New Spain - Knowledge

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also becoming a center of textile production. Although there were no dense indigenous populations or network of settlements, Indians migrated to the Bajío to work as resident employees on the region's haciendas and ranchos or rented land (terrasguerros). From diverse cultural backgrounds and with no sustaining indigenous communities, these indios were quickly hispanized, but largely remained at the bottom of the economic hierarchy. Although Indians migrated willingly to the region, they did so in such small numbers that labor shortages prompted Spanish hacendados to provide incentives to attract workers, especially in the initial boom period of the early seventeenth century. Land owners lent workers money, which could be seen as a perpetual indebtedness, but it can be seen not as coercing Indians to stay but a way estate owners sweetened their terms of employment, beyond their basic wage labor. For example, in 1775 the Spanish administrator of a San Luis Potosí estate "had to scour both Mexico City and the northern towns to find enough blue French linen to satisfy the resident employees." Other types of goods they received on credit were textiles, hats, shoes, candles, meat, beans, and a guaranteed ration of maize. However, where labor was more abundant or market conditions depressed, estate owners paid lower wages. The more sparsely populated northern Bajío tended to pay higher wages than the southern Bajío, which was increasingly integrated in the economy of central Mexico. The credit-based employment system often privileged those holding higher ranked positions on the estate (supervisors, craftsmen, other specialists) who were mostly white, and the estates did not demand repayment.

3214:. Each author gives different estimates for the total population, ranging from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354 (more recent data suggest that the population of New Spain in 1810 was 5 to 5.5 million individuals) and not much variation in ethnic composition, with Europeans ranging from 18% to 23% of New Spain's population, Mestizos ranging from 21% to 25%, Amerindians ranging from 51% to 61% and Africans being between 6,000 and 10,000. It is concluded then, that across nearly three centuries of colonization, the population growth trends of Europeans and Mestizos were steady, while the percentage of the indigenous population decreased at a rate of 13%–17% per century. The authors assert that rather than Europeans and Mestizos having higher birthrates, the reason for the indigenous population's decrease lies with their higher mortality, due to living in remote locations rather than in cities and towns founded by the Spanish colonists, or being at war with them. It is also for these reasons that the number of indigenous Mexicans presents a greater variation between publications, with their numbers in a given location estimated rather than counted, leading to possible overestimations in some provinces and underestimations in others. 637: 2954:

cohesion remained strong as shown in members' performance of regular community service for social ends. Zapotec elites engaged in the market economy early on, which undermined to an extent the bonds between commoners and elites who colluded with the Spanish. In contrast to the Zapotecs, the Zoque generally declined as a group during the ranching boom, with interloping animals eating their maize crops. Zoque response was to take up being vaqueros themselves. They had access to the trade to Guatemala. Of the three indigenous groups, the Huave were the most isolated from the Spanish ranching economy and labor demands. With little arable or grazing land, they exploited the lagoons of the Pacific coast, using shore and beach resources. They traded dried shrimp and fish, as well as purple dye from shells to Oaxaca, likely acquiring foodstuffs that they were unable to cultivate themselves.

1877: 187: 1942:(royal road) between the port of Veracruz and the capital had some short sections paved and bridges constructed. The construction was done despite protests from some indigenous settlements when the infrastructure improvements, which sometimes included rerouting the road through communal lands. The Spanish crown finally decided that road improvement was in the interests of the state for military purposes, as well as for fostering commerce, agriculture, and industry, but the lack of state involvement in the development of physical infrastructure was to have lasting effects, constraining development until the late nineteenth century. Despite the road improvements, transit was still difficult, particularly for heavy military equipment. 2679: 690: 676: 173: 9573: 9543: 2251: 2878:. Cochineal was a high-value, low-volume product that became the second-most valuable Mexican export after silver. Although it could be produced elsewhere in central and southern Mexico, its main region of production was Oaxaca. For the indigenous in Oaxaca, cochineal was the only one "with which the maintain themselves and pay their debts" but it also had other advantages. Producing cochineal was time-consuming labor, but it was not particularly difficult and could be done by the elderly, women, and children. It was also important to households and communities because it initially did not require the indigenous to displace their existing crops or migrate elsewhere. 3158: 1210: 1202: 732: 8922: 746: 2980: 2926:, the largest settlement on the isthmus, was an important prehispanic Zapotec trade and religious center, which was not under the jurisdiction of the Aztecs. The early colonial history of Tehuantepec and the larger province was dominated by Cortés and the Marquesado, but the crown realized the importance of the area and concluded an agreement in 1563 with the second Marqués by which the crown took control of the Tehuantepec encomienda. The Marquesado continued to have major private holdings in the province. The Villa of Tehuantepec became a center of Spanish and mixed-race settlement, crown administration, and trade. 784: 2230:, a rich, fertile lowland just north of central Mexico, was nonetheless a frontier region between the densely populated plateaus and valleys of Mexico's center and south and the harsh northern desert controlled by nomadic Chichimeca. Devoid of settled indigenous populations in the early sixteenth century, the Bajío did not initially attract Spaniards, who were much more interested in exploiting labor and collecting tribute whenever possible. The region did not have indigenous populations that practiced subsistence agriculture. The Bajío developed in the colonial period as a region of commercial agriculture. 9517: 1035: 1644: 87: 1695:, southwest of Tenochtitlan, the Mexico's mining region was outside the area of dense indigenous settlement. Labor for the mines in the north of Mexico had a workforce of black slave labor and indigenous wage labor, not draft labor. Indigenous who were drawn to the mining areas were from different regions of the center of Mexico, with a few from the north itself. With such diversity they did not have a common ethnic identity or language and rapidly assimilated to Hispanic culture. Although mining was difficult and dangerous, the wages were good, which is what drew the indigenous labor. 9503: 2930:

However important the Marquesado and the Dominican enterprises were, there were also other economic players in the region, including individual Spaniards as well as existing indigenous communities. Ranching emerged as the dominant rural enterprise in most of Tehuantepec with a ranching boom in the period 1580–1640. Since Tehuantepec experienced significant indigenous population loss in the sixteenth century conforming to the general pattern, ranching made possible for Spaniards to thrive in Tehuantepec because ranching was not dependent on significant amounts of indigenous labor.

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merchants, and indigenous via the repartimiento. cash loaned by local crown officials (the alcalde mayor and his teniente), usually to individual Indians but sometimes to communities, in exchange for a fixed amount of a good (cochineal or cotton mantles) at a later date. Indigenous elites were an integral part of the repartimiento, often being recipients of large extensions of credit. As authority figures in their community, they were in a good position to collect on the debt, the most risky part of the business from the Spanish point of view.

