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location, in most cases requiring some assistance to remain buoyant. Once in position, additional weight is used to sink the element into the final location, this being a critical stage to ensure each piece is aligned correctly. After being put into place, the joint between the new element and the tunnel is emptied of water then made water tight, this process continuing sequentially along the tunnel.
341:, is the world's deepest immersed tunnel at 55 metres (180 ft) below sea level; it is the first rail link crossing the straits. Construction began in 2004 and revenue service began in 2013. The tunnel is 13.6 kilometres (8.5 mi) long overall, of which 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) were constructed using the immersed tube technique.
163:
The segments of the tube may be constructed in one of two methods. In the United States, the preferred method has been to construct steel or cast iron tubes which are then lined with concrete. This allows use of conventional shipbuilding techniques, with the segments being launched after assembly in
238:
The main advantage of an immersed tube is that they can be considerably more cost effective than alternative options – i.e., a bored tunnel beneath the water being crossed (if indeed this is possible at all due to other factors such as the geology and seismic activity) or a bridge. Other advantages
148:
so they can be floated. At the same time, the corresponding parts of the path of the tunnel are prepared, with a trench on the bottom of the channel being dredged and graded to fine tolerances to support the elements. The next stage is to place the elements into place, each towed to the final
352:
in 2024. The SZB project includes a 6.7 km-long (4.2 mi) immersed tube which also will be the world's widest immersed tube, carrying eight traffic lanes. Prior to the completion of the
Marmaray and HZMB tunnels, the
348:, completed in 2018. The HZMB tunnel is set at a depth of 30 metres (98 ft) below sea level. Its length will be surpassed by 1.2 metres (3 ft 11 in) with the completion of the
1667:
357:
in San
Francisco Bay, completed in 1969, was the world's deepest and longest immersed tube, at 41 metres (135 ft) below water level and 5.8 kilometres (3.6 mi) long.
693:
164:
dry docks. In Europe, reinforced concrete box tube construction has been the standard; the sections are cast in a basin which is then flooded to allow their removal.
1755:
2199:
999:
263:
Immersed tunnels are often partly exposed (usually with some rock armour and natural siltation) on the river/sea bed, risking a sunken ship/anchor strike
1564:
364:
connecting
Denmark and Germany when it is completed, at an as-designed 17.6 kilometres (10.9 mi) long. Construction started on 1 January 2021.
276:
Tubes can be round, oval and rectangular. Larger strait crossings have selected wider rectangular shapes as more cost effective for wider tunnels.
2280:
1726:
1238:
486:
1642:"Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge Tender Assessment Result Notice for the Contract of Design and Construction of the Artificial Islands and Tunnel"
1616:
81:
and floated to the tunnel site to be sunk into place and then linked together. They are commonly used for road and rail crossings of rivers,
1674:
1943:
160:
to drill the final links to the portals on land. After these stages the tunnel is complete, and the internal fitout can be carried out.
1893:
Railroad
Accident Report: Bay Area Rapid Transit District fire on train No. 117 and evacuation of passengers while in the Transbay Tube
1412:
269:
The segmental approach requires careful design of the connections, where longitudinal effects and forces must be transferred across
93:
tunnel, which is usually necessary to continue the tunnel from near the water's edge to the entrance (portal) at the land surface.
2119:
2340:
1816:[Now construction work on the Femern Bælt link begins] (in Danish). Ministry of Transport and Housing. 1 January 2021
1486:
1444:
480:
345:
2149:. Rapid excavation and tunneling. San Diego, California: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. pp. 647–658.
2006:
1323:
1.4 km (0.87 mi) immersed tube + 9.8 km (6.1 mi) bored tunnel + 2.4 km (1.5 mi) cut-and-cover
2303:
5. "Foundation of a tunnel by the sand-flow system", Tunnels and
Tunnelling, July, 1973 by A. Griffioen and R. van der Veen
2171:
747:
85:
and sea channels/harbours. Immersed tubes are often used in conjunction with other forms of tunnel at their end, such as a
1787:
1813:
2147:
The
Planning, Design and Construction of the Tuas Cable Tunnel and Future Power Transmission Cable Tunnels in Singapore
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Flexibility of profile (although this is often partly dictated by what is possible for the connecting tunnel types)
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2207:. Joint Meeting of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers and Northeastern Section of the A.S.C.E. p. 369
1980:
434:
349:
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1892:
1026:
Immersed length 1.04 km (0.65 mi); total length 1.815 km (1.128 mi) between stations.
