2680:
58:
3016:
2304:
2335:
74:
1970:
2707:
1997:
2675:{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}N_{\mathit {\delta }}S_{\mathit {\epsilon }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\epsilon \right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\epsilon {\ce {SO_{2}}}+\left(3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\epsilon \right)+{\frac {\delta }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}
7214:
958:
4377:
529:
7236:
4187:
3504:
1711:
7225:
3011:{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}F_{\mathit {\delta }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta -\delta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta -\delta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\delta {\ce {HF}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta -\delta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}
2299:{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}S_{\mathit {\delta }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\delta \right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+\delta {\ce {SO_{2}}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}+\delta \right){\ce {N_{2}}}}
4014:
4129:) discharged from the system represents a heating value loss (as well as a safety hazard). Since combustibles are undesirable in the offgas, while the presence of unreacted oxygen there presents minimal safety and environmental concerns, the first principle of combustion management is to provide more oxygen than is theoretically needed to ensure that all the fuel burns. For methane (
3282:
1965:{\displaystyle {\ce {C_{\mathit {\alpha }}H_{\mathit {\beta }}O_{\mathit {\gamma }}}}+\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\left({\ce {O_{2}}}+3.77{\ce {N_{2}}}\right)\longrightarrow \alpha {\ce {CO_{2}}}+{\frac {\beta }{2}}{\ce {H_{2}O}}+3.77\left(\alpha +{\frac {\beta }{4}}-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right){\ce {N_{2}}}}
783:. The formation of carbon monoxide produces less heat than formation of carbon dioxide so complete combustion is greatly preferred especially as carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. When breathed, carbon monoxide takes the place of oxygen and combines with some of the hemoglobin in the blood, rendering it unable to transport oxygen.
812:, which return to Earth's surface as acid deposition, or "acid rain." Acid deposition harms aquatic organisms and kills trees. Due to its formation of certain nutrients that are less available to plants such as calcium and phosphorus, it reduces the productivity of the ecosystem and farms. An additional problem associated with
700:
Incomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. As is the case with complete combustion, water is produced
4669:
where q' is the heat release rate perturbation and p' is the pressure fluctuation. When the heat release oscillations are in phase with the pressure oscillations, the
Rayleigh Index is positive and the magnitude of the thermoacoustic instability is maximised. On the other hand, if the Rayleigh Index
4322:
The inclusion of such mechanisms within computational flow solvers still represents a pretty challenging task mainly in two aspects. First, the number of degrees of freedom (proportional to the number of chemical species) can be dramatically large; second, the source term due to reactions introduces
4535:
dB, and long-term exposure to these cyclic pressure and thermal loads reduces the life of engine components. In rockets, such as the F1 used in the Saturn V program, instabilities led to massive damage to the combustion chamber and surrounding components. This problem was solved by re-designing the
4000:
are mixed prior to heating: for example, a diffusion flame is formed if the fuel and oxidizer are separated initially, whereas a premixed flame is formed otherwise. Similarly, the type of burning also depends on the pressure: a detonation, for example, is an autoignitive reaction front coupled to a
4311:
reactions that give more easily oxidized, gaseous fuels. These reactions are endothermic and require constant energy input from the ongoing combustion reactions. A lack of oxygen or other improperly designed conditions result in these noxious and carcinogenic pyrolysis products being emitted as
4144:
The second principle of combustion management, however, is to not use too much oxygen. The correct amount of oxygen requires three types of measurement: first, active control of air and fuel flow; second, offgas oxygen measurement; and third, measurement of offgas combustibles. For each heating
4318:
Detailed descriptions of combustion processes, from the chemical kinetics perspective, require the formulation of large and intricate webs of elementary reactions. For instance, combustion of hydrocarbon fuels typically involve hundreds of chemical species reacting according to thousands of
3499:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {fuel}{C_{\mathit {x}}H_{\mathit {y}}}}+{\underset {oxygen}{{\mathit {z}}O2}}->{\underset {carbon\ dioxide}{{\mathit {a}}CO2}}+{\underset {carbon\ monoxide}{{\mathit {b}}CO}}+{\underset {water}{{\mathit {c}}H2O}}+{\underset {hydrogen}{{\mathit {d}}H2}}}}}
4670:
is negative, then thermoacoustic damping occurs. The
Rayleigh Criterion implies that thermoacoustic instability can be optimally controlled by having heat release oscillations 180 degrees out of phase with pressure oscillations at the same frequency. This minimizes the Rayleigh Index.
836:
causes headache, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea. If carbon monoxide levels are high enough, humans become unconscious or die. Exposure to moderate and high levels of carbon monoxide over long periods is positively correlated with the risk of heart disease. People who survive severe
4172:
in the combustion gas. The heat balance relates the heat available for the charge to the overall net heat produced by fuel combustion. Additional material and heat balances can be made to quantify the thermal advantage from preheating the combustion air, or enriching it in oxygen.
1298:) can be added to the equation (although it does not react) to show the stoichiometric composition of the fuel in air and the composition of the resultant flue gas. Treating all non-oxygen components in air as nitrogen gives a 'nitrogen' to oxygen ratio of 3.77, i.e. (100% −
856:
is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. It is a typically incomplete combustion reaction. Solid materials that can sustain a smoldering reaction include coal,
677:
The amount of air required for complete combustion is known as the "theoretical air" or "stoichiometric air". The amount of air above this value actually needed for optimal combustion is known as the "excess air", and can vary from 5% for a natural gas boiler, to 40% for
4112:
In a perfect furnace, the combustion air flow would be matched to the fuel flow to give each fuel molecule the exact amount of oxygen needed to cause complete combustion. However, in the real world, combustion does not proceed in a perfect manner. Unburned fuel (usually
1497:
924:
internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self-heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, ignition. For example, phosphorus self-ignites at room temperature without the application of heat. Organic materials undergoing bacterial
1172:
775:
of a burner during the combustion process. Also, the efficiency of an internal combustion engine can be measured in this way, and some U.S. states and local municipalities use combustion analysis to define and rate the efficiency of vehicles on the road today.
716:
occurs before combustion. In incomplete combustion, products of pyrolysis remain unburnt and contaminate the smoke with noxious particulate matter and gases. Partially oxidized compounds are also a concern; partial oxidation of ethanol can produce harmful
977:'s flame takes the shape of a sphere.). Microgravity combustion research contributes to the understanding of a wide variety of aspects that are relevant to both the environment of a spacecraft (e.g., fire dynamics relevant to crew safety on the
1685:
674:, and some of the hydrogens remain unreacted. A complete set of equations for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in the air, therefore, requires an additional calculation for the distribution of oxygen between the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel.
4275:
Combustion of hydrocarbons is thought to be initiated by hydrogen atom abstraction (not proton abstraction) from the fuel to oxygen, to give a hydroperoxide radical (HOO). This reacts further to give hydroperoxides, which break up to give
335:
of combustion in air is overwhelmingly on the side of the products. However, complete combustion is almost impossible to achieve, since the chemical equilibrium is not necessarily reached, or may contain unburnt products such as
4259:
aligned, such that the molecule has nonzero total angular momentum. Most fuels, on the other hand, are in a singlet state, with paired spins and zero total angular momentum. Interaction between the two is quantum mechanically a
1280:
322:
4145:
process, there exists an optimum condition of minimal offgas heat loss with acceptable levels of combustibles concentration. Minimizing excess oxygen pays an additional benefit: for a given offgas temperature, the
4665:
3968:. The flash point of liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion.
4994:
4536:
fuel injector. In liquid jet engines, the droplet size and distribution can be used to attenuate the instabilities. Combustion instabilities are a major concern in ground-based gas turbine engines because of
3846:
1340:
965:
The term 'micro' gravity refers to a gravitational state that is 'low' (i.e., 'micro' in the sense of 'small' and not necessarily a millionth of Earth's normal gravity) such that the influence of
6196:
Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Gorban, Alexander; Boulouchos, Konstantinos (2010). "Coupling of the model reduction technique with the lattice
Boltzmann method for combustion simulations".
6334:
Chrystie, Robin S. M.; Burns, Iain S.; Kaminski, Clemens F. (2013). "Temperature
Response of an Acoustically Forced Turbulent Lean Premixed Flame: A Quantitative Experimental Determination".
3787:
3964:
in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapor that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its
5942:
Valorani, M.; Goussis, D.; Najm, H.N. (2005). "Higher order corrections in the approximation of low-dimensional manifolds and the construction of simplified problems with the csp method".
1040:
5786:
Ren, Z.; Pope, S.B.; Vladimirsky, A.; Guckenheimer, J.M. (2006). "The invariant constrained equilibrium edge preimage curve method for the dimension reduction of chemical kinetics".
982:
4315:
The rate of combustion is the amount of a material that undergoes combustion over a period of time. It can be expressed in grams per second (g/s) or kilograms per second (kg/s).
4330:
Therefore, a plethora of methodologies have been devised for reducing the complexity of combustion mechanisms without resorting to high detail levels. Examples are provided by:
5167:
1539:
3985:
4280:. There are a great variety of these processes that produce fuel radicals and oxidizing radicals. Oxidizing species include singlet oxygen, hydroxyl, monatomic oxygen, and
547:
burns in oxygen, the reaction will primarily yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides. Carbon will yield
4495:
1550:
4446:
4364:
The kinetic modelling may be explored for insight into the reaction mechanisms of thermal decomposition in the combustion of different materials by using for instance
3704:
3661:
4998:
970:
4284:. Such intermediates are short-lived and cannot be isolated. However, non-radical intermediates are stable and are produced in incomplete combustion. An example is
3621:
6151:
Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Frouzakis, Christos E.; Boulouchos, Konstantinos (2009). "Method of invariant grid for model reduction of hydrogen combustion".
4836:
902:
6373:
4471:
Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around 2,200 °C (3,992 °F) (for inlet air and fuel at ambient temperatures and for
969:
on physical processes may be considered small relative to other flow processes that would be present at normal gravity. In such an environment, the thermal and
5910:
5555:
Chiavazzo, Eliodoro (2012). "Approximation of slow and fast dynamics in multiscale dynamical systems by the linearized
Relaxation Redistribution Method".
