
2529:Chemical biology
2388:Magnetochemistry
2365:Mechanochemistry
2318:Chemical physics
2259:Electrochemistry
2164:Characterization
2026:
2019:
2012:
2003:
2002:
1989:
1988:
1703:Step of the Sage
1643:Mappae clavicula
1610:Leyden papyrus X
1511:Atalanta fugiens
1500:
1499:
1481:Mary Anne Atwood
1466:Eugène Canseliet
1345:Andreas Libavius
1324:Taddeo Alderotti
1099:Fang (alchemist)
1046:pseudo-Cleopatra
1026:
1025:
1006:
999:
992:
983:
982:
927:
919:
902:
901:
891:
865:
856:
850:
848:
830:
824:
822:
816:
808:
799:
793:
792:
784:
778:
777:
733:
727:
726:
706:
700:
699:
689:
665:
659:
658:
638:
632:
631:
611:
602:
601:
565:
548:
547:
503:
497:
496:
468:
447:
446:
420:
414:
413:
407:
401:Beltran, Maria.
398:
392:
391:
372:
307:
300:
296:
293:
287:
256:
248:
230:De fermentalione
207:Herman Boerhaave
33:, a treatise on
32:
23:Frontispiece to
3845:
3844:
3840:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3810:
3809:
3808:
3803:
3745:
3734:Chief physician
3667:
3612:
3601:
3595:Travel medicine
3580:Sports medicine
3563:Sexual medicine
3503:Palliative care
3498:Pain management
3442:Family medicine
3420:Diving medicine
3366:
3294:
3256:
3249:
3165:
3158:
3117:Plastic surgery
3063:General surgery
3043:Cardiac surgery
3024:
3022:
3014:
3009:
2979:
2974:
2918:
2821:
2815:Polymer science
2771:Click chemistry
2766:Green chemistry
2660:Ocean chemistry
2636:Biogeochemistry
2582:
2498:
2470:Total synthesis
2433:Stereochemistry
2419:
2369:
2286:Surface science
2276:Thermochemistry
2245:
2188:
2159:Crystallography
2064:
2036:
2030:
2000:
1995:
1977:
1972:Suns in alchemy
1853:
1779:
1718:Sirr al-khalīqa
1699:Rutbat al-ḥakīm
1583:Miftāḥ al-ḥikma
1485:
1471:Frater Albertus
1449:
1445:Wilhelm Homberg
1350:Basil Valentine
1333:
1304:Paul of Taranto
1269:Hugh of Evesham
1244:pseudo-Albertus
1232:
1178:pseudo-Avicenna
1144:
1118:
1091:Ancient Chinese
1085:
1061:Mary the Jewess
1015:
1010:
942:Debus, Allen G.
914:
911:
909:Further reading
906:
905:
863:
857:
853:
845:
831:
827:
810:
809:
805:Rasa-Jala-Nidhi
800:
796:
785:
781:
734:
730:
707:
703:
666:
662:
639:
635:
612:
605:
566:
551:
504:
500:
469:
450:
435:
421:
417:
405:
399:
395:
388:
373:
369:
364:
352:
336:
308:
297:
291:
288:
273:
257:
246:
211:Andrea Vesalius
176:Ortus medicinae
112:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3843:
3833:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3791:
3781:
3771:
3761:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3743:
3738:
3737:
3736:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3675:
3673:
3672:Related topics
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3663:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3621:Medical school
3617:
3615:
3607:
3606:
3603:
3602:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3597:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3575:Sleep medicine
3572:
3571:
3570:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3549:
3548:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3522:
3517:
3516:
3515:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3479:
3478:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3439:
3434:
3433:
3432:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3401:
3400:
3395:
3388:Anesthesiology
3385:
3380:
3374:
3372:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3320:
3318:Neuroradiology
3315:
3304:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3261:
3259:
3255:Obstetrics and
3251:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3170:
3168:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3156:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3139:
3137:Trauma surgery
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3100:Otolaryngology
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3039:
3037:
3028:
3026:subspecialties
3016:
3015:
3008:
3007:
3000:
2993:
2985:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2960:
2948:
2936:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2859:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2840:
2835:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2758:
2757:
2756:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2737:
2727:
2722:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2699:Soil chemistry
2691:
2690:
2689:
2684:
2677:Food chemistry
2674:
2672:Carbochemistry
2669:
2667:Clay chemistry
2664:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2646:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2628:
2622:Astrochemistry
2618:Cosmochemistry
2615:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2601:Radiochemistry
2592:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2558:Neurochemistry
2555:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2519:
2508:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2491:
2489:Petrochemistry
2486:
2481:
2476:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2429:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2390:
2385:
2379:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2368:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2350:Spin chemistry
2347:
2345:Photochemistry
2342:
2337:
2332:
2330:Femtochemistry
2327:
2326:
2325:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2272:
2271:
2266:
2255:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2241:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2204:
2198:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2187:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2149:
2142:Chromatography
2139:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2085:
2080:
2074:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2060:Periodic table
2057:
2052:
2047:
2041:
2038:
2037:
2029:
2028:
2021:
2014:
2006:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1975:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1904:Iatrochemistry
1901:
1896:
1894:Elixir of life
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1865:
1863:
1859:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1844:
1837:
1830:
1823:
1816:
1809:
1802:
1795:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1770:
1763:
1756:
1749:
1746:Splendor solis
1742:
1734:
1726:
1714:
1707:
1695:
1688:
1681:
1674:
1667:
1660:
1653:
1646:
1639:
1632:
1625:
1613:
1606:
1598:Emerald Tablet
1594:
1587:
1575:
1568:
1561:
1554:
1547:
1540:
1533:
1521:
1514:
1506:
1504:
1497:
1491:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1484:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1457:
1455:
1451:
1450:
1448:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1334:
1332:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1233:
1231:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1183:Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1154:
1152:
1150:Arabic-Islamic
1146:
1145:
1143:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1101:
1095:
1093:
1087:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1032:
1030:
1029:Greco-Egyptian
1023:
1017:
1016:
1009:
1008:
1001:
994:
986:
980:
979:
969:
959:
949:
939:
928:
910:
907:
904:
903:
851:
843:
825:
794:
779:
758:10.1086/658659
750:10.1086/658659
744:(1): 102–108.
728:
701:
680:(4): 596–603.
660:
633:
622:(1): 107–116.
603:
576:(3): 303–334.
549:
528:10.1086/658659
520:10.1086/658659
514:(1): 102–108.
498:
479:(3): 121–133.
448:
433:
415:
393:
386:
366:
365:
363:
360:
359:
358:
351:
348:
335:
332:
310:
309:
260:
258:
251:
245:
242:
191:Otto Tachenius
152:Philipp Ulstad
111:
108:
42:Iatrochemistry
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3842:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3817:
3815:
3800:
3792:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3780:
3772:
3770:
3762:
3760:
3752:
3751:
3748:
3742:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3704:Public health
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3684:Allied health
3682:
3680:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3670:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3608:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3573:
3569:
3566:
3565:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3514:
3511:
3510:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3493:Oral medicine
3491:
3489:
3488:Ophthalmology
3486:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3390:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3369:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3350:Cytopathology
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3291:
3290:Urogynecology
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3252:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3193:Endocrinology
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3167:
3161:
3155:
3152:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3036:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3006:
3001:
2999:
2994:
2992:
2987:
2986:
2983:
2971:
2970:
2961:
2959:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2937:
2935:
2934:
2925:
2924:
2921:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2904:Chemical bond
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2824:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2798:
2794:
2793:Stoichiometry
2791:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2762:
2759:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2750:
2749:Nanochemistry
2747:
2746:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2648:
2647:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2616:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2539:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2527:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2474:Semisynthesis
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2439:
2436:
2435:
2434:
2431:
2430:
2428:
2426:
2422:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2324:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2308:Sonochemistry
2306:
2304:
2303:Cryochemistry
2301:
2297:
2296:Micromeritics
2294:
2293:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2174:Wet chemistry
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2116:
2113:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2027:
2022:
2020:
2015:
2013:
2008:
2007:
2004:
1992:
1984:
1983:
1980:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1934:Prima materia
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1850:
1849:
1848:Tripus aureus
1845:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1794:
1793:
1792:Aureum vellus
1789:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1755:
1754:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1738:Sirr al-asrār
1735:
1733:
1731:
1730:Sirr al-asrār
1727:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1713:
1712:
1711:Seventy Books
1708:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1680:
1679:
1675:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1661:
1659:
1658:
1654:
1652:
1651:
1647:
1645:
1644:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1621:Liber dabessi
1618:
1614:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1560:
1559:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1546:
1545:
1544:Book of Mercy
1541:
1539:
1538:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1520:
1519:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1435:Samuel Norton
1433:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1410:Michael Maier
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1329:Thomas Norton
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1274:Johann of Laz
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1259:George Ripley
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1237:Late medieval
1235:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1193:Ibn Waḥshiyya
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1125:
1121:
1115:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1007:
1002:
1000:
995:
993:
988:
987:
984:
978:
974:
970:
968:
964:
960:
958:
957:0-941901-32-7
954:
950:
947:
943:
940:
937:
933:
929:
925:
924:
918:
913:
912:
899:
895:
890:
885:
881:
877:
874:(5S): 66–82.