865:
344:
Currently the longest immersed tube tunnel is the 6.7-kilometre-long (4.2 mi) tunnel portion of the
2126:. Association International des Tunnels & International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association
2100:. Association International des Tunnels & International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association
2013:. Association International des Tunnels & International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association
1987:. Association International des Tunnels & International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association
290:
The first tunnel constructed with this method was the
Shirley Gut Siphon, a six-foot sewer main laid in
2319:
617:
156:, added over the top. The ground beside each end tunnel element will often be reinforced, to permit a
2032:
Hulme, T.W.; Burchell, A.J. (October–December 1999). "Tunneling projects in
Singapore: an overview".
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2362:. Immersed tunnel techniques. Manchester: Institution of Civil Engineers. April 11–13, 1989.
252:
Safety of construction (for example, work in a dry dock as opposed to boring beneath a river)
157:
2173:
Quality in Ready-Mixed
Concrete — A Case Study on Specialised Marine Concreting in Singapore
1858:
1122:
699:
145:
78:
1668:"Hongkong Zhuhai Macao Bridge Link in China: Stretching the limits of Immersed Tunnelling"
1244:
133:
Prefabricated tunnel segments sealed off, ready to be floated to site, and sunk into place
8:
2323:
1836:"Technical challenges in the construction of bridge-tunnel sea-crossing projectsin China"
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1075:
315:
311:
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2062:
Electrical and mechanical aspects relating to the civil design of immersed tube tunnels
113:
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1870:
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1959:
1482:
1481:(2nd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 268–297.
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558:
266:
Direct contact with water necessitates careful waterproofing design around the joints
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1955:
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Environmental impact of tube and underwater embankment on existing channel/sea bed.
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2065:. Immersed tunnel techniques. Institution of Civil Engineers. pp. 249–262.
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2383:. Immersed tunnel techniques 2. Cork, Ireland: Institution of Civil Engineers.
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90:
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1565:"Istanbul's underwater Bosphorus rail tunnel opens to delight and foreboding"
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2179:. 23rd Conference on Our World in Concrete & Structures. Singapore
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Minimal disruption to the river/channel, if crossing a shipping route
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The trench is then backfilled and any necessary protection, such as
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1617:"Construction completed on world's longest immersed tube tunnel"
1477:. In Kuesel, Thomas R.; King, Elwyn H.; Bickel, John O. (eds.).
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The length of both the HZMB and SZB will be surpassed by the
2145:
Mainwaring, G.D.; Lam, Y.K.; Weng, L.W. (June 11–13, 2001).
1898:(Report). National Transportation Safety Board. 19 July 1979
1644:(Press release). Government of Hong Kong. November 17, 2010
1666:
Su, Quanke; Chen, Yue; Ying, Li; de Wit, J.C.W.M. (Hans).
298:
in 1893. The first example built to carry traffic was the
2169:
2031:
1834:
Song, Shen-you; Guo, Jian; Su, Quan-ke; Liu, Gao (2020).
1590:"Turkey's Bosphorus sub-sea tunnel links Europe and Asia"
144:
in a manageable length, then having the ends sealed with
2201:
1814:"Nu starter anlægsarbejdet på Femern Bælt-forbindelsen"
694:
Raúl Uranga – Carlos Sylvestre Begnis Subfluvial Tunnel
1724:
2058:
1954:(2). Association International des Tunnels: 175–263.
2170:
Ghosh, S; Sasaki, S; Yang, JL (August 25–26, 1998).
318:in 1928. The oldest immersed tube in Europe is the
2281:"Digibron.nl, Koningin Juliana opent Drechttunnel"
1871:"Tunnel tube embedded for Shenzhen-Zhongshan link"
1761:. Femern Sund Bælt. 2 October 2012. Archived from
1508:
46:Type A, built upon a shallow trench on the seabed.
1941:
1562:
140:The tunnel is made up of separate elements, each
2399:
2227:"Başbakan Erdoğan Marmaray'da test sürüşü yaptı"
1673:. Tunnel Engineering Consultants. Archived from
2197:
1788:"Fehmarn: The world's longest road/rail tunnel"
1727:"Innovations for the Fehmarnbelt tunnel Option"
475:Immersed length 5.035 km (3.129 mi).
167:
2254:Waterstaat, Ministerie van Infrastructuur en.
1873:(Press release). City of Zhuhai. June 19, 2020
2376:
2059:Lowndes, JFL; Weeks, CR (April 11–13, 1989).