4391:
conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the
4327:
stiff. As a result, the direct numerical simulation of turbulent reactive flows with heavy fuels soon becomes intractable even for modern supercomputers.
5018:
4831:
375:, since the combustion of nitrogen is thermodynamically favored at high, but not low temperatures. Since burning is rarely clean, fuel gas cleaning or
5067:
5656:
6395:
4531:
Combustion instabilities are typically violent pressure oscillations in a combustion chamber. These pressure oscillations can be as high as 180
129:
is only visible when substances undergoing combustion vaporize, but when it does, a flame is a characteristic indicator of the reaction. While
6134:
1187:
225:
3709:
These three equations are insufficient in themselves to calculate the combustion gas composition. However, at the equilibrium position, the
981:) and terrestrial (Earth-based) conditions (e.g., droplet combustion dynamics to assist developing new fuel blends for improved combustion,
595:
species appear in significant amounts above about 2,800 °F (1,540 °C), and more is produced at higher temperatures. The amount of
6282:
John
William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, Sc.D., F.R.S.., Honorary Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; "The Theory of Sound", §322h, 1878:
6223:
Reyes, J.A.; Conesa, J.A.; Marcilla, A. (2001). "Pyrolysis and combustion of polycoated cartons recycling. kinetic model and ms analysis".
4561:
is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic combustion instability and is evaluated using the
Rayleigh Index over one cycle of instability
4093:
into the material being processed. There are many avenues of loss in the operation of a heating process. Typically, the dominant loss is
4264:", i.e. possible with a very low probability. To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or
4889:
174:
to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that
6921:
6833:
5175:
4966:
4545:
emissions. The tendency is to run lean, an equivalence ratio less than 1, to reduce the combustion temperature and thus reduce the
4399:
is used entirely for heating the fuel, the combustion air or oxygen, and the combustion product gases (commonly referred to as the
492:
with the liberation of heat and light characteristic of combustion. Although usually not catalyzed, combustion can be catalyzed by
4566:
4523:. For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used.
7130:
4814:
6509:
1492:{\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+z{\ce {O2}}+3.77z{\ce {N2 ->}}x{\ce {CO2}}+{y \over 2}{\ce {H2O}}+3.77z{\ce {N2}}}
582:
Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example,
6409:
4468:) increases for higher heating values and inlet air and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios approaching one.
961:
Colourized gray-scale composite image of the individual frames from a video of a backlit fuel droplet burning in microgravity
17:
3909:
pressure when z is less than 30% of the stoichiometric value, at which point the combustion products contain more than 98%
3792:
6004:
Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya (2008). "Quasi-equilibrium grid algorithm: geometric construction for model reduction".
670:). On the other hand, when there is insufficient oxygen to combust the fuel completely, some fuel carbon is converted to
5673:
Maas, U.; Pope, S.B. (1992). "Simplifying chemical kinetics: intrinsic low-dimensional manifolds in composition space".
1167:{\displaystyle {\ce {C}}_{x}{\ce {H}}_{y}+\left(x+{y \over 4}\right){\ce {O2->}}x{\ce {CO2}}+{y \over 2}{\ce {H2O}}}
5494:
Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Asinari, Pietro; Visconti, Filippo (2011). "Fast computation of multi-scale combustion systems".
6379:
5871:
5402:
4251:
molecule. The lowest-energy configuration of the dioxygen molecule is a stable, relatively unreactive diradical in a
4226:
634:
of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high temperatures, some nitrogen will be converted to
4054:, when the mix of evolved flammable gases with oxygen is ignited. Energy is produced in the form of heat and light.
3719:
5977:
Keck, J.C.; Gillespie, D. (1971). "Rate-controlled partial-equilibrium method for treating reacting gas mixtures".
4152:
Adherence to these two principles is furthered by making material and heat balances on the combustion process. The
986:
841:
may suffer long-term health problems. Carbon monoxide from the air is absorbed in the lungs which then binds with
6911:
6823:
5356:
5319:
6305:
5872:"Approximation of slow attracting manifolds in chemical kinetics by tra trjectory-based optimization approaches"
5608:
Kooshkbaghi, Mahdi; Frouzakis, E. Christos; Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Boulouchos, Konstantinos; Karlin, Ilya (2014).
4247:
intermediates participate. The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the
845:
in human's red blood cells. This reduces the capacity of red blood cells that carry oxygen throughout the body.
331:
concerning the fuel, where there is no remaining fuel, and ideally, no residual oxidant. Thermodynamically, the
6886:
4208:
4068:, when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low for the persistent presence of flame and the
4058:
are often visible. Heat transfer from the combustion to the solid maintains the evolution of flammable vapours.
6246:
4938:
356:
is usually toxic and contains unburned or partially oxidized products. Any combustion at high temperatures in
4558:
77:
6378:(3rd ed.). European Centre for Research and Advanced Training in Scientific Computation. Archived from
5282:
5208:
4916:
7265:
6057:
Valorani, M.; Paolucci, S. (2009). "The G-Scheme: a framework for multi-scale adaptive model reduction".
5134:
Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science
5075:
4699:
4464:
4392:
4204:
3027:
978:
729:
47:
5245:
417:
that contain partially oxidized hydrocarbons. The thermal energy produced from the combustion of either
6502:
5609:
4797:
4782:
4365:
543:
In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen and produces a limited number of products. When a
39:
7034:
4554:
emissions; however, running the combustion lean makes it very susceptible to combustion instability.
1680:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {methane}{CH4}}+ 2O2}}+7.54{\ce {N2-> CO2 + 2H2O}}+7.54{\ce {N2}}}
1505:
838:
745:
6415:
6121:
6093:
7135:
6603:
6595:
6539:
5433:
Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya (2011). "Adaptive simplification of complex multiscale systems".
4819:
4739:
4694:
3710:
43:
4902:
4474:
6903:
6618:
5929:
Conventional
Asymptotic and Computational Singular Perturbation for Symplified Kinetics Modelling
4787:
4349:
The Rate
Controlled Constrained Equilibrium (RCCE) and Quasi Equilibrium Manifold (QEM) approach.
4255:. Bonding can be described with three bonding electron pairs and two antibonding electrons, with
4197:
51:
5700:
Bykov, V.; Maas, U (2007). "The extension of the ILDM concept to reaction–diffusion manifolds".
4519:, the more common way of expressing the usage of more than the stoichiometric combustion air is
4429:
3026:
Various other substances begin to appear in significant amounts in combustion products when the
445:
or industrial or domestic heating. Combustion is also currently the only reaction used to power
7039:
7029:
6977:
6116:
4755:
4452:
917:
35:
3668:
748:
for cars in most countries. They may be necessary to enable large combustion devices, such as
7228:
6495:
4952:
4846:
4841:
3628:
937:
Combustion resulting in a turbulent flame is the most used for industrial applications (e.g.
898:
780:
749:
327:
Uncatalyzed combustion in air requires relatively high temperatures. Complete combustion is
6108:
6066:
6023:
5951:
5886:
5842:
5795:
5752:
5709:
5624:
5574:
5513:
5452:
4261:
3594:
3543:
3211:
3142:
469:
405:, and continues to be the main method to produce energy for humanity. Usually, the fuel is
332:
81:
7235:
5831:"Entropy-related extremum principles for model reduction of dissipative dynamical systems"
8:
7260:
6644:
4244:
4002:
3203:
1295:
737:
376:
152:
149:
138:
57:
6112:
6070:
6027:
5955:
5890:
5846:
5799:
5756:
5713:
5628:
5578:
5517:
5456:
3976:
Combustion of gaseous fuels may occur through one of four distinctive types of burning:
6879:
6351:
6291:
A. A. Putnam and W. C. Dennis (1953) "Organ-pipe oscillations in a flame-filled tube",
6209:
6178:
6160:
6039:
6013:
5768:
5725:
5648:
5590:
5564:
5537:
5503:
5476:
5442:
5149:
4689:
4505:
4417:
4396:
4090:
4086:
3064:
1006:
821:
753:
137:
to light a fire), the heat from a flame may provide enough energy to make the reaction
6232:
5990:
4497:), around 2,150 °C (3,902 °F) for oil and 2,000 °C (3,632 °F) for
456:
Oxidants for combustion have high oxidation potential and include atmospheric or pure
7156:
6651:
6405:
6182:
5902:
5811:
5772:
5729:
5686:
5640:
5529:
5468:
5398:
4749:
4380:
3905:
3199:
3194:
that tend to form with only a stoichiometric amount of oxygen, necessarily producing
1023:
897:. Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on
890:
489:
130:
102:
6613:
6355:
5764:
5594:
5541:
5153:
4141:) combustion, for example, slightly more than two molecules of oxygen are required.
4025:
The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases:
3264:. Such gas mixtures are commonly prepared for use as protective atmospheres for the
1690:
The stoichiometric composition of methane in air is 1 / (1 + 2 + 7.54) = 9.49% vol.
920:
is a type of combustion that occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to
901:
by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire) and the persistent
7081:
7060:
6792:
6343:
6228:
6205:
6170:
6126:
6074:
6031:
5986:
5959:
5894:
5850:
5803:
5760:
5717:
5682:
5652:
5632:
5582:
5521:
5480:
5460:
5141:
4744:
4324:
4277:
4153:
4041:
3539:
3087:
3045:
998:
657:
6043:
5610:"The global relaxation redistribution method for reduction of combustion kinetics"
5019:
Shuttle-Mir History/Science/Microgravity/Candle Flame in Microgravity (CFM) – MGBX
397:) was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of
6967:
6853:
6838:
6828:
6347:
5307:
4851:
4512:
4293:
3977:
3122:
of air (120% of the stoichiometric amount), the combustion products contain 3.3%
3059:
1290:
If the stoichiometric combustion takes place using air as the oxygen source, the
942:
833:
813:
772:
724:
The designs of combustion devices can improve the quality of combustion, such as
706:
671:
583:
560:
556:
501:
368:
337:
6174:
6130:
4980:
73:
7193:
6947:
6937:
6734:
5464:
5344:
5270:
4734:
4714:
4424:
4337:
The Intrinsic Low-Dimensional Manifold (ILDM) approach and further developments
4272:, and the reaction then produces additional heat, which allows it to continue.