8929: 3049: 3108: 9553: 9493: 1469:, to strengthen central control over the viceroyalty. Some measures aimed to break the power of local elites in order to improve the economy of the empire. Reforms included the improvement of public participation in communal affairs, distribution of undeveloped lands to the indigenous and Spaniards, ending the corrupt practices of local crown officials, encouraging trade and mining, and establishing a system of territorial division similar to the model created by the government of France, already adopted in Spain. 3038: 2915:

history can be divided into three distinct periods, an initial period of engagement with Spanish colonial rule to 1563, during which there was a working relationship with the Zapotec ruling line and the establishment of Cortés's economic enterprises. This early period came to a close with the death of the last native king in 1562 and the escheatment of Cortés's Tehuantepec encomiendas to the crown in 1563. The second period of approximately a century (1563–1660) saw the decline of the indigenous entailed estate (

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and residences and leather used in a variety of ways (saddles, other tack, boots, furniture, machinery) were significant items in the larger colonial economy, finding markets well beyond Tehuantepec. Since the Marquesado operated as an integrated enterprise, draft animals were used in other holdings for transport, agriculture, and mining in Oaxaca, Morelos, Toluca, and Mexico City as well as sold. Raised in Tehuantepec, the animals were driven to other Marquesado holdings for use and distribution.

9433: 1610: 178: 2350: 9563: 9533: 9453: 3692: 920:, size and complexity of indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. Central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations, each with complex social, political, and economic organization, but no large-scale deposits of silver to draw Spanish settlers. By contrast, the northern area of Mexico was arid and mountainous, a region of nomadic and semi-nomadic indigenous populations, which do not easily support human settlement. In the 1540s, the discovery of 2840: 3169: 2862:) was a Spanish settlement founded in 1529, but the rest of Oaxaca consisted of indigenous towns. Despite its remoteness from Mexico City, "throughout the colonial era, Oaxaca was one of Mexico's most prosperous provinces." In the eighteenth century, the value of crown offices (alcalde mayor or corregidor) were the highest for two Oaxaca jurisdictions, with Jicayan and Villa Alta each worth 7,500 pesos, Cuicatlan-Papalotipac, 4,500; Teposcolula and Chichicapa, each 4,200 pesos.q 1629: 2153:

their acquisition of land. One region that retained strong Indian land holding was the southern fresh water area, with important suppliers of fresh produce to the capital. The area was characterized by intensely cultivated chinampas, human-made extensions of cultivable land into the lake system. These chinampa towns retained a strong indigenous character, and Indians continued to hold the majority of that land, despite its closeness to the Spanish capital. A key example is

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access to Spanish markets, African slaves were imported in large numbers to New Spain and many of them remained in the region of Veracruz. But even when that connection was broken and prices rose, black slaves remained an important component of Córdoba's labor sector even after 1700. Rural estates in Córdoba depended on African slave labor, who were 20% of the population there, a far greater proportion than any other area of New Spain, and greater than even nearby Jalapa.

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conducted a new census on which a person's race was listed, in 1921, but even then, due to its huge inconsistencies with other official registers as well as its historic context, modern investigators have deemed it inaccurate. Almost a century after the 1921 census, Mexico's government has begun to conduct ethno-racial surveys again, with results suggesting that the population growth trends for each major ethnic group haven't changed significantly since the 1793 census.

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region, and the indigenous peoples gathered wild indigo, used for dying cloth and as a trade good. After the arrival of the Spanish, they domesticated indigo and created plantations for its cultivation in Yucatan, El Salvador, and Guatemala. The indigo industry thrived, since there was high demand in Europe for a high quality, color-fast blue dye. In the region, cultivation and processing was done by indigenous workers, but the owners of plantations,

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significant indigenous population. It was located in a fertile basin on a temperate plateau in the nexus of the key trade triangle of Veracruz–Mexico City–Antequera (Oaxaca). Although there were no encomiendas in Puebla itself, encomenderos with nearby labor grants settled in Puebla. And despite its foundation as a Spanish city, sixteenth-century Puebla had Indians resident in the central core.

2738:, was the means by which indigenous cultural integrity was maintained. In the economic sphere, unlike many other regions and ethnic groups in Mesoamerica, the Yucatec Maya did not have a pre-conquest network of regular markets to exchange different types of food and craft goods. Perhaps because the peninsula was uniform in its ecosystem local niche production did not develop. Production of 2167:, the major ally of the Spanish against the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan, also became something of a backwater, but like Puebla it did not come under the control of Spanish encomenderos. No elite Spaniards settled there, but like many other Indian towns in the Valley of Mexico, it had an assortment of small-scale merchants, artisans, farmers and ranchers, and textile workshops (obrajes). 3026:

Africans. Spaniards continued to employ forced labor in the region starting with the conquest era and exact tribute from the indigenous. Compared to the mining areas of New Spain's North, this region was generally poor in mineral resources, although Honduras had a brief boom in gold mining, and in the colonial period had little potential to develop an export product, except for

2020:). The crown also set up warehouses to store up to a year's worth of supplies, including paper for cigarettes, for the factories. With the establishment of the monopoly, crown revenues increased and there is evidence that despite high prices and expanding rates of poverty, tobacco consumption rose while at the same time, general consumption fell. 2827:. In 1716–17 viceroy of New Spain organized a sufficient ships to expel the foreigners, where the crown subsequently built a fortress at Isla del Carmen. But the British held onto their territory in the eastern portion of the peninsula into the twentieth century. In the nineteenth century, the enclave supplied guns to the rebellious Maya in the 2427:. Oñate eventually learned that New Mexico, while it had a settled indigenous population, had little arable land, no silver mines, and possessed few other resources to exploit that would merit large scale colonization. He resigned as governor in 1607 and left New Mexico, having lost much of his personal wealth on the enterprise. 1935:

construction of railroads. In the colonial era and up until the railroads were built in key areas in post-independence in the late nineteenth century, mule trains were the main mode of transporting goods. Pack mules were used because unpaved roads, mountainous terrain, and seasonal flooding could not generally accommodate carts.

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because its creation was ordered by the Count of the same name. Most of the census' original datasets have reportedly been lost; thus most of what is known about it comes from essays and field investigations made by academics who had access to the census data and used it as reference for their works, such as Prussian geographer

2697:, and it has unique features, but it also has strong similarities to other areas in the South. The Yucatán Peninsula extends into the Gulf of Mexico and was connected to Caribbean trade routes and Mexico City, far more than some other southern regions, such as Oaxaca. The main Spanish settlements included the inland city of 2094:(including Querétaro) in the seventeenth century, and Guadalajara in the eighteenth. Puebla's wheat production was the initial source of its prosperity, but it emerged as a manufacturing and commercial center, "serving as the inland port of Mexico's Atlantic trade." Economically, the city was exempted from the 1112:(1846–1848). The northern region of New Spain in the colonial era was considered marginal to Spanish interests compared to the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America in the eighteenth century as other powers encroached on its claims, the crown sent 2068:

as a subtle expression of royal absolutism, the granting of extensive privileges to a town of commoners, amounting almost to republican self-government, in order to curtail the potential authority of encomenderos and the religious orders, as well as to counterbalance the power of the viceregal capital."

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them. Nonetheless, much of northern New Spain had sparse indigenous population and attracted few Europeans. The Spanish crown and later the Republic of Mexico did not effectively exert sovereignty over the region, leaving it vulnerable to the expansionism of the United States in the nineteenth century.