1700:"World's widest immersed channel takes shape"
1614:
1472:
333:, connecting the European and Asian sides of
306:, and the first to carry road traffic is the
1885:
1506:
2380:Proceedings of the international conference
2359:Proceedings of the international conference
1533:
1531:
1358:Dordrecht and Zwijndrecht, The Netherlands
206:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2329:Lunniss, Richard; Baber, Jonathan (2013).
2034:Tunneling and Underground Space Technology
1948:Tunneling and Underground Space Technology
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1500:
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1439:
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1851:
1750:
1748:
1413:"Engineering Marvels - The Casting Basin"
226:Learn how and when to remove this message
33:Schematics of typical immersed tube types
2377:Ford, Charles, ed. (April 23–24, 1997).
1944:"Chapter 5: Catalog of Immersed Tunnels"
1937:
1935:
1933:
1840:Journal of Zhejiang University Science A
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239:relative to these alternatives include:
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1239:Monitor–Merrimac Memorial Bridge–Tunnel
14:
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2253:
1745:
1563:Letsch, Constanze (October 29, 2013).
1539:"Marmaray Railway Engineering Project"
1475:"14 | Immersed Tube Tunnels"
1725:S. Lykke; W.P.S. Janssen (May 2010).
612:Four bores: 2×2–lane & 2×1-track
58:Type B, built under the seabed level.
1910:
1756:"Facts about the Fehmarnbelt Tunnel"
1656:
427:Fehmarn Belt in Denmark and Germany
204:adding citations to reliable sources
171:
2315:An immersed tunnel under Söderström
1445:"Technical - Immersed Tube Tunnels"
24:
2335:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
2198:Bickel, John O. (April 21, 1958).
2120:"Hampton Roads Bridge Tunnel No 2"
1451:. www.marmaray.com. Archived from
1419:. www.masspike.com. Archived from
25:
2424:
2307:
1507:Lewis, Scott (October 23, 2013).
112:Construction of segments for the
1729:. TunnelTalk.com. Archived from
1417:Massachusetts Turnpike Authority
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2007:"Busan Geoje Fixed Link Tunnel"
1999:
1973:
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1615:Smith, Claire (March 8, 2018).
1510:"Longest Immersed-Tube Tunnels"
1373:
300:Michigan Central Railway Tunnel
96:
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302:constructed in 1910 under the
286:Category:Immersed tube tunnels
249:Resistance to seismic activity
13:
1:
2046:10.1016/S0886-7798(00)00004-3
1398:
1379:At bottom of tunnel structure
481:Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge
346:Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge
2235:(in Turkish). August 4, 2013
2094:"Parana (Hernandias) Tunnel"
1960:10.1016/0886-7798(93)90095-D
1032:Chesapeake Bay Bridge–Tunnel
664:Pulau Seraya Utility Tunnel
168:Advantages and disadvantages
7:
1479:Tunnel Engineering Handbook
1386:
866:Blayais Nuclear Power Plant
818:Hampton Roads Bridge–Tunnel
741:Hampton Roads Bridge–Tunnel
279:
243:Their speed of construction
10:
2429:
1942:Grantz, Walter C. (1993).
283:
1790:. Ramboll. Archived from
1393:Submerged floating tunnel
435:Shenzhen–Zhongshan Bridge
350:Shenzhen–Zhongshan Bridge
1449:Marmaray Project Website
946:Eastern Harbour Crossing
602:Öresund/Øresund between
326:, which opened in 1942.
310:, linking the cities of
1515:Engineering News-Record
899:Baltimore Harbor Tunnel
510:Pearl River estuary in
400:Fehmarn Belt Fixed Link
368:Largest immersed tubes
362:Fehmarn Belt Fixed Link
259:Disadvantages include:
27:Type of undersea tunnel
2287:(in Dutch). 1977-11-02
2260:www.rijkswaterstaat.nl
1473:Gursoy, Ahmet (1996).
788:Tuas Bay Cable Tunnel
618:Busan–Geoje Fixed Link
552:47 ft 10 in
77:composed of segments,
2413:Immersed tube tunnels
1853:10.1631/jzus.A20CSBE1
158:tunnel boring machine
79:constructed elsewhere
2256:"Drechttunnel (A16)"
1680:on 18 September 2020
1123:Cross-Harbour Tunnel
200:improve this section
2408:Tunnel construction
2324:Stockholm City Line
1794:on 7 September 2013
1768:on 1 September 2018
1076:Fort McHenry Tunnel
724:Entre Ríos Province
369:
316:Oakland, California
1621:Ground Engineering
1596:. October 29, 2013
1543:Railway Technology
394:Notes & refs.