4265:
4256:
4252:
4240:
4157:
3981:
3587:
is 80% of the stoichiometric value. The three elemental balance equations are:
3187:
809:
552:
548:
430:
328:
212:
6321:
Dowling, A. P. (2000a). "Vortices, sound and flame – a damaging combination".
6078:
6035:
5963:
5721:
5586:
5381:
5233:
5035:. Centre for Research in Computational Thermochemistry, Polytechnique Montreal
4383:
conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sunlight
4346:
The Computational Singular perturbation (CSP) method and further developments.
3992:. The type of burning that actually occurs depends on the degree to which the
559:. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the
7254:
7217:
6916:
6872:
6762:
6639:
6560:
5145:
5132:
Bradley, D (2009-06-25). "Combustion and the design of future engine fuels".
4802:
4777:
4509:
4094:
3265:
1027:
945:, etc.) because the turbulence helps the mixing process between the fuel and
473:
205:
175:
6271:
5196:
7168:
7109:
6952:
6688:
6570:
5906:
5815:
5644:
5533:
5525:
5472:
5096:
4704:
4409:
4285:
4281:
4001:
strong shock wave giving it its characteristic high-pressure peak and high
3039:
878:
764:
759:
The degree of combustion can be measured and analyzed with test equipment.
718:
651:
450:
6094:"The role of thermodynamics in model reduction when using invariant grids"
4412:
burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on all of the following:
4387:
Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete combustion under
3538:
The products of incomplete combustion can be calculated with the aid of a
3202:
to vehicle nitrogen oxide emissions, which necessitate the use of special
7198:
7114:
7088:
6962:
6957:
6729:
6714:
6678:
6673:
6623:
6518:
5108:
5032:
4917:"Engineering Toolbox: Optimal Combustion Processes - Fuel vs. Excess Air"
4905:(Report). US Department of the Army. 1989. p. Glossary 26. TM 5-650.
4792:
4516:
4498:
4098:
4073:
3965:
3961:
3949:
3547:
3273:
3269:
3223:
3118:
3107:
1031:
938:
817:
805:
741:
683:
630:
544:
537:
477:
442:
418:
410:
182:
168:
117:, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as
1275:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {methane}{CH4}}+ 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O}}}
973:
can behave quite differently than in normal gravity conditions (e.g., a
317:{\displaystyle {\ce {2H_{2}(g){+}O_{2}(g)\rightarrow 2H_{2}O\uparrow }}}
7178:
6752:
6666:
6661:
5607:
4709:
4376:
4211: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4037:
3989:
1017:
957:
926:
921:
853:
842:
725:
679:
563:. Still, small amounts of various nitrogen oxides (commonly designated
357:
156:
96:
6394:
Lackner, Maximilian; Winter, Franz; Agarwal, Avinash K., eds. (2010).
5898:
5855:
5830:
5807:
5743:
Nafe, J.; Maas, U. (2002). "A general algorithm for improving ILDMs".
5636:
4105:). The temperature and quantity of offgas indicates its heat content (
997:
Combustion processes that happen in very small volumes are considered
7183:
7173:
7163:
7104:
7076:
6972:
6848:
6843:
6797:
6782:
6777:
6757:
6709:
6656:
6585:
6435:
6401:
6312:(Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996), p. 4
4719:
4388:
4308:
4268:. This intermediate is extremely reactive. The energy is supplied as
1002:
858:
768:
733:
713:
528:
518:
386:
171:
7239:
4186:
1285:
7151:
6787:
6772:
6767:
6683:
6580:
6565:
6529:
4401:
4248:
4106:
4102:
4069:
3997:
3945:
3217:
3191:
3073:
1291:
966:
946:
906:
886:
695:
497:
493:
485:
481:
465:
461:
434:
398:
390:
364:
341:
216:
190:
6165:
6150:
6018:
5569:
5508:
5447:
3542:, together with the assumption that the combustion products reach
6719:
6534:
4877:
colloquial meaning of burning is combustion accompanied by flames
4340:
The invariant-constrained equilibrium edge preimage curve method.
4289:
4018:
3514:
3272:. The general reaction equation for incomplete combustion of one
3112:
1544:
For example, the stoichiometric combustion of methane in air is:
1178:
1001:. The high surface-to-volume ratio increases specific heat loss.
870:
786:
635:
533:
438:
402:
110:
4292:. An intermediate in the combustion of carbon and hydrocarbons,
6998:
6575:
6487:
6195:
4772:
4301:
4297:
3898:
3854:
3532:
3531:
falls below roughly 35% of the stoichiometric value, elemental
3156:
3137:
3033:
974:
866:
801:
702:
627:). In the air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately
457:
446:
406:
345:
194:
189:
is produced. A simple example can be seen in the combustion of
114:
5785:
5021:. Spaceflight.nasa.gov (1999-07-16). Retrieved on 2010-09-28.
4967:"Environmental Problems associated with incomplete combustion"
4040:. Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to
7055:
7013:
7008:
6818:
6802:
6724:
6693:
6555:
6472:
The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook: Three-Volume Set
6092:
Chiavazzo, Eliodoro; Karlin, Ilya; Gorban, Alexander (2010).
4729:
4055:
3867:
3244:
3093:
1005:
distance plays a vital role in stabilizing the flame in such
882:
797:
353:
201:
198:
186:
178:
134:
126:
118:
99:
62:
6470:
Baukal, Charles E. Jr, ed. (2013). "Industrial Combustion".
4660:{\displaystyle G(x)={\frac {1}{T}}\int _{T}q'(x,t)p'(x,t)dt}
4307:
Solid and heavy liquid fuels also undergo a great number of
3940:
Substances or materials which undergo combustion are called
586:
is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur.
7003:
6993:
6895:
4724:
4269:
4089:
requires recovery of the largest possible part of a fuel's
4033:
3993:
3941:
3207:
929:
can generate enough heat to reach the point of combustion.
894:
874:
862:
760:
608:
422:
414:
394:
382:
349:
164:
160:
133:
must be supplied to initiate combustion (e.g., using a lit
122:
106:
66:
31:
4013:
744:
into the combustion process. Such devices are required by
7188:
4146:
4072:
fuel does not burn rapidly and just glows and later only
3775:
3759:
3740:
3486:
3451:
3381:
3349:
3317:
3302:
3195:
3004:
2922:
2886:
2860:
2839:
2769:
2754:
2739:
2724:
2668:
2579:
2555:
2527:
2501:
2480:
2412:
2397:
2382:
2367:
2352:
2292:
2226:
2202:
2174:
2148:
2127:
2059:
2044:
2029:
2014:
1958:
1895:
1867:
1841:
1820:
1758:
1743:
1728:
1673:
1649:
1629:
1613:
1592:
1567:
1485:
1458:
1430:
1409:
1385:
1265:
1245:
1229:
1204:
1157:
1129:
1108:
612:
564:
426:
372:
360:
304:
273:
244:
6454:
An Introduction to Combustion: Concepts and Applications
5493:
4462:
The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the
4323:
a disparate number of time scales which makes the whole
3865:
is 0.728. Solving, the combustion gas consists of 42.4%
6864:
6308:
in F. Culick, M. V. Heitor, and J. H. Whitelaw, ed.s,
5869:
4959:
989:, multiphase flow boiling dynamics, and many others).
30:"Burning" redirects here. For the type of injury, see
6333:
6091:
4995:"A Perfect Storm: Mulch Fire Dynamics and Prevention"
4569:
4477:
4432:
4300:, but also economically useful for the production of
3944:. The most common examples are natural gas, propane,
3841:{\displaystyle K_{eq}={\frac {a\times d}{b\times c}}}
3795:
3722:
3671:
3631:
3597:
3513:
falls below roughly 50% of the stoichiometric value,
3285:
3226:
with oxygen produces a gas mixture containing mainly
3198:
emissions. Both the United States and European Union
2710:
2338:
2000:
1714:
1553:
1508:
1343:
1190:
1043:
228:
6393:
5168:"Calculating the heat of combustion for natural gas"
4109:), so keeping its quantity low minimizes heat loss.
1018:
Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen
219:
accordingly (at constant temperature and pressure):
6222:
5941:
5031:Bale, Christopher W.; Bélisle, Eve (8 March 2022).
4149:level is lowest when excess oxygen is kept lowest.
3037:. When excess air is used, nitrogen may oxidize to
712:For most fuels, such as diesel oil, coal, or wood,
4659:
4489:
4440:
3840:
3781:
3698:
3655:
3615:
3498:
3190:are run with an excess of oxygen to combust small
3010:
2674:
2298:
1964:
1679:
1533:
1491:
1274:
1166:
316:
3527:can become an important combustion product; when
1286:Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in air
7252:
6056:
5870:Reinhardt, V.; Winckler, M.; Lebiedz, D. (112).
3583:, seven moles of combustion gas are formed, and
3218:Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen
721:, and carbon can produce toxic carbon monoxide.
34:. For combustion without external ignition, see
6461:Ragland, Kenneth W; Bryden, Kenneth M. (2011).
6371:
6003:
5432:
4885:
4883:
3782:{\displaystyle {\ce {CO + H2O -> CO2 + H2}}}
6293:Fourth Symposium (International) on Combustion
4997:. Soilandmulchproducernews.com. Archived from
1177:For example, the stoichiometric combustion of
787:Problems associated with incomplete combustion
148:Combustion is often a complicated sequence of
6880:
6503:
6460:
5976:
5397:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
5301:
579:species) form when the air is the oxidative.
6306:"Unsteady flames and the Rayleigh criterion"
4880:
3021:
2685:The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C
2309:The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C
1975:The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C
1693:The stoichiometric combustion reaction for C
779:Carbon monoxide is one of the products from
367:, will also create small amounts of several
204:, a reaction which is commonly used to fuel
6225:Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis
5417:
5338:
5264:
5030:
4296:, is of special importance because it is a
820:pollutants, contribute to the formation of
27:Chemical reaction between a fuel and oxygen
6887:
6873:
6510:
6496:
6442:
6372:Poinsot, Thierry; Veynante, Denis (2012).
5926:
5375:
5227:
4892:. Alentecinc.com. Retrieved on 2010-09-28.
4334:The Relaxation Redistribution Method (RRM)
512:
453:) waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous.