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Regardless of the imprecision related to the counting of indigenous peoples living outside of the colonized areas, the effort that New Spain's authorities put into considering them as subjects is worth mentioning, as censuses made by other colonial or post-colonial countries did not consider American

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Texcoco in the pre-conquest period was one of the three members of the Aztec Triple Alliance and the cultural center of the empire. It fell on hard times in the colonial period as an economic backwater. Spaniards with any ambition or connections would be lured by the closeness of Mexico City, so that

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The foundation of the town of Puebla was a pragmatic social experiment to settle Spanish immigrants without encomiendas to pursue farming and industry. Puebla was privileged in a number of ways, starting with its status as a Spanish settlement not founded on existing indigenous city-state, but with a

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Indians resisted cultivating sugarcane themselves, preferring to tend their subsistence crops. As in the Caribbean, black slave labor became crucial to the development of sugar estates. During the period 1580–1640 when Spain and Portugal were ruled by the same monarch and Portuguese slave traders had

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Regional characteristics of colonial Mexico have been the focus of considerable study. For those based in the vice-regal capital of Mexico City, everywhere else were the "provinces." Even in the modern era, "Mexico" for many refers solely to Mexico City, with the pejorative view that anywhere outside

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Much of what was called in the United States the "Spanish borderlands", is territory that attracted few Spanish settlers, with less dense indigenous populations and apparently lacking in mineral wealth. Huge deposits of gold in California were discovered immediately after it was incorporated into the

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Gold mining was an early draw for Spaniards, who directed indigenous labor to its extraction, but did not continue beyond the mid-sixteenth century. Over the long run, ranching and commerce were the most important economic activities, with the settlement of Tehuantepec becoming the hub. The region's

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Brihuega immigrants came to Mexico with expertise in textile production, and the transplanted briocenses provided capital to create large-scale obrajes. Although obrajes in Brihuega were small-scale enterprises, quite a number of them in Puebla employed up to 100 workers. Supplies of wool, water for

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rulers had demanded from native communities. This system came to signify the oppression and exploitation of natives, although its originators may not have set out with such intent. In short order the upper echelons of patrons and priests in the society lived off the work of the lower classes. Due to

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While different intendancies would conduct censuses to get insights into their inhabitants (namely occupation, number of persons per household, ethnicity etc.), it was not until 1793 that the results of the first national census would be published. That census is known as the "Revillagigedo census"

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The most detailed economic records for the region are of the Marquesado's ranching haciendas, which produced draft animals (horses, mules, burros, and oxen) and sheep and goats, for meat and wool. Cattle ranching for meat, tallow, and leather were also important. Tallow for candles used in churches

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red dye. Cochineal's commodity chain is interesting, with indigenous peasants in the remote areas of Oaxaca ultimately linked to Amsterdam and London commodity exchanges and the European production of luxury cloth. The most extensive study of Oaxaca's eighteenth-century economy deals with the nexus

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Administratively Puebla was far enough from Mexico City (approximately 160 km or 100 mi) so as not to be under its direct influence. Puebla's Spanish town council (cabildo) had considerable autonomy and was not dominated by encomenderos. The administrative structure of Puebla "may be seen

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European diseases immediately affected the multiethnic Indian populations in the Veracruz area and for that reason Spaniards imported black slaves as either an alternative to indigenous labor or its complete replacement in the event of a repetition of the Caribbean die-off. A few Spaniards acquired

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Veracruz was the first Spanish settlement founded in what became New Spain, and it endured as the only viable Gulf Coast port, the gateway for Spain to New Spain. The difficult topography around the port affected local development and New Spain as a whole. Going from the port to the central plateau

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Cacao had been cultivated in the prehispanic period. Orchards of cacao trees, which took a number of years to come to maturity and produce fruit. Cacao boomed in the late sixteenth century, and then was displaced by indigo as the most important export product. Indigo, like cacao, was native to the

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The discovery of mining deposits in Zacatecas and Guanajuato in the mid-sixteenth century and later in San Luis Potosí stimulated the Bajío's development to supply the mines with food and livestock. A network of Spanish towns was established in this region of commercial agriculture, with Querétaro

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The capital was provisioned by the indigenous towns, and its labor was available for enterprises that ultimately created a colonial economy. The gradual drying up of the central lake system created more dry land for farming, but the sixteenth-century population declines allowed Spaniards to expand

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The Caribbean port of Veracruz was small, with its hot, pestilential climate not a draw for permanent settlers: its population never topped 10,000. Many Spanish merchants preferred living in the pleasant highland town of Jalapa (1,500 m). For a brief period (1722–76) the town of Jalapa became even

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Although the crown had ambitious plans for both the Toluca and Veracruz portions of the king's highway, improvements were limited to a localized network. Even where infrastructure was improved, transit on the Veracruz-Puebla main road had other obstacles, with wolves attacking mule trains, killing

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Many of the intendancy boundaries became Mexican state boundaries after independence. The intendancies were created between 1764 and 1789, with the greatest number in the mainland in 1786: 1764 La Habana (later subdivided); 1766 Nueva Orleans; 1784 Puerto Rico; 1786 México, Veracruz, Puebla de Los

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Under Spanish rule, the Zapotecs not only survived, but flourished, unlike the other two. They continued to pursue agriculture, some of it irrigated, which was not disrupted by the growing ranching economy. Generally Zapotec elites protected their communities from Spanish incursions and community

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was the peninsula's port, the key gateway for the whole region. A merchant group developed and expanded dramatically as trade flourished during the seventeenth century. Although that period was once characterized as New Spain's "century of depression", for Yucatán this was certainly not the case,

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Areas of northern Mexico were incorporated into the United States in the mid-nineteenth century, following Texas independence and the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and generally known as the "Spanish Borderlands." Scholars in the United States have extensively studied this northern region, which

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Mexico City dominated the Valley of Mexico, but the valley continued to have dense indigenous populations challenged by growing, increasingly dense Spanish settlement. The Valley of Mexico had many former Indian city-states that became Indian towns in the colonial era. These towns continued to be

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Given the transport constraints, only high-value, low-bulk goods continued to be shipped in the transatlantic trade, which stimulated local production of foodstuffs, rough textiles, and other products for a mass market. Although New Spain produced considerable sugar and wheat, these were consumed

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The North was outside the area of complex indigenous populations, inhabited primarily by nomadic and hostile northern indigenous groups. With the discovery of silver in the north, the Spanish sought to conquer or pacify those peoples in order to exploit the mines and develop enterprises to supply

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The capital of Viceroyalty of New Spain, Mexico City, was one of the principal centers of European cultural expansion in the Americas. Some of the most important early buildings in New Spain were churches and other religious architecture. Civil architecture included the viceregal palace, now the

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was abolished and mentions of a person's caste in official documents was also abandoned, which led to the exclusion of racial classification from future censuses, and made it difficult to track demographic development of each ethnicity in the country. More than a century would pass before Mexico

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Although the repartimiento has historically been seen as an imposition on the indigenous, forcing them into economic relations they would rather have avoided and maintained by force, recent work on eighteenth-century Oaxaca analyzes the nexus of crown officials (the alcaldes mayores) and Spanish

2386:, son of one of the key figures in the silver remining region of Zacatecas, received official permission from the viceroy to explore and conquer New Mexico. As was the pattern of such expeditions, the leader assumed the greatest risk but would reap the largest rewards, so that Oñate would become 897:. Central Mexico became the base of expeditions of exploration and conquest, expanding the territory claimed by the Spanish Empire. With the political and economic importance of the conquest, the crown asserted direct control over the densely populated realm. The crown established New Spain as a 2059:

asserted that the income from the diocese of Puebla was twice that of the archbishopic of Mexico, due to the tithe income derived from agriculture. In its first hundred years, Puebla was prosperous from wheat farming and other agriculture, as the ample tithe income indicates, plus manufacturing

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The Cortés haciendas in Tehuantepec were key components of the province's economy, and they were directly linked to other Marquesado enterprises in greater Mexico in an integrated fashion. The Dominicans also had significant holdings in Tehuantepec, but there has been little research on these.