367:
114:second Coen Tunnel
2342:978-0-203-84842-5
2124:Projects Database
2098:Projects Database
2011:Projects Database
1985:Projects Database
1488:978-1-4613-8053-5
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559:San Francisco Bay
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2040:(4): 409418.
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1455:on 2009-02-19
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1340:0.569 km
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1292:1.387 km
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1277:United States
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1250:1.425 km
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1199:
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1120:
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1114:United States
1111:
1107:
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1101:
1096:
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1089:1.023 mi
1087:1.646 km
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1074:
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1067:United States
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959:1.155 mi
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873:1.935 km
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854:
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849:Hampton Roads
847:
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830:2.091 km
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753:2.229 km
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563:United States
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540:5.825 km
539:
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529:Transbay Tube
527:
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520:Zhuhai, China
517:
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441:6.845 km
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351:
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301:
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185:This section
183:
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142:prefabricated
129:
119:
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87:cut and cover
84:
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72:
68:
67:immersed tube
54:
42:
19:
2379:
2358:
2348:11 September
2346:. Retrieved
2331:
2301:
2289:. Retrieved
2284:
2275:
2264:. Retrieved
2259:
2249:
2237:. Retrieved
2230:
2221:
2211:14 September
2209:. Retrieved
2200:
2193:
2183:14 September
2181:. Retrieved
2172:
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2130:14 September
2128:. Retrieved
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2102:. Retrieved
2097:
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2076:. Retrieved
2061:
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2037:
2033:
2027:
2017:14 September
2015:. Retrieved
2010:
2001:
1991:14 September
1989:. Retrieved
1984:
1975:
1965:14 September
1963:. Retrieved
1951:
1947:
1900:. Retrieved
1887:
1877:14 September
1875:. Retrieved
1865:
1843:
1839:
1829:
1818:. Retrieved
1808:
1798:11 September
1796:. Retrieved
1792:the original
1782:
1772:11 September
1770:. Retrieved
1763:the original
1735:. Retrieved
1731:the original
1720:
1710:14 September
1708:. Retrieved
1703:
1694:
1684:11 September
1682:. Retrieved
1675:the original
1648:11 September
1646:. Retrieved
1636:
1626:11 September
1624:. Retrieved
1620:
1610:
1600:11 September
1598:. Retrieved
1593:
1584:
1574:11 September
1572:. Retrieved
1569:The Guardian
1568:
1558:
1548:11 September
1546:. Retrieved
1542:
1520:11 September
1518:. Retrieved
1514:
1478:
1468:
1457:. Retrieved
1453:the original
1448:
1425:. Retrieved
1421:the original
1416:
1407:
1375:
1352:161 ft