6922:Native American use of fire in ecosystems
6834:Native American use of fire in ecosystems
6164:
6120:
6017:
5854:
5699:
5568:
5554:
5507:
5446:
4227:Learn how and when to remove this message
4036:is heated up to its flash point and then
3222:The incomplete (partial) combustion of a
1638:
1581:
1254:
1218:
791:
740:) or by the simple partial return of the
732:. Further improvements are achievable by
293:
233:
6478:
6295:, The Combustion Institute, pp. 566–574.
5742:
5672:
5190:
4375:
4080:
4012:
3546:. For example, in the combustion of one
3160:, the combustion products contain 0.17%
987:thermal management of electronic systems
956:
827:
709:are produced instead of carbon dioxide.
527:
437:, is harvested for diverse uses such as
72:
56:
7131:International Flame Research Foundation
6265:
6153:Proceedings of the Combustion Institute
5828:
5131:
5101:
5090:
5024:
4953:"Burning showing incomplete combustion"
4815:International Flame Research Foundation
607:In most industrial applications and in
413:, or more complicated mixtures such as
121:. Combustion does not always result in
14:
7253:
6469:
6429:
5055:Furnace atmospheres and carbon control
5053:ASM Committee on Furnace Atmospheres,
449:. Combustion is also used to destroy (
141:. The study of combustion is known as
6868:
6491:
6451:
5422:. Springer Science. pp. 193–220.
5127:
5125:
4176:
3952:, petrol, charcoal, coal, wood, etc.
3471:
3436:
3406:
3366:
3334:
3311:
3296:
1012:
771:use combustion analyzers to test the
604:is also a function of oxygen excess.
7224:
6397:Handbook of Combustion, 5 volume set
6375:Theoretical and Numerical Combustion
6323:The Aeronautical Journal of the RaeS
5174:: 28. September 2012. Archived from
4809:Scientific and engineering societies
4678:
4458:the air and fuel inlet temperatures.
4395:and takes note of the fact that the
4359:
4355:The Method of Invariant Grids (MIG).
4209:adding citations to reliable sources
4180:
5392:
3895:. Carbon becomes a stable phase at
992:
701:by incomplete combustion; however,
24:
6443:Glassman, Irvin; Yetter, Richard.
6365:
6304:E. C. Fernandes and M. V. Heitor,
6210:10.1016/j.combustflame.2010.06.009
5357:"Making a system balance (Part 1)"
5320:"Making a system balance (Part 2)"
5122:
3145:combustion products contain 0.03%
25:
7277:
6336:Combustion Science and Technology
3206:or treatment of the exhaust with
3043:and, to a much lesser extent, to
78:Air pollution abatement equipment
7234:
7223:
7213:
7212:
6517:
6430:Baukal, Charles E., ed. (1998).
6140:from the original on 2022-10-09.
5916:from the original on 2022-10-09.
5662:from the original on 2022-10-09.
5557:Journal of Computational Physics
4526:
4425:stoichiometric air to fuel ratio
4185:
3971:
952:
80:provides combustion control for
6912:Control of fire by early humans
6824:Control of fire by early humans
6327:
6315:
6298:
6285:
6276:
6239:
6216:
6189:
6144:
6085:
6050:
5997:
5970:
5935:
5927:Lam, S.H.; Goussis, D. (1991).
5920:
5863:
5822:
5779:
5736:
5693:
5666:
5617:The Journal of Chemical Physics
5601:
5548:
5487:
5426:
5411:
5386:
5349:
5312:
5275:
5238:
5201:
5160:
5074:: 22. June 2013. Archived from
5060:
5047:
5012:
4939:"Incomplete combustion process"
4196:needs additional citations for
3955:
3276:of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is:
1534:{\displaystyle z=x+{y \over 4}}
983:materials fabrication processes
736:after-burning devices (such as
656:, with much smaller amounts of
69:undergoing combustion (burning)
6481:Gas-Phase Combustion Chemistry
5418:Goussis, D.; Maas, U. (2011).
4987:
4973:
4945:
4931:
4909:
4895:
4871:
4648:
4636:
4625:
4613:
4579:
4573:
4371:
4288:produced in the combustion of
4008:
3746:
3358:
3091:form by disproportionation of
2869:
2510:
2157:
1850:
1616:
1412:
1232:
1111:
912:
310:
287:
283:
277:
254:
248:
38:. For the vehicle engine, see
13:
1:
6247:"Adiabatic flame temperature"
6233:10.1016/S0165-2370(00)00123-6
5991:10.1016/S0010-2180(71)80166-9
5420:Turbulent Combustion Modeling
4865:
4521:percent excess combustion air
905:behind the flaming fronts of
848:
824:, a major component of smog.
689:
6348:10.1080/00102202.2012.714020
5687:10.1016/0010-2180(92)90034-m
4490:{\displaystyle \lambda =1.0}
4343:A few variational approaches
932:
885:, synthetic foams, charring
804:in the atmosphere, creating
385:occur naturally, ignited by
352:or ash). Thus, the produced
208:. This reaction releases 242
7:
6479:Gardiner, W. C. Jr (2000).
6175:10.1016/j.proci.2008.05.014
6131:10.4208/cicp.030709.210110a
5283:"Available combustion heat"
5209:"Making a material balance"
4981:"Carbon Monoxide Poisoning"
4700:Chemical looping combustion
4673:
4465:adiabatic flame temperature
4393:first law of thermodynamics
3986:autoignitive reaction front
979:International Space Station
730:internal combustion engines
523:
48:Combustion (disambiguation)
10:
7282:
6432:Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion
5465:10.1103/PhysRevE.83.036706
4798:Internal combustion engine
4783:External combustion engine
4441:{\displaystyle {\lambda }}
4366:Thermogravimetric analysis
4239:Combustion in oxygen is a
796:These oxides combine with
693:
516:
371:, commonly referred to as
40:internal combustion engine
29:
7207:
7144:
7123:
7097:
7069:
7048:
7022:
6986:
6930:
6902:
6811:
6745:
6702:
6632:
6594:
6548:
6525:
6079:10.1016/j.jcp.2009.03.011
6036:10.1016/j.jcp.2008.02.006
5964:10.1016/j.jcp.2005.03.033
5765:10.1088/1364-7830/6/4/308
5722:10.1080/13647830701242531
5587:10.1016/j.jcp.2011.11.007
3022:Trace combustion products
839:carbon monoxide poisoning
816:is that they, along with
746:environmental legislation
615:is the source of oxygen (
7136:The Combustion Institute
6894:
6604:Autoignition temperature
5496:Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A
5146:10.1243/09544062jmes1519
5068:"Exothermic atmospheres"
4820:The Combustion Institute
4740:Heterogeneous combustion
4695:Autoignition temperature
3713:gives another equation:
3711:water-gas shift reaction
3699:{\displaystyle 2a+b+c=8}
507:
379:may be required by law.
215:of heat and reduces the
95:, is a high-temperature
65:caused as a result of a
44:Burning (disambiguation)
42:. For other uses, see
6619:Minimum ignition energy
6452:Turns, Stephen (2011).
5246:"Making a heat balance"
4243:in which many distinct
3656:{\displaystyle 2c+2d=8}
971:flow transport dynamics
513:Complete and incomplete
109:(the reductant) and an
52:Firing (disambiguation)
6978:Spontaneous combustion
6463:Combustion Engineering
5526:10.1098/rsta.2011.0026
4767:Machines and equipment
4756:Spontaneous combustion
4661:
4491:
4453:specific heat capacity
4442:
4384:
4022:
3842:
3783:
3700:
3657:
3617:
3500:
3012:
2676:
2300:
1966:
1681:
1535:
1493:
1276:
1168:
962:
918:Spontaneous combustion
792:Environmental problems
750:thermal power stations
555:, and iron will yield
540:
393:products. Combustion (
363:, which is 78 percent
318:
181:in the form of either
113:, usually atmospheric
85:
70:
36:spontaneous combustion
5745:Combust. Theory Model
5702:Combust. Theory Model
4903:Central Boiler Plants
4847:Open burning of waste
4842:List of light sources
4662:
4492:
4443:
4379:
4160:to the percentage of
4156:directly relates the
4081:Combustion management
4016:
3843:
3784:
3701:
3658:
3618:
3616:{\displaystyle a+b=3}
3571:) with four moles of
3501:
3013:
2677:
2301:
1967:
1682:
1536:
1494:
1277:
1169:
960:
903:combustion of biomass
899:upholstered furniture
828:Human health problems
781:incomplete combustion
531:
319:
76:
60:
18:Incomplete combustion
6101:Commun. Comput. Phys
4890:The formation of NOx
4567:
4475:
4430:
4312:thick, black smoke.
4262:forbidden transition
4205:improve this article
4032:, when the unburned
4017:A general scheme of
3793:
3720:
3669:
3629:
3595:
3283:
3212:Diesel exhaust fluid
3204:catalytic converters
2708:
2336:
1998:
1712:
1551:
1506:
1341:
1294:present in the air (
1188:
1041:
738:catalytic converters
682:coal, to 300% for a
551:, sulfur will yield
470:chlorine trifluoride
377:catalytic converters
333:chemical equilibrium
226:
82:industrial processes
6645:Solar Spark Lighter
6483:(Revised ed.).
6310:Unsteady Combustion
6113:2010CCoPh...8..701C
6071:2009JCoPh.228.4665V
6028:2008JCoPh.227.5535C
5956:2005JCoPh.209..754V
5931:. Berlin: Springer.
5891:2008JPCA..112.1712R
5847:2010Entrp..12..706L
5829:Lebiedz, D (2010).
5800:2006JChPh.124k4111R
5757:2002CTM.....6..697N
5714:2007CTM....11..839B
5629:2014JChPh.141d4102K
5579:2012JCoPh.231.1751C
5518:2011RSPTA.369.2396C
5502:(1945): 2396–2404.
5457:2011PhRvE..83c6706C
5363:: 22. February 2012
5252:: 22. December 2012
5215:: 20. November 2012
5057:, Metals Park, OH .
4003:detonation velocity
3777:
3761:
3742:
3535:may become stable.