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system was established early and persisted far longer than in central Mexico, since fewer Spaniards migrated to the region than in the center. Although Yucatán was a more peripheral area to the colony, since it lacked rich mining areas and no agricultural or other export product, it did have a

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Even in the relatively richly endowed region of Mexico, the difficulty of transit of people and goods in the absence of rivers and level terrain remained a major challenge to the economy of New Spain. This challenge persisted during the post-independence years until the late nineteenth-century

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The picture is far more complex, however; while the capital is enormously important as the center of institutional, economic, and social power, the provinces played a significant role in colonial Mexico. Regions (provinces) developed and thrived to the extent that they became sites of economic

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The establishment of intendancies was strongly resisted by the viceroyalties and general captaincies similar to the opposition in the Iberian Peninsula when the reform was adopted. Royal audiencias and ecclesiastical hierarchs opposed the reform for its intervention in economic issues, for its

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in the Kingdom of Guatemala. Given the region's distance from major centers of power in New Spain and Spain itself, local strongmen in the early were only nominally subject to royal authority. The indigenous population was very large in comparison to the Spanish, and there were relatively few

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was lacking in mineral deposits and it had an abundant sedentary indigenous population, it developed without European or mixed-race population and large-scale Spanish haciendas, so the indigenous communities retained their land, indigenous languages, and distinct ethnic identities. Antequera

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Many renters retained ties to the estates, diversifying their household's sources of income and level of economic security. In San Luis Potosí, rentals were fewer and estate employment the norm. After a number of years of drought and bad harvests in the first decade of the nineteenth century

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In the late colonial period, renting complemented estate employment for many non-Indians in more central areas of the Bajío with access to markets. As with hacendados, renters produced for the commercial market. While these Bajío renters could prosper in good times and achieved a level of

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In 1765 the crown created a monopoly on tobacco, which directly affected agriculture and manufacturing in the Veracruz region. Tobacco was a valuable, high-demand product. Men, women, and even children smoked, something commented on by foreign travelers and depicted in eighteenth-century

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During the "golden century" from its founding in 1531 until the early 1600s, Puebla's agricultural sector flourished, with small-scale Spanish farmers plowing the land for the first time, planting wheat and vaulting Puebla to importance as New Spain's breadbasket, a role assumed by the

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entailed a daunting 2000 meter climb from the narrow tropical coastal plain in just over a hundred kilometers. The narrow, slippery road in the mountain mists was treacherous for mule trains, and in some cases mules were hoisted by ropes. Many tumbled with their cargo to their deaths.

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Although colonial population decline affected the indigenous in Tehuantepec, their communities remained important in the colonial era and remain distinctly Indian to the current era. There were differences in the three distinct linguistic and ethnic groups in colonial Tehuantepec, the

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attracted Spanish mining entrepreneurs and workers, to exploit the mines, as well as crown officials to ensure the crown received its share of revenue. Silver mining became integral not only to the development of New Spain, but also to the enrichment of the Spanish crown, which marked

1385:, such as the Captaincies General of the Philippines (established 1574) and Guatemala (established in 1609), which were joint military and political commands with a certain level of autonomy. The viceroy was captain-general of those provinces that remained directly under his command. 186: 2015:

paintings. The crown calculated that tobacco could produce a steady stream of tax revenues by supplying the huge Mexican demand, so the crown limited zones of tobacco cultivation. It also established a small number of factories of finished products, and licensed distribution outlets

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in Central Mexico. The South (Oaxaca, Michoacan, Yucatán, and Central America) was a region of dense indigenous settlement of Mesoamerica, but without exploitable resources of interest to Europeans, the area attracted few Europeans, while the indigenous presence remained strong.

2919:) and indigenous political power and development of the colonial economy and imposition of Spanish political and religious structures. The final period is the maturation of these structures (1660–1750). The 1660 rebellion can be a dividing line between the two later periods. 3143:

During the 16th century, the native population of Mexico fell from an estimated pre-Columbian population of 8 to 20 million to less than two million. Therefore, at the start of the 17th century, continental New Spain was a depopulated region with abandoned cities and

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Hidalgo's 1810 grito appealed more in the Bajío than in San Luis Potosí. In the Bajío estate owners were evicting tenants in favor of renters better able to pay more for land, there was a disruption of previous patterns of mutual benefit between estate owners and renters.

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The monarch had sweeping power in the overseas territories, with not just sovereignty over the realm but also property rights. All power over the state came from the monarch. The crown had sweeping powers over the Catholic Church in its overseas territories, and via the

2665:("disestablishment") of the missions (1834), Mexican land grant transactions increased the spread of the rancho system. The land grants and ranchos established mapping and land-ownership patterns that are still recognizable in present-day California and New Mexico. 2787:), but rivers and streams were generally absent on the peninsula. Individuals had rights to land so long as they cleared and tilled them and when the soil was exhausted, they repeated the process. In general, the Indians lived in a dispersed pattern, which Spanish 2048:, made Puebla a destination for later arriving Spaniards. If there had been significant mineral wealth in Puebla, it could have been even more prominent a center for New Spain, but its first century established its importance. In 1786 it became the capital of an 1739:

were also important exports for the New Spain, but was used through rather the vice royalties rather than contact with European countries due to piracy, and smuggling. The indigo industry in particular also helped to temporarily unite communities throughout the

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region of Oaxaca was strategically important for its short transit between the Gulf Coast and the Pacific, facilitating both overland and sea trade. The province of Tehuantepec was the Pacific side of the isthmus and the headwaters of the Coatzacoalcos River.

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Not well documented is the number of African slaves and their descendants, who were artisans in urban areas and did hard manual labor in rural areas. In a pattern recognizable elsewhere, coastal populations were mainly African, including an unknown number of

1828:, the first in history and whose origin is owed precisely to the need for funds to finance pirate expeditions, as later by the London market. The above is what some authors call the "historical process of the transfer of wealth from the south to the north." 1240:, which were primarily superior tribunals, but which also had administrative and legislative functions. Each of these was responsible to the Viceroy of New Spain in administrative matters (though not in judicial ones), but they also answered directly to the 141: 142: 140: 2635:. The Spanish system of land grants was not very successful; however, because the grants were merely royal concessions—not actual land ownership. Under later Mexican rule, land grants conveyed ownership, and were more successful at promoting settlement. 785: 139: 2577:

colonies there, having far fewer known natural resources and less cultural development than Mexico or Peru, were to combine establishing posts to defend the territory with a perceived responsibility to convert the indigenous people to Christianity.