873:
869:
862:
855:
846:
840:
836:
829:
820:
814:
806:
798:
790:
783:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
732:
724:
720:
717:(2): 97–110.
716:
712:
705:
697:
693:
688:
683:
679:
675:
671:
664:
656:
652:
648:
644:
637:
629:
625:
621:
617:
610:
608:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
564:
562:
560:
558:
556:
554:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
502:
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
467:
465:
463:
461:
459:
457:
455:
453:
444:
440:
436:
430:
426:
419:
411:
404:
397:
389:
383:
379:
371:
367:
357:
354:
353:
347:
343:
341:
331:
327:
323:
321:
317:
306:
303:
295:
285:
281:
277:
271:
270:
266:
261:This section
259:
255:
250:
249:
241:
238:
233:
231:
227:
226:Thomas Willis
222:
220:
215:
212:
208:
203:
201:
195:
192:
187:
184:
179:
177:
171:
167:
164:
159:
157:
153:
149:
147:
142:
140:
136:
132:
124:
120:
116:
107:
105:
101:
100:bodily fluids
97:
93:
89:
88:Low Countries
85:
82:This area of
80:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
47:
46:Ancient Greek
43:
36:
31:
26:
25:Thomas Willis
21:
3709:Rural health
3694:Nanomedicine
3245:Rheumatology
3176: /
3095:Hand surgery
3080:Neurosurgery
2967:
2955:
2943:
2931:
2781:Biosynthesis
2631:Geochemistry
2546:Pharmacology
2522:Cell biology
2512:Biochemistry
2340:Spectroscopy
2239:VSEPR theory
2088:Spectroscopy
2032:Branches of
1991:All articles
1903:
1846:
1839:
1832:
1825:
1818:
1811:
1804:
1797:
1790:
1784:Compilations
1772:
1765:
1758:
1751:
1744:
1737:
1729:
1721:
1717:
1709:
1702:
1698:
1690:
1683:
1676:
1669:
1662:
1655:
1648:
1641:
1634:
1629:Liber ignium
1627:
1620:
1616:
1608:
1601:
1597:
1589:
1582:
1578:
1570:
1563:
1556:
1549:
1542:
1535:
1528:
1524:
1516:
1509:
1430:Robert Boyle
1385:Isaac Newton
1380:Hennig Brand
1365:Gerhard Dorn
1338:Early modern
1309:Petrus Bonus
1254:pseudo-Geber
1066:pseudo-Moses
945:
931:
921:
871:
867:
854:
834:
828:
804:
797:
788:
782:
741:
737:
731:
714:
710:
704:
677:
673:
663:
646:
642:
636:
619:
615:
573:
569:
511:
507:
501:
476:
472:
424:
418:
409:
396:
377:
370:
344:
337:
328:
324:
313:
298:
289:
274:Please help
262:
237:Robert Boyle
234:
229:
223:
216:
204:
199:
196:
185:
182:
180:
175:
172:
168:
160:
155:
150:
143:
135:Pseudo-Llull
128:
118:
81:
60:
56:
52:
49:
41:
40:
35:fermentation
27:' 1663 book
3779:Wikiproject
3568:Venereology
3513:Neonatology
3410:Dermatology
3265:Gynaecology
3257:gynaecology
3240:Pulmonology
3058:Eye surgery
3020:Specialties
2969:WikiProject
2194:Theoretical
2179:Calorimetry
1914:Magnum opus
1884:Chrysopoeia
1806:De alchemia
1657:Mutus liber
1636:Liber lucis
1503:Major Works
1390:Jakob Böhme
1279:John Dastin
1223:al-Ṭughrāʾī
1109:Master Geng
807:. Calcutta.