3488:
3453:
3383:
3351:
3319:
3304:
3006:
2924:
2888:
2862:
2841:
2771:
2756:
2741:
2726:
2670:
2581:
2557:
2529:
2503:
2482:
2414:
2399:
2384:
2369:
2354:
2294:
2228:
2204:
2176:
2150:
2129:
2061:
2046:
2031:
2016:
1960:
1897:
1869:
1843:
1822:
1760:
1745:
1730:
1675:
1651:
1631:
1615:
1594:
1569:
1487:
1460:
1432:
1411:
1387:
1296:Atmosphere of Earth
1267:
1247:
1231:
1206:
1159:
1131:
1110:
1007:combustion chambers
306:
275:
246:
7266:Chemical reactions
6474:(Second ed.).
6465:(Second ed.).
6447:(Fourth ed.).
6251:Industrial Heating
6227:. 58–59: 747–763.
5395:Combustion Physics
5393:Law, C.K. (2006).
5361:Industrial Heating
5324:Industrial Heating
5287:Industrial Heating
5250:Industrial Heating
5213:Industrial Heating
5172:Industrial Heating
5078:on 9 November 2023
5072:Industrial Heating
4983:. 8 December 2020.
4657:
4559:Rayleigh Criterion
4517:gas-fired turbines
4487:
4438:
4397:heat of combustion
4385:
4253:triplet spin state
4177:Reaction mechanism
4091:heat of combustion
4048:Distillation phase
4023:
3838:
3779:
3765:
3749:
3730:
3696:
3653:
3613:
3496:
3493:
3476:
3461:
3441:
3426:
3396:
3371:
3356:
3339:
3324:
3305:
3290:
3268:of metals and for
3104:For example, when
3065:disproportionation
3008:
2994:
2912:
2876:
2850:
2829:
2757:
2742:
2727:
2712:
2672:
2658:
2569:
2545:
2517:
2491:
2470:
2400:
2385:
2370:
2355:
2340:
2296:
2282:
2216:
2192:
2164:
2138:
2117:
2047:
2032:
2017:
2002:
1962:
1948:
1885:
1857:
1831:
1810:
1746:
1731:
1716:
1677:
1663:
1639:
1619:
1603:
1582:
1573:
1557:
1531:
1489:
1475:
1448:
1420:
1399:
1375:
1272:
1255:
1235:
1219:
1210:
1194:
1164:
1147:
1119:
1098:
1013:Chemical equations
963:
822:ground level ozone
754:emission standards
541:
532:The combustion of
314:
294:
263:
234:
143:combustion science
86:
71:
7248:
7247:
7157:List of wildfires
6862:
6861:
6411:978-3-527-32449-1
6204:(10): 1833–1849.
6065:(13): 4665–4701.
6012:(11): 5535–5560.
5899:10.1021/jp0739925
5856:10.3390/e12040706
5808:10.1063/1.2177243
5637:10.1063/1.4890368
5140:(12): 2751–2765.
5111:. Crct.polymtl.ca
4862:
4861:
4750:Phlogiston theory
4593:
4381:Antoine Lavoisier
4360:Kinetic modelling
4278:hydroxyl radicals
4237:
4236:
4229:
4097:leaving with the
3836:
3768:
3752:
3745:
3733:
3726:
3492:
3479:
3473:
3467:
3460:
3456:
3444:
3438:
3432:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3402:
3394:
3391:
3388:
3374:
3368:
3362:
3355:
3342:
3336:
3330:
3323:
3313:
3308:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3028:flame temperature
2997:
2986:
2973:
2938:
2927:
2915:
2909:
2879:
2853:
2832:
2816:
2803:
2760:
2745:
2730:
2715:
2661:
2650:
2626:
2613:
2572:
2560:
2548:
2542:
2520:
2494:
2473:
2451:
2438:
2403:
2388:
2373:
2358:
2343:
2285:
2268:
2255:
2219:
2207:
2195:
2189:
2167:
2141:
2120:
2098:
2085:
2050:
2035:
2020:
2005:
1951:
1940:
1927:
1900:
1888:
1882:
1860:
1834:
1813:
1797:
1784:
1749:
1734:
1719:
1666:
1654:
1642:
1622:
1606:
1585:
1572:
1560:
1556:
1529:
1478:
1463:
1451:
1445:
1423:
1402:
1378:
1360:
1348:
1334:% is 20.95% vol:
1270:
1258:
1238:
1222:
1209:
1197:
1193:
1162:
1150:
1144:
1122:
1101:
1090:
1060:
1048:
1024:chemical equation
891:polyurethane foam
752:, to reach legal
490:hydrogen chloride
309:
297:
282:
266:
253:
237:
153:radical reactions
131:activation energy
103:chemical reaction
16:(Redirected from
7273:
7238:
7227:
7226:
7216:
7215:
7061:Death by burning
7023:Individual fires
6889:
6882:
6875:
6866:
6865:
6812:Related articles
6512:
6505:
6498:
6489:
6488:
6484:
6475:
6466:
6457:
6448:
6439:
6426:
6424:
6423:
6414:. Archived from
6390:
6388:
6387:
6360:
6359:
6331:
6325:
6319:
6313:
6302:
6296:
6289:
6283:
6280:
6274:
6269:
6263:
6262:
6260:
6258:
6243:
6237:
6236:
6220:
6214:
6213:
6193:
6187:
6186:
6168:
6148:
6142:
6141:
6139:
6124:
6098:
6089:
6083:
6082:
6054:
6048:
6047:
6021:
6001:
5995:
5994:
5974:
5968:
5967:
5939:
5933:
5932:
5924:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5885:(8): 1712–1718.
5879:J. Phys. Chem. A
5876:
5867:
5861:
5860:
5858:
5826:
5820:
5819:
5783:
5777:
5776:
5740:
5734:
5733:
5697:
5691:
5690:
5681:(3–4): 239–264.
5670:
5664:
5663:
5661:
5614:
5605:
5599:
5598:
5572:
5563:(4): 1751–1765.
5552:
5546:
5545:
5511:
5491:
5485:
5484:
5450:
5430:
5424:
5423:
5415:
5409:
5408:
5390:
5384:
5379:
5373:
5372:
5370:
5368:
5353:
5347:
5342:
5336:
5335:
5333:
5331:
5326:: 24. March 2012
5316:
5310:
5305:
5299:
5298:
5296:
5294:
5289:: 22. April 2013
5279:
5273:
5268:
5262:
5261:
5259:
5257:
5242:
5236:
5231:
5225:
5224:
5222:
5220:
5205:
5199:
5194:
5188:
5187:
5185:
5183:
5164:
5158:
5157:
5129:
5120:
5119:
5117:
5116:
5105:
5099:
5094:
5088:
5087:
5085:
5083:
5064:
5058:
5051:
5045:
5044:
5042:
5040:
5028:
5022:
5016:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5006:
4991:
4985:
4984:
4977:
4971:
4970:
4963:
4957:
4956:
4949:
4943:
4942:
4935:
4929:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4913:
4907:
4906:
4899:
4893:
4887:
4878:
4875:
4832:Combustible dust
4745:Markstein number
4684:Related concepts
4679:
4666:
4664:
4663:
4658:
4635:
4612:
4604:
4603:
4594:
4586:
4553:
4544:
4534:
4513:steam generators
4496:
4494:
4493:
4488:
4455:of fuel and air;
4447:
4445:
4444:
4439:
4437:
4325:dynamical system
4232:
4225:
4221:
4218:
4212:
4189:
4181:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4154:material balance
4140:
4139:
4138:
4128:
4127:
4126:
4116:
4042:dry distillation
4030:Preheating phase
3960:Combustion of a
3936:
3935:
3934:
3924:
3920:
3919:
3918:
3908:
3901:
3894:
3890:
3889:
3888:
3874:
3857:
3851:For example, at
3847:
3845:
3844:
3839:
3837:
3835:
3824:
3813:
3808:
3807:
3788:
3786:
3785:
3780:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3766:
3760:
3757:
3750:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3731:
3724:
3705:
3703:
3702:
3697:
3662:
3660:
3659:
3654:
3622:
3620:
3619:
3614:
3582:
3581:
3580:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3560:
3559:
3540:material balance
3525:
3524:
3523:
3505:
3503:
3502:
3497:
3495:
3494:
3490:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3462:
3458:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3442:
3440:
3439:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3372:
3370:
3369:
3357:
3353:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3340:
3338:
3337:
3325:
3321:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3291:
3263:
3262:
3261:
3251:
3241:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3183:
3182:
3181:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3152:
3148:
3140:
3133:
3132:
3131:
3121:
3110:
3100:
3090:
3084:
3082:
3081:
3062:
3056:
3054:
3053:
3042:
3036:
3017:
3015:
3014:
3009:
3007:
3005:
3002:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2987:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2958:
2939:
2936:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2913:
2910:
2905:
2894:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2877:
2868:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2851:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2830:
2822:
2818:
2817:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2788:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2758:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2743:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2713:
2681:
2679:
2678:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2651:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2627:
2619:
2614:
2606:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2570:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2546:
2543:
2535:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2518:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2492:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2471:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2444:
2439:
2431:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2341:
2305:
2303:
2302:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2283:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2261:
2256:
2248:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2217:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2193:
2190:
2182:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2165:
2156:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2139:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2118:
2110:
2106:
2099:
2091:
2086:
2078:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2003:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1941:
1933:
1928:
1920:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1886:
1883:
1875:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1858:
1849:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1832:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1811:
1803:
1799:
1798:
1790:
1785:
1777:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1717:
1686:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1664:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1640:
1630:
1627:
1620:
1614:
1611:
1604:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1583:
1574:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1558:
1540:
1538:
1537:
1532:
1530:
1522:
1498:
1496:
1495:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1483:
1476:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1449:
1446:
1438:
1433:
1431:
1428:
1421:
1415:
1410:
1407:
1400:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1376:
1367:
1366:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1354:
1349:
1346:
1333:
1332:
1331:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1281:
1279:
1278:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1256:
1246:
1243:
1236:
1230:
1227:
1220:
1211:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1195:
1173:
1171:
1170:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1148:
1145:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1120:
1114:
1109:
1106:
1099:
1096:
1092:
1091:
1083:
1067:
1066:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1049:
1046:
1030:combustion of a
999:micro-combustion
993:Micro-combustion
943:gasoline engines
668:
667:
666:
654:
648:
647:
646:
633:
626:
625:
624:
603:
594:
577:
576:
575:
480:. For instance,
441:, production of
323:
321:
320:
315:
313:
307:
305:
302:
295:
286:
280:
274:
271:
264:
262:
257:
251:
245:
242:
235:
211:
167:, first undergo
21:
7281:
7280:
7276:
7275:
7274:
7272:
7271:
7270:
7251:
7250:
7249:
7244:
7203:
7140:
7119:
7093:
7065:
7044:
7018:
6982:
6968:Fire protection
6926:
6898:
6893:
6863:
6858:
6854:Survival skills
6839:Outdoor cooking
6807:
6746:Other equipment
6741:
6703:Modern starters
6698:
6628:
6590:
6544:
6521:
6516:
6421:
6419:
6412:
6385:
6383:
6368:
6366:Further reading
6363:
6332:
6328:
6320:
6316:
6303:
6299:
6290:
6286:
6281:
6277:
6270:
6266:
6256:
6254:
6245:
6244:
6240:
6221:
6217:
6194:
6190:
6149:
6145:
6137:
6122:10.1.1.302.9316
6096:
6090:
6086:
6059:J. Comput. Phys
6055:
6051:
6006:J. Comput. Phys
6002:
5998:
5975:
5971:
5944:J. Comput. Phys
5940:
5936:
5925:
5921:
5913:
5874:
5868:
5864:
5827:
5823:
5784:
5780:
5741:
5737:
5698:
5694:
5671:
5667:
5659:
5612:
5606:
5602:
5553:
5549:
5492:
5488:
5431:
5427:
5416:
5412:
5405:
5391:
5387:
5380:
5376:
5366:
5364:
5355:
5354:
5350:
5343:
5339:
5329:
5327:
5318:
5317:
5313:
5306:
5302:
5292:
5290:
5281:
5280:
5276:
5269:
5265:
5255:
5253:
5244:
5243:
5239:
5232:
5228:
5218:
5216:
5207:
5206:
5202:
5195:
5191:
5181:
5179:
5178:on 10 July 2013
5166:
5165:
5161:
5130:
5123:
5114:
5112:
5107:
5106:
5102:
5095:
5091:
5081:
5079:
5066:
5065:
5061:
5052:
5048:
5038:
5036:
5029:
5025:
5017:
5013:
5004:
5002:
4993:
4992:
4988:
4979:
4978:
4974:
4965:
4964:
4960:
4951:
4950:
4946:
4937:
4936:
4932:
4922:
4920:
4915:
4914:
4910:
4901:
4900:
4896:
4888:
4881:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4863:
4852:Stubble burning
4837:Biomass burning
4761:
4676:
4667:
4628:
4605:
4599:
4595:
4585:
4568:
4565:
4564:
4552:
4546:
4543:
4537:
4532:
4529:
4476:
4473:
4472:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4427:
4408:In the case of
4374:
4362:
4294:carbon monoxide
4233:
4222:
4216:
4213:
4202:
4190:
4179:
4168:
4165:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4132:
4130:
4125:
4122:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4114:
4087:process heating
4083:
4011:
3978:diffusion flame
3974:
3958:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3928:
3926:
3925:and about 0.5%
3922:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3912:
3910:
3903:
3896:
3892:
3887:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3871:
3866:
3863:
3852:
3825:
3814:
3812:
3800:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3790:
3774:
3769:
3758:
3753:
3739:
3734:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3717:
3670:
3667:
3666:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3567:
3564:
3563:
3562:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3522:
3519:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3485:
3480:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3466:
3450:
3445:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3431:
3415:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3348:
3343:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3329:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3289:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3280:
3270:gas carburizing
3260:
3257:
3256:
3255:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3239:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3220:
3180:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3135:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3116:
3115:is burned with
3105:
3097:
3092:
3086:
3080:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3058:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3044:
3038:
3031:
3030:is above about
3024:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2978:
2959:
2957:
2950:
2946:
2935:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2895:
2893:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2808:
2789:
2787:
2780:
2776:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2723:
2717:
2716:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2642:
2618:
2605:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2534:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2443:
2430:
2423:
2419:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2260:
2247:
2240:
2236:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2181:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2090:
2077:
2070:
2066:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2013:
2007:
2006:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1932:
1919:
1912:
1908:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1874:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1789:
1776:
1769:
1765:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1742:
1736:
1735:
1727:
1721:
1720:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1648:
1643:
1628:
1623:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1591:
1586:
1566:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1548:
1521:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1437:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1362:
1357:
1356:
1350:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1299:
1288:
1264:
1259:
1244:
1239:
1228:
1223:
1203:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1136:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1082:
1075:
1071:
1062:
1057:
1056:
1050:
1045:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1038:
1022:Generally, the
1020:
1015:
995:
955:
935:
915:
851:
834:carbon monoxide
830:
814:nitrogen oxides
794:
789:
707:carbon monoxide
698:
692:
672:carbon monoxide
665:
662:
661:
660:
658:
652:
645:
640:
639:
638:
636:
628:
623:
620:
619:
618:
616:
602:
596:
593:
587:
584:sulfur trioxide
574:
569:
568:
567:
565:
557:iron(III) oxide
526:
521:
515:
510:
502:contact process
431:renewable fuels
369:nitrogen oxides
338:carbon monoxide
303:
298:
276:
272:
267:
258:
247:
243:
238:
229:
227:
224:
223:
209:
139:self-sustaining
55:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7279:
7269:
7268:
7263:
7246:
7245:
7243:
7242:
7231:
7220:
7208:
7205:
7204:
7202:
7201:
7196:
7194:Slash-and-burn
7191:
7186:
7181:
7176:
7171:
7166:
7161:
7160:
7159:
7148:
7146:
7142:
7141:
7139:
7138:
7133:
7127:
7125:
7121:
7120:
7118:
7117:
7112:
7107:
7101:
7099:
7095:
7094:
7092:
7091:
7086:
7085:
7084:
7073:
7071:
7067:
7066:
7064:
7063:
7058:
7052:
7050:
7046:
7045:
7043:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7026:
7024:
7020:
7019:
7017:
7016:
7011:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6990:
6988:
6984:
6983:
6981:
6980:
6975:
6970:
6965:
6960:
6955:
6950:
6948:Dust explosion
6945:
6940:
6938:Chain reaction
6934:
6932:
6928:
6927:
6925:
6924:
6919:
6917:Historic fires
6914:
6908:
6906:
6900:
6899:
6892:
6891:
6884:
6877:
6869:
6860:
6859:
6857:
6856:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6815:
6813:
6809:
6808:
6806:
6805:
6800:
6795:
6790:
6785:
6780:
6775:
6770:
6765:
6760:
6755:
6749:
6747:
6743:
6742:
6740:
6739:
6738:
6737:
6732:
6722:
6717:
6712:
6706:
6704:
6700:
6699:
6697:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6670:
6669:
6664:
6659:
6649:
6648:
6647:
6636:
6634:
6633:Early starters
6630:
6629:
6627:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6600:
6598:
6592:
6591:
6589:
6588:
6583:
6578:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6558:
6552:
6550:
6546:
6545:
6543:
6542:
6537:
6532:
6526:
6523:
6522:
6515:
6514:
6507:
6500:
6492:
6486:
6485:
6476:
6467:
6458:
6449:
6440:
6427:
6410:
6391:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6361:
6326:
6314:
6297:
6284:
6275:
6264:
6253:: 20. May 2013
6238:
6215:
6198:Combust. Flame
6188:
6143:
6107:(4): 701–734.
6084:
6049:
5996:
5985:(2): 237–241.
5979:Combust. Flame
5969:
5950:(2): 754–786.
5934:
5919:
5862:
5841:(4): 706–719.
5821:
5794:(11): 114111.
5778:
5751:(4): 697–709.
5735:
5708:(6): 839–862.