2109:, and Puebla demonstrated the close connection between the two settlements. The growth in Puebla's manufacturing sector did not simply coincide with immigration from Brihuega but was crucial to "shaping and driving Puebla's economic development". 1857:

production and tied into networks of trade. "Spanish society in the Indies was import-export oriented at the very base and in every aspect," and the development of many regional economies was typically centered on support of that export sector.

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Tanto el escudo de Lima como el de la ciudad de México fueron tomados como sinécdoque de los reinos de los que eran capital, tal y como puede observarse en el Salón de Reinos de Madrid donde ambos aparecen representando a los reinos de Perú y

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volcano. Orizaba varied considerably in elevation from 800 metres (2,600 ft) to 5,700 metres (18,700 ft) (the summit of the Citlaltepetl volcano), but "most of the inhabited part is temperate." Some Spaniards lived in semitropical

3924:

Both the coat of arms of Lima and Mexico City were taken as a symbol of the kingdoms of which they were the capital, as can be seen in the Hall of Kingdoms in Madrid, where both appear representing the kingdoms of Peru and Mexico. Spanish:

2609:, three total). Due to the region's great distance from supplies and support in México, the system had to be largely self-sufficient. As a result, the colonial population of California remained small, widely scattered and near the coast. 1683:

generally refers to men granted the labor and tribute of a particular indigenous group in the immediate post-conquest era, encomenderos de negros were Portuguese slave dealers who were permitted to operate in Mexico for the slave trade.

1718:

had been established in the sixteenth century and suffered decline for a variety of reasons in the seventeenth century, but silver mining in Mexico out-performed all other Spanish overseas territories in revenues for the royal coffers.

2060:

woolen cloth for the domestic market. Merchants, manufacturers, and artisans were important to the city's economic fortunes, but its early prosperity was followed by stagnation and decline in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

14091: 2791:

or forced resettlement attempted to alter. Collective labor cultivated the confraternities' lands, which included raising the traditional maize, beans, and cotton. But confraternities also later pursued cattle ranching, as well as

2524:

Not until the eighteenth century was California of much interest to the Spanish crown, since it had no known rich mineral deposits or indigenous populations sufficiently organized to render tribute and do labor for Spaniards. The

2043:

quickly rose to the status of Mexico's second-most important city. Its location on the main route between the viceregal capital and the port of Veracruz, in a fertile basin with a dense indigenous population, largely not held in

1903:), and home of the most elite families in the Kingdom of New Spain. Mexico City was the single most populous city, not just in New Spain, but for many years the entire Western Hemisphere, with a high concentration of mixed-race 2149:

ruled by indigenous elites under the Spanish crown, with an indigenous governor and a town councils. The Indian towns close to the capital were the most desirable ones for encomenderos to hold and for the friars to evangelize.

1473:

centralist politics, and the forced ceding of many of their functions to the intendants. In New Spain, these units generally corresponded to the regions or provinces that had developed earlier in the center, South, and North.

2730:

were an important component of Yucatecan society. The largest population in the province was indigenous Maya, who lived in their communities, but which were in contact with the Hispanic sphere via labor demands and commerce.

2742:

textiles, largely by Maya women, helped pay households' tribute obligations, but basic crops were the basis of the economy. The cah retained considerable land under the control of religious brotherhoods or confraternities

1999:

prime agricultural lands left vacant by the indigenous demographic disaster. Portions of the province could support sugar cultivation and as early as the 1530s sugar production was underway. New Spain's first viceroy, Don

1541:. Missions and presidios were established in northern frontiers, aiding in the expansion and control of territories that later became part of the southwestern United States. The 18th century saw the implementation of the 1096:. Although asserting sovereignty over this vast realm, it did not effectively control large swaths. Other European powers, including England, France, and the Netherlands established colonies in territories Spain claimed. 2333:, but only four survived as Amerindian villages throughout the 18th century. In 1691, explorers and missionaries visited the interior of Texas and came upon a river and Amerindian settlement on 13 June, the feast day of 3139:

since these diseases were totally alien to the native population. There were at least three separate, major epidemics that devastated the population: smallpox (1520–1521), measles (1545–1548) and typhus (1576–1581).

138: 3148:

fields. These diseases did not affect the Philippines in the same way because they were already present; Pre-Hispanic Filipinos had contact with other foreign nationalities prior to the arrival of the Spaniards.

2763:

in its modified form was the community." Local Spanish clergy had no reason to object to the arrangement since much of the revenue went for payment for masses or other spiritual matters controlled by the priest.

1234:, who had administrative oversight of all of these regions, although most matters were handled by the local governmental bodies, which ruled the various regions of the viceroyalty. First among these were the 14084: 1654:

During the era of the conquest, in order to pay off the debts incurred by the conquistadors and their companies, the new Spanish governors awarded their men grants of native tribute and labor, known as

1008:, a grant by the papacy to the crown to oversee the Church in all aspects save doctrine. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was created by royal decree on October 12, 1535, in the Kingdom of New Spain with a 913:. Both New Spain and Peru had dense indigenous populations at conquest as a source of labor and material wealth in the form of vast silver deposits, discovered and exploited beginning in the mid-1500s. 2800:

in southern Campeche were involved in inter-regional trade in cacao as well as cattle ranching. Although generally the revenues from crops and animals were devoted to expenses in the spiritual sphere,

2113:

fulling mills, and labor (free indigenous, incarcerated Indians, black slaves) were available. Although much of Puebla's textile output was rough cloth, it also produced higher quality dyed cloth with

2759:

were traditionally lay pious organizations and burial societies, but in Yucatán they became significant holders of land, a source of revenue for pious purposes kept under cah control. "n Yucatán the

14077: 2650:, sometimes displaced and/or relocated from their villages. Native-born descendants of the resident Spanish-heritage rancho grantees, soldiers, servants, merchants, craftsmen and others became the 1927:, which can be defined as the adjacent valleys of Puebla, Mexico, and Toluca, enclosed by high mountains, along with their connections to the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz and the Pacific port of 2962:(runaway slave) settlements, while inland the indigenous communities were more prominent. On the Cortés haciendas, blacks and mulattoes were essential to the profitability of the enterprises. 1691:, was the enormously rich single silver mine discovered at Potosí, but in New Spain, labor recruitment differed significantly. With the exception of silver mines worked in the Aztec period at 1324:, were established in major areas of Spanish settlement. In New Spain the high court was established in 1527, prior to the establishment of the viceroyalty. The First Audiencia was headed by 191:

Anachronistic map showing all territories that were ever part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (dark green). The areas in light green were territories claimed but not controlled by New Spain.

2105:

Puebla built significant textile production in workshops (obrajes) supplying New Spain and markets as far away as Guatemala and Peru. Transatlantic ties between a particular Spanish town,

8495: 2469:

After the return of the Spanish in 1692, the final resolution included a marked reduction of Spanish efforts to eradicate native culture and religion, the issuing of substantial communal

5643: 1895:

itself was vitally important to the development of New Spain as a whole. It was the seat of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the Archdiocese of the Catholic Church, the Holy Office of the

136: 3894:

The crown did not wish to have the main west coast port in private hands and an agreement was worked out with Cortés heir, Don Martín Cortés, to relinquish the Tehuantepec encomienda.