292:August 2017
139:Ramon Llull
3814:Categories
3541:Psychiatry
3527:(PM&R)
3520:Phlebology
3508:Pediatrics
3335:Anatomical
3300:Diagnostic
3280:Obstetrics
3230:Nephrology
3215:Hematology
3210:Geriatrics
3203:Hepatology
3188:Cardiology
3178:Immunology
2805:Metallurgy
2504:Biological
2070:Analytical
1959:Substances
1899:Homunculus
1565:Cantong Qi
1476:Fulcanelli
1420:Paracelsus
1213:al-Jildakī
1114:Wei Boyang
1021:Alchemists
362:References
146:Paracelsus
92:Paracelsus
57:chemiatria
44:(from
3729:Physician
3613:education
3471:Neurology
3466:Narcology
3330:Pathology
3308:Radiology
3183:Angiology
3147:Andrology
2867:Catalysis
2375:Inorganic
2169:Titration
2034:chemistry
1954:Processes
1919:Ouroboros
1740:(al-Rāzī)
1461:Carl Jung
1299:Ortolanus
1198:al-ʿIrāqī
1173:Artephius
1163:Alphidius
1123:Byzantine
948:. , 1965.
813:cite book
598:145492982
443:898263568
356:Antivenom
263:does not
186:medicinae
104:diasporic
65:chemistry
3759:Category
3235:Oncology
3166:medicine
3164:Internal
3012:Medicine
2933:Category
2889:Molecule
2826:See also
2251:Physical
1949:Yliaster
1529:Morienus
1495:Writings
1405:John Dee
1140:Synesius
898:22754059
774:21191800
766:21667778
696:26911424
628:24335682
544:21191800
536:21667778
493:11618889
485:41111758
350:See also
320:Avicenna
77:diseases
69:medicine
53:(iatrós)
3799:Outline
3769:Commons
3714:Therapy
3611:Medical
3174:Allergy
3142:Urology
3035:Surgery
2945:Commons
2909:Alchemy
2425:Organic
1968:Unicode
1964:Symbols
1889:Element
1874:Athanor
1869:Alembic
1862:Various
1104:Ge Hong
938:, 1995.
889:3252715
590:4027400
284:removed
269:sources
84:science
73:alchemy
3789:Portal
3656:MD–PhD
2957:Portal
2103:UV-Vis
1944:Takwin
1454:Modern
1041:Chymes
975:
965:
955:
896:
886:
841:
772:
764:
756:
694:
626:
596:
588:
542:
534:
526:
491:
483:
441:
431:
384:
125:, 1527
96:health
51:ἰατρός
3371:Other
2130:MALDI
2098:Raman
1939:Rebis
1879:Azoth
864:(PDF)
770:S2CID
754:JSTOR
624:JSTOR
594:S2CID
586:JSTOR
540:S2CID
524:JSTOR
481:JSTOR
406:(PDF)
316:Galen
183:Orlus
48:
2884:Atom
2152:HPLC
973:ISBN
963:ISBN
953:ISBN
894:PMID
839:ISBN
819:link
762:PMID
738:Isis
692:PMID
643:JAMA
532:PMID
508:Isis
489:PMID
439:OCLC
429:ISBN
382:ISBN
318:and
267:any
265:cite
67:and
3105:ENT
3023:and
2894:Ion
2125:ICP
2108:NMR
884:PMC
876:doi
746:doi
742:102
719:doi
682:doi
651:doi
647:206
578:doi
516:doi
512:102
278:by
121:by
59:or
3816::
3444:/
2624:/
2620:/
2472:/
2147:GC
2120:EI
2093:IR
1970:,
944:,
934:.
920:.
892:.
882:.
870:.
866:.
815:}}
811:{{
768:.
760:.
752:.
740:.
715:17
713:.
690:.
678:43
676:.
672:.
645:.
620:14
618:.
606:^
592:.
584:.
574:26
572:.
552:^
538:.
530:.
522:.
510:.
487:.
477:38
475:.
451:^
437:.
408:.
3004:e
2997:t
2990:v
2858:"
2854:"
2025:e
2018:t
2011:v
1974:)
1966:(
1724:)
1720:(
1705:)
1701:(
1623:)
1619:(
1604:)
1600:(
1585:)
1581:(
1531:)
1527:(
1005:e
998:t
991:v
900:.
878::
872:8
847:.
821:)
776:.
748::
725:.
721::
698:.
684::
657:.
653::
630:.
600:.
580::
546:.
518::
495:.
445:.
412:.
390:.
305:)
299:(
294:)
290:(
286:.
272:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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