5692:
5675:Combust. Flame
5665:
5600:
5547:
5486:
5425:
5410:
5403:
5385:
5374:
5348:
5337:
5311:
5300:
5274:
5263:
5237:
5226:
5200:
5189:
5159:
5121:
5109:"Reaction-Web"
5100:
5089:
5059:
5046:
5023:
5011:
4986:
4972:
4958:
4944:
4930:
4908:
4894:
4879:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4860:
4859:
4855:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4823:
4822:
4817:
4806:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4763:
4759:
4758:
4753:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4735:Global warming
4732:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4715:Dust explosion
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4690:Air–fuel ratio
4677:
4675:
4672:
4656:
4653:
4650:
4647:
4644:
4641:
4638:
4634:
4631:
4627:
4624:
4621:
4618:
4615:
4611:
4608:
4602:
4598:
4592:
4589:
4584:
4581:
4578:
4575:
4572:
4563:
4548:
4539:
4528:
4525:
4504:In industrial
4486:
4483:
4480:
4460:
4459:
4456:
4449:
4436:
4421:
4373:
4370:
4361:
4358:
4357:
4356:
4353:
4350:
4347:
4344:
4341:
4338:
4335:
4266:singlet oxygen
4241:chain reaction
4235:
4234:
4193:
4191:
4184:
4178:
4175:
4166:
4158:air/fuel ratio
4135:
4123:
4082:
4079:
4078:
4077:
4062:Charcoal phase
4059:
4045:
4010:
4007:
3982:premixed flame
3973:
3970:
3957:
3954:
3931:
3915:
3885:
3876:
3869:
3861:
3849:
3848:
3834:
3831:
3828:
3823:
3820:
3817:
3811:
3806:
3803:
3799:
3772:
3764:
3756:
3748:
3737:
3729:
3707:
3706:
3695:
3692:
3689:
3686:
3683:
3680:
3677:
3674:
3663:
3652:
3649:
3646:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3634:
3623:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3603:
3600:
3577:
3565:
3556:
3520:
3507:
3506:
3483:
3465:
3448:
3430:
3400:
3378:
3360:
3346:
3328:
3266:heat-treatment
3258:
3246:
3232:
3219:
3216:
3200:enforce limits
3196:nitrogen oxide
3188:Diesel engines
3178:
3128:
3095:
3078:
3068:
3050:
3023:
3020:
3019:
3018:
3001:
2991:
2985:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2968:
2965:
2962:
2956:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2942:
2934:
2931:
2919:
2908:
2904:
2901:
2898:
2892:
2883:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2857:
2848:
2845:
2836:
2826:
2821:
2815:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2798:
2795:
2792:
2786:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2765:
2750:
2735:
2720:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2682:
2665:
2655:
2649:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2630:
2625:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2609:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2576:
2567:
2564:
2552:
2541:
2538:
2533:
2524:
2515:
2512:
2508:
2498:
2489:
2486:
2477:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2450:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2434:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2408:
2393:
2378:
2363:
2348:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2289:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2267:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2251:
2246:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2232:
2223:
2214:
2211:
2199:
2188:
2185:
2180:
2171:
2162:
2159:
2155:
2145:
2136:
2133:
2124:
2114:
2109:
2105:
2102:
2097:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2081:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2055:
2040:
2025:
2010:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1955:
1945:
1939:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1923:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1892:
1881:
1878:
1873:
1864:
1855:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1829:
1826:
1817:
1807:
1802:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1780:
1775:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1754:
1739:
1724:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1670:
1661:
1658:
1646:
1637:
1634:
1626:
1618:
1610:
1601:
1598:
1589:
1580:
1577:
1564:
1528:
1525:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1500:
1499:
1482:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1455:
1444:
1441:
1436:
1427:
1418:
1414:
1406:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1382:
1373:
1370:
1365:
1353:
1328:
1316:
1304:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1262:
1253:
1250:
1242:
1234:
1226:
1217:
1214:
1201:
1181:in oxygen is:
1175:
1174:
1154:
1143:
1140:
1135:
1126:
1117:
1113:
1105:
1095:
1089:
1086:
1081:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1053:
1034:in oxygen is:
1028:stoichiometric
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
994:
991:
954:
951:
934:
931:
914:
911:
850:
847:
829:
826:
810:sulfuric acids
793:
790:
788:
785:
691:
688:
663:
641:
621:
598:
589:
570:
553:sulfur dioxide
549:carbon dioxide
525:
522:
514:
511:
509:
506:
389:strikes or by
329:stoichiometric
325:
324:
312:
301:
292:
289:
285:
279:
270:
261:
256:
250:
241:
232:
206:rocket engines
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7278:
7267:
7264:
7262:
7259:
7258:
7256:
7241:
7237:
7232:
7230:
7221:
7219:
7210:
7209:
7206:
7200:
7197:
7195:
7192:
7190:
7187:
7185:
7182:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7158:
7155:
7154:
7153:
7150:
7149:
7147:
7143:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7128:
7126:
7124:Organizations
7122:
7116:
7113:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7102:
7100:
7096:
7090:
7087:
7083:
7080:
7079:
7078:
7075:
7074:
7072:
7068:
7062:
7059:
7057:
7054:
7053:
7051:
7047:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7027:
7025:
7021:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6991:
6989:
6985:
6979:
6976:
6974:
6971:
6969:
6966:
6964:
6961:
6959:
6956:
6954:
6951:
6949:
6946:
6944:
6941:
6939:
6936:
6935:
6933:
6929:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6909:
6907:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6890:
6885:
6883:
6878:
6876:
6871:
6870:
6867:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6827:
6825:
6822:
6820:
6817:
6816:
6814:
6810:
6804:
6801:
6799:
6796:
6794:
6791:
6789:
6786:
6784:
6781:
6779:
6776:
6774:
6771:
6769:
6766:
6764:
6763:Feather stick
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6750:
6748:
6744:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6727:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6707:
6705:
6701:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6668:
6665:
6663:
6660:
6658:
6655:
6654:
6653:
6650:
6646:
6643:
6642:
6641:
6640:Burning glass
6638:
6637:
6635:
6631:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6614:Friction fire
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6601:
6599:
6597:
6593:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6562:
6561:Fire triangle
6559:
6557:
6554:
6553:
6551:
6547:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6528:
6527:
6524:
6520:
6513:
6508:
6506:
6501:
6499:
6494:
6493:
6490:
6482:
6477:
6473:
6468:
6464:
6459:
6455:
6450:
6446:
6441:
6437:
6433:
6428:
6418:on 2011-01-17
6417:
6413:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6398:
6392:
6382:on 2017-09-12
6381:
6377:
6376:
6370:
6369:
6357:
6353:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6337:
6330:
6324:
6318:
6311:
6307:
6301:
6294:
6288:
6279:
6272:
6268:
6252:
6248:
6242:
6234:
6230:
6226:
6219:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6192:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6167:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6147:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6123:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6095:
6088:
6080:
6076:
6072:
6068:
6064:
6060:
6053:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6020:
6015:
6011:
6007:
6000:
5992:
5988:
5984:
5980:
5973:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5938:
5930:
5923:
5912:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5880:
5873:
5866:
5857:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5836:
5832:
5825:
5817:
5813:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5788:J. Chem. Phys
5782:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5739:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5696:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5669:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5623:(4): 044102.
5622:
5618:
5611:
5604:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5571:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5551:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5510:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5490:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5449:
5444:
5441:(3): 036706.
5440:
5436:
5429:
5421:
5414:
5406:
5404:9780521154215
5400:
5396:
5389:
5382:
5378:
5362:
5358:
5352:
5345:
5341:
5325:
5321:
5315:
5309:AvailHeatCalc
5308:
5304:
5288:
5284:
5278:
5271:
5267:
5251:
5247:
5241:
5234:
5230:
5214:
5210:
5204:
5197:
5193:
5177:
5173:
5169:
5163:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5128:
5126:
5110:
5104:
5097:
5093:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5063:
5056:
5050:
5034:
5033:"Equilib-Web"
5027:
5020:
5015:
5001:on 2018-07-01
5000:
4996:
4990:
4982:
4976:
4968:
4962:
4954:
4948:
4940:
4934:
4918:
4912:
4904:
4898:
4891:
4886:
4884:
4874:
4870:
4858:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4829:
4828:
4827:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4812:
4811:
4810:
4804:
4803:Rocket engine
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4778:Bunsen burner
4776:
4774:
4771:
4770:
4769:
4768:
4764:
4762:
4757:
4754:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4687:
4686:
4685:
4681:
4680:
4671:
4654:
4651:
4645:
4642:
4639:
4632:
4629:
4622:
4619:
4616:
4609:
4606:
4600:
4596:
4590:
4587:
4582:
4576:
4570:
4562:
4560:
4555:
4551:
4542:
4527:Instabilities
4524:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4511:
4510:power station
4507:
4506:fired heaters
4502:
4500:
4484:
4481:
4478:
4469:
4467:
4466:
4457:
4454:
4450:
4434:
4426:
4422:
4419:
4418:heating value
4415:
4414:
4413:
4411:
4406:
4404:
4403:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4382:
4378:
4369:
4367:
4354:
4352:The G-Scheme.
4351:
4348:
4345:
4342:
4339:
4336:
4333:
4332:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4320:
4316:
4313:
4310:
4305:
4303:
4299:
4298:poisonous gas
4295:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4273:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4231:
4228:
4220:
4210:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4194:This section
4192:
4188:
4183:
4182:
4174:
4159:
4155:
4150:
4148:
4142:
4110:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4095:sensible heat
4092:
4088:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4060:
4057:
4053:
4052:gaseous phase
4049:
4046:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4028:
4027:
4026:
4020:
4015:
4006:
4004:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3972:Gaseous fuels
3969:
3967:
3963:
3953:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3938:
3907:
3900:
3873:
3864:
3858:the value of
3856:
3832:
3829:
3826:
3821:
3818:
3815:
3809:
3804:
3801:
3797:
3770:
3762:
3754:
3735:
3727:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3693:
3690:
3687:
3684:
3681:
3678:
3675:
3672:
3664:
3650:
3647:
3644:
3641:
3638:
3635:
3632:
3624:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3590:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3512:
3481:
3463:
3446:
3428:
3398:
3376:
3344:
3326:
3279:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3250:
3225:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3172:, and 0.004%
3158:
3144:
3139:
3120:
3114:
3109:
3102:
3099:
3089:
3083:
3066:
3061:
3055:
3041:
3035:
3029:
2999:
2989:
2983:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2963:
2960:
2954:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2940:
2932:
2929:
2917:
2906:
2902:
2899:
2896:
2890:
2881:
2872:
2865:
2855:
2846:
2843:
2834:
2824:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2790:
2784:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2763:
2748:
2733:
2718:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2663:
2653:
2647:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2628:
2623:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2607:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2574:
2565:
2562:
2550:
2539:
2536:
2531:
2522:
2513:
2506:
2496:
2487:
2484:
2475:
2465:
2460:
2456:
2453:
2448:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2432:
2427:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2406:
2391:
2376:
2361:
2346:
2332:
2331:
2330:
2287:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2265:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2249:
2244:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2230:
2221:
2212:
2209:
2197:
2186:
2183:
2178:
2169:
2160:
2153:
2143:
2134:
2131:
2122:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2095:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2079:
2074:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2053:
2038:
2023:
2008:
1994:
1993:
1992:
1953:
1943:
1937:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1921:
1916:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1902:
1890:
1879:
1876:
1871:
1862:
1853:
1846:
1836:
1827:
1824:
1815:
1805:
1800:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1778:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1752:
1737:
1722:
1708:
1707:
1706:
1691:
1668:
1659:
1656:
1644:
1635:
1632:
1624:
1608:
1599:
1596:
1587:
1578:
1575:
1562:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1542:
1526:
1523:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1480:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1453:
1442:
1439:
1434:
1425:
1416:
1404:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1380:
1371:
1368:
1363:
1351:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1297:
1293:
1260:
1251:
1248:
1240:
1224:
1215:
1212:
1199:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1180:
1152:
1141:
1138:
1133:
1124:
1115:
1103:
1093:
1087:
1084:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1051:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1000:
990:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
959:
953:Micro-gravity
950:
948:
944:
940:
930:
928:
923:
919:
910:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
855:
846:
844:
840:
835:
825:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
784:
782:
777:
774:
770:
766:
763:contractors,
762:
757:
755:
751:
747:
743:
742:exhaust gases
739:
735:
731:
727:
722:
720:
715:
710:
708:
704:
697:
687:
685:
681:
675:
673:
669:
655:
649:
644:
632:
614:
610:
605:
601:
592:
585:
580:
578:
573:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
539:
535:
530:
520:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
474:nitrous oxide
471:
467:
463:
459:
454:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
334:
330:
299:
290:
268:
259:
239:
230:
222:
221:
220:
218:
214:
207:
203:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
177:
173:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
151:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
101:
98:
94:
90:
83:
79:
75:
68:
64:
59:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
7169:Firefighting
7110:Fire worship
6953:Fire ecology
6942:
6829:Firem'n Chit
6689:Fire striker
6608:
6519:Firelighting
6480:
6471:
6462:
6453:
6444:
6431:
6420:. Retrieved
6416:the original
6396:
6384:. Retrieved
6380:the original
6374:
6339:
6335:
6329:
6322:
6317:
6309:
6300:
6292:
6287:
6278:
6267:
6255:. Retrieved
6250:
6241:
6224:
6218:
6201:
6197:
6191:
6156:
6152:
6146:
6104:
6100:
6087:
6062:
6058:
6052:
6009:
6005:
5999:
5982:
5978:
5972:
5947:
5943:
5937:
5928:
5922:
5882:
5878:
5865:
5838:
5834:
5824:
5791:
5787:
5781:
5748:
5744:
5738:
5705:
5701:
5695:
5678:
5674:
5668:
5620:
5616:
5603:
5560:
5556:
5550:
5499:
5495:
5489:
5438:
5435:Phys. Rev. E
5434:
5428:
5419:
5413:
5394:
5388:
5377:
5365:. Retrieved
5360:
5351:
5340:
5328:. Retrieved
5323:
5314:
5303:
5291:. Retrieved
5286:
5277:
5266:
5254:. Retrieved
5249:
5240:
5229:
5217:. Retrieved
5212:
5203:
5192:
5180:. Retrieved
5176:the original
5171:
5162:
5137:
5133:
5113:. Retrieved
5103:
5092:
5080:. Retrieved
5076:the original
5071:
5062:
5054:
5049:
5037:. Retrieved
5026:
5014:
5003:. Retrieved
4999:the original
4989:
4975:
4961:
4947:
4933:
4921:. Retrieved
4911:
4897:
4873:
4856:
4825:
4824:
4808:
4807:
4766:
4765:
4760:
4752:(historical)
4705:Deflagration
4683:
4682:
4668:
4556:
4549:
4540:
4530:
4520:
4515:, and large
4503:
4470:
4463:
4461:
4410:fossil fuels
4407:
4400:
4386:
4363:
4329:
4321:
4317:
4314:
4306:
4286:acetaldehyde
4282:hydroperoxyl
4274:
4238:
4223:
4217:January 2017
4214:
4203:Please help
4198:verification
4195:
4151:
4143:
4111:
4084:
4065:
4061:
4051:
4047:
4029:
4024:
3975:
3959:
3956:Liquid fuels
3939:
3891:, and 13.9%
3859:
3850:
3708:
3584:
3550:of propane (
3537:
3528:
3510:
3508:
3221:
3186:
3103:
3025:
2684:
2308:
1974:
1692:
1689:
1543:
1501:
1289:
1176:
1021:
996:
964:
939:gas turbines
936:
916:
852:
831:
795:
778:
765:firefighters
758:
723:
719:acetaldehyde
711:
699:
676:
642:
606:
599:
590:
581:
571:
542:
500:, as in the
455:
419:fossil fuels
411:hydrocarbons
381:
326:
176:incandescent
147:
142:
125:, because a
92:
88:
87:
7199:Fire making
7115:Terra preta
7089:Firefighter
6963:Flash point
6958:Fire piston
6715:Ferrocerium
6679:Fire plough
6674:Fire piston
6624:Smouldering
6342:: 180–199.
6159:: 519–526.
5346:SysBalCalc2
5272:HeatBalCalc
4793:Gas turbine
4499:natural gas
4372:Temperature
4319:reactions.
4101:(i.e., the
4066:solid phase
4009:Solid fuels
3966:flash point
3962:liquid fuel
3544:equilibrium
3224:hydrocarbon
3149:and 0.002%
3143:equilibrium
1032:hydrocarbon
913:Spontaneous
889:(including
818:hydrocarbon
806:nitric acid
684:gas turbine
545:hydrocarbon
538:hydrocarbon
478:nitric acid
443:electricity
358:atmospheric
169:endothermic
157:Solid fuels
7261:Combustion
7255:Categories
7240:Wiktionary
7179:Fire whirl
7077:Pyromanias
7035:By country
6987:Components
6943:Combustion
6753:Char cloth
6667:Pump drill
6662:Hand drill
6652:Fire drill
6609:Combustion
6549:Components
6445:Combustion
6422:2010-04-29
6386:2011-11-18
5383:SysBalCalc
5235:MatBalCalc
5115:2018-07-12
5005:2018-07-12
4866:References
4710:Detonation
4085:Efficient
4038:fire point
4021:combustion
3990:detonation
3988:, or as a
3897:1200
3875:, 29.0% CO
3853:1200
3625:Hydrogen:
3155:1800
3136:1400
3117:28.6
3032:1600
927:composting
922:exothermic
854:Smoldering
849:Smoldering
843:hemoglobin
832:Breathing
773:efficiency
694:See also:
690:Incomplete
680:anthracite
629:3.71
517:See also:
451:incinerate
429:, or from
159:, such as
150:elementary
105:between a
97:exothermic
89:Combustion
7184:Blue lava
7174:Firestorm
7164:Backdraft
7152:Wildfires
7105:Cremation
6973:Pyrolysis
6849:Pyromania
6844:Pyrolysis
6798:Tinderbox
6783:Matchbook
6778:Fire ring
6758:Chuckmuck
6710:Blowtorch
6657:Bow drill
6586:Wood fuel
6436:CRC Press
6402:Wiley-VCH
6183:118484479
6166:0712.2386
6117:CiteSeerX
6019:0704.2317
5773:120269918
5730:120624915
5570:1102.0730
5509:1011.3828
5448:1011.1618
4720:Explosion
4597:∫
4479:λ
4435:λ
4389:adiabatic
4309:pyrolysis
4074:smoulders
3830:×
3819:×
3747:⟶
3359:⟶
3192:particles
3063:forms by
2981:γ
2976:−
2967:δ
2964:−
2961:β
2952:α
2933:δ
2903:δ
2900:−
2897:β
2873:α
2870:⟶
2811:γ
2806:−
2797:δ
2794:−
2791:β
2782:α
2764:δ
2749:γ
2734:β
2719:α
2645:δ
2632:ϵ
2621:γ
2616:−
2608:β
2600:α
2566:ϵ
2537:β
2514:α
2511:⟶
2457:ϵ
2446:γ
2441:−
2433:β
2425:α
2407:ϵ
2392:δ
2377:γ
2362:β
2347:α
2274:δ
2263:γ
2258:−
2250:β
2242:α
2213:δ
2184:β
2161:α
2158:⟶
2104:δ
2093:γ
2088:−
2080:β
2072:α
2054:δ
2039:γ
2024:β
2009:α
1935:γ
1930:−
1922:β
1914:α
1877:β
1854:α
1851:⟶
1792:γ
1787:−
1779:β
1771:α
1753:γ
1738:β
1723:α
1617:⟶
1413:⟶
1233:⟶
1112:⟶
1003:Quenching
933:Turbulent
907:wildfires
859:cellulose
769:engineers
734:catalytic
714:pyrolysis
519:pyrolysis
484:burns in
399:campfires
387:lightning
344:and even
311:↑
288:→
172:pyrolysis
7218:Category
6788:Matchbox
6773:Fire pit
6768:Fire pan
6735:Electric
6684:Fire-saw
6581:Wood ash
6566:Firewood
6540:Glossary
6530:Campfire
6356:46039754
6135:Archived
5911:Archived
5907:18247506
5816:16555878
5657:Archived
5645:25084876
5595:16979409
5542:14998597
5534:21576153
5473:21517624
5198:HeatCalc
5154:97218733
4674:See also
4633:′
4610:′
4402:flue gas
4249:dioxygen
4107:enthalpy
4103:flue gas
3998:oxidizer
3946:kerosene
3879:, 14.7%
3665:Oxygen:
3591:Carbon:
3491:hydrogen
3423:monoxide
3168:, 0.01%
3164:, 0.05%
1705:in air:
1322:% where
1292:nitrogen
967:buoyancy
947:oxidizer
887:polymers
696:Charring
650:(mostly
524:Complete
498:vanadium
494:platinum
488:to form
486:chlorine
482:hydrogen
466:fluorine
462:chlorine
435:firewood
433:such as
421:such as
403:bonfires
391:volcanic
365:nitrogen
342:hydrogen
217:enthalpy
191:hydrogen
7229:Commons
7098:Culture
7040:By year
7030:By type
6931:Science
6904:History
6720:Lighter
6535:Bonfire
6273:AFTCalc
6109:Bibcode
6067:Bibcode
6024:Bibcode
5952:Bibcode
5887:Bibcode
5843:Bibcode
5835:Entropy
5796:Bibcode
5753:Bibcode
5710:Bibcode
5653:1784716
5625:Bibcode
5575:Bibcode
5514:Bibcode
5481:7458232
5453:Bibcode
5098:ExoCalc
4788:Furnace
4290:ethanol
4245:radical
4070:charred
4019:polymer
3904:1
3393:dioxide
3113:propane
3106:1
1571:methane
1208:methane
1179:methane
871:tobacco
726:burners
561:oxidant
534:methane
447:rockets
439:cooking
183:glowing
111:oxidant
93:burning
7233:
7222:
7211:
7070:People
6999:Oxygen
6596:Topics
6576:Tinder
6408:
6354:
6257:5 July
6181:
6119:
6044:973322
6042:
5905:
5814:
5771:
5728:
5651:
5643:
5593:
5540:
5532:
5479:
5471:
5401:
5367:5 July
5330:5 July
5293:5 July
5256:5 July
5219:5 July
5182:5 July
5152:
5082:5 July
5039:15 May
4923:15 May
4919:. 2003
4857:
4773:Boiler
4533:
4302:syngas
4099:offgas
4056:Flames
3950:diesel
3533:carbon
3420:
3417:carbon
3390:
3387:carbon
3354:oxygen
3252:, and
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