1931:, where over half the population of New Spain lived. These valleys were linked trunk lines, or main routes, facilitating the movement of vital goods and people to get to key areas. 12409: 1946:

animals, and rendering some sacks of foodstuffs unsellable because they were smeared with blood. The north-south Acapulco route remained a mule track through mountainous terrain.

1048:

At its greatest extent, the Spanish crown claimed on the mainland of the Americas much of North America south of Canada, that is: all of modern Mexico and Central America except

1477:Ángeles, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Sonora, Durango, Oaxaca, Guatemala, San Salvador, Comayagua, León, Santiago de Cuba, Puerto Príncipe; 1789 Mérida. 1805:(mother country) due to Spanish Roman Catholic Monarchy's frequent preoccupation with European wars (enormous amounts of this wealth were spent hiring mercenaries to fight the 3915: 9404: 8966: 1778:

These were ships that made voyages from the Philippines to Mexico, whose goods were then transported overland from Acapulco to Veracruz and later reshipped from Veracruz to

1445:. Despite their late creation, these intendancies so affected the formation of regional identity that they became the basis for the nations of Central America and the first 1332:, who used the court to deprive Cortés of power and property. The crown dissolved the First Audiencia and established the Second Audiencia. The audiencias of New Spain were 137: 11847: 9157: 7735: 2965:

In general, Tehuantepec was not a site of major historical events, but in 1660–61, there was a significant rebellion stemming from increased repartimiento Spanish demands.

1995:, with whom the crown concluded a treaty leading to the recognition of a largely black town, San Lorenzo de los Negros de Cerralvo, later called the municipality of Yanga. 14570: 12108: 9069: 5666: 9294: 7740: 3135:, and other infectious diseases. Most of the Spanish settlers had developed an immunity to these diseases from childhood, but the indigenous peoples lacked the needed 718: 9054: 9010: 1782:

in Spain. So then, the ships that set sail from Veracruz were generally loaded with merchandise from the East Indies originating from the commercial centers of the

9064: 2055:

It became the seat of the richest diocese in New Spain in its first century, with the seat of the first diocese, formerly in Tlaxcala, moved there in 1543. Bishop

2263:

became the states of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. During the period of Spanish rule, this area was sparsely populated even by indigenous peoples.

9206: 2326: 14650: 9103: 8956: 10977: 9084: 3070:

It was a dangerous work environment, with toxins in the indigo plants that sickened and sometimes killed workers. It was profitable, especially following the

12078: 2874:), the repartimiento (forced labor), and indigenous products, particularly cochineal. The rich, color-fast red dye produced from insects, was harvested from 9289: 9039: 14615: 12402: 12263: 9133: 6131:

Marichal, Carlos (2006). "Mexican Cochineal and the European Demand for American Dyes, 1550–1850". In Steven Topik; Carlos Marichal; Zephyr Frank (eds.).

1729:

was an important export in areas such as central Mexico and Oaxaca in terms of revenues to the crown and stimulation of the internal market of New Spain.

1119:

Religious missions and fortified presidios were established to shore up Spanish control on the ground. On the mainland, the administrative units included

14645: 14640: 14620: 14590: 12694: 9986: 8651: 2278:(missions) were the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial holdings in these territories. 930: 905:, an aristocrat loyal to the monarch rather than the conqueror Cortés. New Spain was the first of the viceroyalties that Spain created, the second being 14555: 10997: 9912: 6439: 9235: 1963:

more important than Veracruz, after it was granted the right to hold the royal trade fair for New Spain, serving as the entre for goods from Asia via

1514:

to maintain control. It involved the forced conversion of indigenous populations to Christianity and the blending of Spanish and indigenous cultures.

13526: 13249: 12011: 11915: 9397: 8646: 3788: 1836:

In the colonial period, basic patterns of regional development emerged and strengthened. European settlement and institutional life was built in the

7356: 5580: 86: 9240: 9029: 8487: 2179:, there has been considerable scholarship on the Spanish borderlands in the north. The motor of the Spanish colonial economy was the extraction of 9211: 12395: 12268: 11462: 8876: 10957: 2950:. The Zapotecs concluded an alliance with the Spaniards at contact, and they had already expanded their territory into Zoque and Huave regions. 2734:

In Yucatán, Spanish rule was largely indirect, allowing these communities considerable political and cultural autonomy. The Maya community, the

2612:

In 1776, the north-western frontier areas came under the administration of the new 'Commandancy General of the Internal Provinces of the North'

1585: 14565: 12304: 5650: 4054: 1853:

the capital is a hopeless backwater. "Fuera de México, todo es Cuauhtitlán" , that is, poor, marginal, and backward, in short, the periphery.

1672:

suggested bringing black slaves to replace them. Fray Bartolomé later repented when he saw the even worse treatment given to the black slaves.

9299: 9113: 14610: 14510: 11920: 11007: 8976: 6518: 3610: 2875: 2473:

to each Pueblo, and a public defender of their rights and for their legal cases in Spanish courts. In 1776 the New Mexico came under the new

9172: 9167: 2843: 1991:) predations on mule trains traveling the route from the port to the capital. Some cimarrón settlements sought autonomy, such as one led by 1624:

was New Spain's most important export product after silver and its production was almost exclusively in the hands of indigenous cultivators.

1196: 14660: 14605: 14535: 12858: 12314: 12309: 12217: 12113: 10612: 9970: 9390: 8995: 5880:

Indians, Merchants, and Markets: A Reinterpretation of the Repartimiento and Spanish-Indian Economic Relations in Colonial Oaxaca 1750–1821

1113: 9074: 9044: 1698:

The Viceroyalty of New Spain was the principal source of income for Spain in the eighteenth century, with the revival of mining under the

13444: 13116: 9348: 9162: 9118: 3835: 9353: 8946: 13771: 13765: 6364: 3768: 3074:, which allowed trade within the Spanish empire. In the late eighteenth century, indigo growers organized in a trade organization, the 916:

New Spain developed strong regional divisions based on local climate, topography, distance from the capital and the Gulf Coast port of

3575:, that did not count Indigenous peoples living among the general population until 1860, and indigenous peoples as a whole until 1900. 996:. Although New Spain was a dependency of Castile, it (Mexico) was a kingdom and not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the 960:. This resulted in a political crisis in New Spain and much of the Spanish Empire in 1808, which ended with the government of Viceroy 14600: 14560: 14550: 14530: 14478: 13212: 11959: 9182: 8661: 17: 2624:

in 1804; the southern peninsula became Baja California, and the ill-defined northern mainland frontier area became Alta California.

14420: 14415: 13912: 12464: 11827: 10931: 9609: 9034: 8656: 6686: 6095:

Hunt, Marta Espejo Ponce (1976). "The Processes of the Development of Yucatan, 1600–1700". In Altman, Ida; Lockhart, James (eds.).

2718:

complex of Spanish settlement, with a whole range of social types in the main settlements of Mérida and the villas of Campeche and

9187: 9177: 14525: 14520: 14440: 12558: 12494: 12143: 10911: 1876: 165: 14069: 2620:, designed to streamline administration and invigorate growth. The crown created two new provincial governments from the former 14105: 13371: 13126: 12995: 12418: 9123: 7890: 3885:

Baskes suggests the crown restricted its production to Oaxaca until 1819, which likely contributed to artificially high prices.