1329:Drechttunnel
1187:130 ft
1144:22.16 m
1136:0.99 mi
1045:1.09 mi
1043:1.75 km
991:(Lines D/E,
969:115 ft
912:1.19 mi
910:1.92 km
652:Geoje Island
639:26.46 m
631:2.01 mi
629:3.24 km
596:138 ft
586:2.18 mi
584:3.51 km
550:14.58 m
502:37.95 m
499:99.0 ft
497:30.18 m
494:4.19 mi
492:6.75 km
456:
453:151 ft
421:
418:138 ft
408:10.9 mi
406:17.6 km
359:
343:
328:
289:
275:
258:
237:
222:
213:
198:Please help
186:
162:
151:
139:
97:Construction
70:
66:
64:
2285:Digibron.nl
1704:China Daily
1304:50 ft
1302:15.3 m
1299:198 ft
1297:60.5 m
1262:79 ft
1257:118 ft
1223:71 ft
1221:21.5 m
1185:39.7 m
1134:1.6 km
1099:82 ft
1097:25.1 m
1094:104 ft
1092:31.7 m
1052:37 ft
1050:11.3 m
1014:33 ft
993:Nieuwe Maas
922:70 ft
920:21.3 m
842:37 ft
802:39 ft
800:11.8 m
795:1.3 mi
793:2.1 km
765:39 ft
760:121 ft
717:35 ft
715:10.8 m
712:105 ft
678:21 ft
671:1.6 mi
669:2.6 km
656:South Korea
636:125 ft
547:133 ft
545:40.5 m
448:125 ft
413:130 ft
154:rock armour
2402:Categories
2291:2023-11-07
2266:2023-11-07
2262:(in Dutch)
2156:0873352041
1859:Direct URL
1820:2021-01-01
1737:3 February
1459:2009-06-26
1427:2009-06-26
1399:References
1347:75 ft
1218:85 ft
1182:98 ft
1141:92 ft
995:crossing)
964:89 ft
917:98 ft
837:70 ft
676:6.5 m
591:72 ft
320:Maastunnel
308:Posey Tube
284:See also:
2239:August 6,
1902:17 August
1350:49 m
1345:23 m
1260:24 m
1255:36 m
1230:Amsterdam
1216:26 m
1180:30 m
1157:Hong Kong
1139:28 m
1106:Baltimore
1021:Rotterdam
1012:10 m
980:Hong Kong
967:35 m
962:27 m
929:Baltimore
915:30 m
840:11 m
835:21 m
820:(Tube 1)
809:Singapore
763:12 m
758:37 m
743:(Tube 2)
732:Argentina
710:32 m
685:Singapore
634:38 m
594:42 m
589:22 m
512:Hong Kong
467:Zhongshan
451:46 m
446:38 m
416:42 m
411:40 m
391:Location
388:Completed
324:Rotterdam
216:June 2023
187:does not
146:bulkheads
118:Amsterdam
83:estuaries
2232:Hürriyet
1594:BBC News
1387:See also
1315:Istanbul
1311:Bosporus
1273:Virginia
1110:Maryland
1063:Virginia
933:Maryland
868:Outfall
853:Virginia
776:Virginia
463:Shenzhen
335:Istanbul
280:Examples
2320:YouTube
608:Denmark
312:Alameda
208:removed
193:sources
2387:
2366:
2339:
2153:
2069:
1485:
1319:Turkey
890:France
604:Sweden
518:; and
459:(est.)
424:(est.)
385:Width
379:Length
376:Image
339:Turkey
292:Boston
2322:, by
2205:(PDF)
2177:(PDF)
1896:(PDF)
1766:(PDF)
1759:(PDF)
1678:(PDF)
1671:(PDF)
1367:Notes
1355:1977
1198:Japan
1194:Tokyo
886:Blaye
648:Busan
516:Macau
471:China
382:Depth
91:bored
2385:ISBN
2364:ISBN
2350:2020
2337:ISBN
2241:2013
2213:2020
2185:2020
2151:ISBN
2132:2020
2106:2020
2080:2020
2067:ISBN
2019:2020
1993:2020
1967:2020
1904:2016
1879:2020
1800:2020
1774:2020
1739:2011
1712:2020
1686:2020
1650:2020
1628:2020
1602:2020
1576:2020
1550:2020
1522:2020
1483:ISBN
1307:2013
1265:1992
1226:1980
1190:1994
1149:1972
1102:1987
1055:1964
1017:1966
972:1990
925:1957
882:1978
845:1957
805:1999
768:1976
726:and
720:1969
681:1988
650:and
644:2010
606:and
599:2000
555:1969
507:2010
465:and
457:2024
422:2028
373:Name
329:The
314:and
191:any
189:cite
69:(or
2318:on
2042:doi
1956:doi
1848:doi
322:in
202:by
116:in
89:or
65:An
2404::
2283:.
2258:.
2229:.
2122:.
2096:.
2038:14
2036:.
2009:.
1983:.
1950:.
1946:.
1912:^
1844:21
1842:.
1838:.
1747:^
1702:.
1658:^
1619:.
1592:.
1567:.
1541:.
1530:^
1513:.
1497:^
1447:.
1436:^
1415:.
1317:,
1313:,
1275:,
1271:,
1196:,
1155:,
1112:,
1108:,
1065:,
1061:,
978:,
935:,
931:,
888:,
855:,
851:,
778:,
774:,
730:,
654:,
561:,
514:;
469:,
337:,
294:,
2393:.
2372:.
2352:.
2294:.
2269:.
2243:.
2215:.
2187:.
2159:.
2134:.
2108:.
2082:.
2048:.
2044::
2021:.
1995:.
1969:.
1958::
1952:8
1906:.
1881:.
1856:.
1850::
1823:.
1802:.
1776:.
1741:.
1714:.
1688:.
1652:.
1630:.
1604:.
1578:.
1552:.
1524:.
1491:.
1462:.
1430:.
229:)
223:(
218:)
214:(
210:.
196:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