2311: 10049: 9000: 8971: 2365: 1413:

At the local level there were over two hundred districts, in both indigenous and Spanish areas, which were headed by either a

14405: 13997: 13259: 12504: 12439: 12128: 12004: 11685: 9796: 9333: 6770: 6293: 6252:

Historia de la conquista de México, poblacion y progresos de la América Septentrional, conocida por el nombre de Nueva España

6212:

Land in California: the story of mission lands, ranchos, squatters, mining claims, railroad grants, land scrip and homesteads

6124:

The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries

6113:

Lockhart, James (1991). "Trunk lines and feeder lines: The Spanish Reaction to American Resources". In James Lockhart (ed.).

5759: 5543: 5434: 5403: 4837: 4819: 4801: 4783: 4654: 4609: 4482: 4403: 4349: 4284: 4088: 3798: 3086:, and the English took advantage of weak Spanish control to establish a commercial presence on the Gulf Coast, later seizing 2701:, where Spanish civil and religious officials had their headquarters and where the many Spaniards in the province lived. The 2420: 1617: 427: 10647: 10516: 10143: 10139: 9576: 3568: 1564:, the insurgent army waged an eleven-year war against Spanish rule. The eventual alliance between royalist military officer 13826: 12659: 12624: 12429: 12232: 12148: 12133: 11780: 11775: 11143: 10549: 10192: 9645: 8099: 7770: 6968: 6620: 6608: 2654:. Many of the less-affluent men took native wives, and many daughters married later English, French and American settlers. 1790:

and natural resources of Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. During the 16th century, Spain held the equivalent of

1492: 1269: 985: 878: 811: 557: 440: 290: 6531: 1545:, which aimed to modernize and strengthen the colonial administration and economy. These reforms included the creation of 14425: 14400: 13918: 13088: 12973: 12469: 12459: 12449: 12444: 12138: 11842: 10962: 9265: 8869: 8094: 7850: 6590: 3763: 1959:

exclusively in the colony even though there was demand elsewhere. Philadelphia, not New Spain, supplied Cuba with wheat.

910: 739: 9831: 6163:

Monsivaís, Carlos (1992). "'Just Over That Hill'": Notes on Centralism and Regional Cultures". In Eric Van Young (ed.).

2993:

With the growth of a sufficient Spanish population and the crown's desire to better govern the area, it established the

153: 14435: 14410: 14395: 14380: 13723: 12990: 12899: 12607: 12281: 12276: 12237: 12227: 12103: 11609: 10926: 10862: 10584: 10564: 10039: 9771: 9734: 8725: 8132: 8028: 6978: 5718: 5693: 2647: 2203: 1553:

and the establishment of economic societies, were part of the efforts to enhance efficiency and revenue for the crown.

1265: 200: 11974: 11078: 7680: 3872:

The crown sold public offices, with their purchasers expecting to quickly recoup the costs. For a complete chart, see

1012:

appointed as the king's "deputy" or substitute. This was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two that the

156:(18): first national flag, naval and fortress flag, the last flag to float in continental America, in the Fortress of 14580: 14390: 14385: 14370: 14029: 13956: 12821: 12709: 12649: 12434: 11675: 11584: 10982: 10526: 10079: 9709: 7993: 7860: 6680: 6656: 6644: 6638: 6469: 6221: 6153: 6003: 5959: 5927: 5846: 5796: 5740: 3638: 2683: 2628: 2573:

In 1768, Gálvez received the order to "Occupy and fortify San Diego and Monterey for God and the King of Spain." The

2478: 14235: 7755: 7700: 1650:, one of the first negotiators to hold office in Hibueras where he founded the towns of San Pedro Sula and Guatemala 14575: 14453: 14334: 14253: 13832: 13397: 12816: 12791: 12571: 12222: 11997: 11875: 10559: 10043: 9821: 9343: 9255: 9079: 8245: 7835: 6973: 6722: 6303:

Tutino, John (1979). "Life and Labor on North Mexican Haciendas: The Queretaro-San Luis Potosi Region, 1775-1810".

3783: 2590: 2395: 1273: 1264:

from the viceroyalty. The viceroy was captain-general of those provinces that remained directly under his command.

11251: 11186: 7660: 2678: 1771:

was the main port. The ports were fundamental for overseas trade, stretching a trade route from Asia, through the

14595: 14430: 13437: 13314: 12909: 12848: 12073: 11812: 11604: 11391: 11191: 10740: 10675: 10261: 10163: 8951: 7730: 7605: 6940: 6486: 6264:

Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533–1960

3571:

would only count the inhabitants of the colonized settlements. Another example would be the censuses made by the

3094:) accumulated land and built fortunes on wheat, sugar, and cattle, all of which were consumed within the region. 2506: 2435: 1466: 1333: 11730: 11246: 10690: 10574: 6983: 1572:

led to the successful campaign for independence. In 1821, New Spain officially became the independent nation of

1285: 14540: 14515: 13058: 12786: 12258: 12160: 11832: 11770: 11569: 10987: 10700: 10680: 10652: 10569: 10544: 10404: 10212: 10119: 10059: 10026: 8862: 7933: 7885: 7855: 7690: 7193: 6963: 6925: 6920: 6339: 6028: 3803: 3773: 3758: 2994: 2974: 2900: 2804:

cattle were used for direct aid to community members during droughts, stabilizing the community's food supply.

2582: 1679:

were specialized middlemen during the first half of the seventeenth century. While encomendero (alternatively,

1281: 11795: 11624: 11381: 9304: 7785: 6632: 3652:

Architects Pedro Martínez Vázquez and Lorenzo Rodriguez produced some visually frenetic architecture known as

2551:

ordered all Jesuits expelled from all Spanish possessions, including New Spain. New Spain's Visitador General

1556:

The decline of New Spain culminated in the early 19th century with the Mexican War of Independence. Following

1397: 14585: 14364: 14358: 13556: 13121: 13026: 12781: 12629: 11947: 11925: 11880: 11822: 11800: 11614: 11386: 11068: 10857: 10842: 9927: 9791: 9744: 9446: 8897: 8885: 8641: 8633: 7875: 7685: 6902: 6805: 6626: 4138: 4113: 3823: 3793: 3673: 1809:), as well as the incessant decrease in overseas transportation caused by assaults from companies of British 1349: 517: 366: 11176: 7780: 14635: 14630: 13329: 13227: 13131: 13111: 12931: 12914: 12811: 12123: 11817: 11785: 11316: 11181: 10617: 9997: 9806: 9602: 9506: 9486: 9476: 9230: 8614: 7905: 5630: 3653: 2747:), the device by which Maya communities avoided colonial officials, the clergy, or even indigenous rulers ( 2412: 2330: 2202:

The region farther north of the main mining zones attracted few Spanish settlers. Where there were settled

11805: 11138: 9245: 6541: 3669: 3630: 2454:

resented their forced conversion to Christianity and suppression of their religion, and the imposition of

2376:

indigenous tribes of northern México in 1591. This allowed expansion into the 'Province of New Mexico' or

2250: 14352: 14290: 13862: 13036: 12936: 12863: 12597: 12551: 12299: 11790: 11690: 11321: 10773: 10705: 9674: 9466: 9152: 9128: 8033: 7870: 7865: 7845: 7464: 6174:

Shadows over Anahuac: an Ecological Interpretation of Crisis and Development in Central Mexico, 1730–1800

6026:

Gonzales, Phillip B. (2003). "Struggle for survival: the Hispanic land grants of New Mexico, 1848–2001".

5594: 4062: 3840: 3052: 2658: 2450:

were established to convert the indigenous peoples and manage the agricultural industry. The territory's

1938:

In the late eighteenth century, the crown devoted some resources to study and remedy the poor roads. The

1496: 1345: 965: 14272: 14131: 13838: 11241: 11148: 7640: 7486: 6133:

From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World Economy, 1500–2000

3622: 2378: 2164: 1885: 1176: 14328: 14058: 13568: 13562: 13430: 13339: 13160: 13051: 13041: 12714: 12669: 12341: 12336: 12053: 11725: 11088: 10735: 10622: 10534: 10506: 10133: 10103: 9908: 9739: 9572: 9546: 9542: 9496: 9456: 9436: 8003: 7880: 7600: 7246: 6407:. "Two Decades of Anglophone Historical Writing on Colonial Mexico: Continuity and Change since 1980". 5587:

Considerations on the population of New Spain: 1793–1810, according to Humboldt and Navarro and Noriega

3753: 2772: 2443: 1915:

Significant regional development grew along the main transportation route from the capital east to the

827: 470: 172: 11108: 11063: 9108: 8776: 7790: 7760: 7725: 7670: 7665: 14447: 14310: 13844: 13668: 13508: 13244: 12963: 12946: 12868: 12801: 11644: 11594: 11452: 11351: 10847: 10720: 10685: 10637: 10539: 10151: 10035: 9724: 9694: 9689: 9049: 8786: 8068: 7988: 7895: 7795: 7006: 6998: 6958: 6752: 6734: 6505: 3157: 2541: 2408: 1557: 1277: 1209: 1201: 1060:, settled prior to the conquest of the Aztec Empire, also came under New Spain's jurisdiction: Cuba, 10269: 7958: 7341: 5582:

Consideraciones sobre la población de la Nueva España: 1793–1810, según Humboldt y Navarro y Noriega

2529:

in the Sierra Nevada foothills did not come until after the U.S. had added California following the

1669: 14655: 14545: 14241: 14229: 14223: 13968: 13962: 13650: 13550: 13146: 13141: 12836: 12831: 12826: 12775: 12766: 12644: 12332: 12068: 12063: 12058: 12043: 11589: 11472: 11432: 11371: 11366: 11306: 10725: 10715: 10501: 10204: 10115: 9816: 9338: 9059: 7745: 7479: 7411: 6935: 6930: 6351:

Cultural Politics in Colonial Tehuantepec: Community and State among the Isthmus Zapotec, 1500–1750

3863:

Brian R. Hamnett says that "José de Gálvez considered Oaxaca one of New Spain's richest provinces".

3184: 2979: 2530: 2447: 2275: 2211: 1511: 1429:(town council), both of which had judicial and administrative powers. In the late 18th century the 1353: 1341: 1337: 1109: 1073: 318: 11969: 11048: 10281: 9801: 9270: 7938: 7595: 7346: 7208: 6515: 3162: 2255: 14099: 13711: 13693: 13217: 13078: 12806: 12614: 12319: 12242: 12035: 12027: 11639: 11497: 11341: 11281: 11231: 11133: 10730: 10695: 10642: 10277: 10147: 10111: 9841: 9714: 9699: 9595: 8961: 8073: 7983: 7715: 7675: 7650: 7371: 7351: 6662: 6583: 2602: 2494: 2176: 1257: 12674: 10832: 7978: 3634: 2811:, as the English took territory the Spanish claimed but did not control, especially what became 2424: 1967:

through the port of Acapulco and European goods via the flota (convoy) from the Spanish port of

14625: 14021: 13924: 13538: 13282: 13187: 13093: 13083: 12941: 12921: 12619: 12544: 12477: 12048: 11930: 11502: 11437: 10941: 10827: 10710: 10670: 10314: 10107: 9766: 9756: 9324: 7805: 7800: 7401: 7386: 7241: 7198: 6878: 6840: 6674: 6550: 6431: 6083: 3818: 3211: 2983: 2076: 1920: 1892: 1871: 1806: 1676: 1549:, increased military presence, and the centralization of royal authority. The expulsion of the 1034: 697: 500: 487: 352: 256: 11073: 9309: 8058: 7928: 7521: 2719: 1565: 1401: 973: 961: 14304: 14205: 14161: 13868: 13802: 13717: 13354: 13207: 13197: 13073: 13021: 12951: 12904: 12843: 12664: 12186: 11376: 10786: 10607: 10496: 10435: 10363: 10273: 9974: 9654: 9536: 9197: 8801: 8771: 8677: 8089: 8018: 7449: 7416: 7361: 7163: 7137: 7011: 6863: 5683: 3830: 3042: 2632: 2040: 1507: 1415: 1305: 1241: 1160: 993: 952:

From the beginning of the 19th century, the kingdom fell into crisis, aggravated by the 1808

839: 608: 417: 280: 261: 204: 11910: 11311: 11098: 11058: 11017: 9991: 9260: 7948: 7720: 7630: 5918:

Building the King's Highway: Labor, Society, and Family on Mexico's Caminos Reales 1757–1804

2816: 2710:

with sustained growth from the early seventeenth century to the end of the colonial period.

1461:

As part of the sweeping eighteenth-century administrative and economic changes known as the

885:

named the territory New Spain, and established the new capital, Mexico City, on the site of

14187: 14155: 13938: 13886: 13759: 13681: 13544: 13514: 13464: 13366: 13202: 13177: 13172: 13063: 12968: 12602: 12587: 12482: 12201: 12196: 12118: 11885: 11554: 11517: 11507: 11447: 11346: 11326: 11221: 11033: 10852: 9729: 9719: 9221: 8063: 7810: 7585: 7366: 7291: 7096: 6868: 6562: 5514:

Class Privilege and Economic Development: The Consulado de Comercio of Guatemala, 1793–1871

3813: 3596: 2828: 2698: 2548: 2526: 2439: 2303: 1741: 1486: 1450: 969: 711: 655: 642: 453: 286: 266: 12724: 11411: 11201: 11123: 9516: 9250: 8038: 7943: 7705: 7203: 6017:

The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: a History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519–1810

3657: 2690: 1987:, which was founded as a villa in 1618, to serve as a Spanish base against runaway slave ( 1984: 1643: 530: 8: 14375: 14340: 14298: 14278: 14175: 14143: 14013: 13874: 13741: 13614: 13574: 13474: 13319: 13309: 13192: 13098: 12978: 12926: 12749: 12729: 12387: 12361: 11954: 11710: 11695: 11579: 11559: 11512: 11492: 11296: 11291: 11236: 11206: 10972: 10597: 10554: 10511: 10440: 10409: 10180: 10159: 10125: 10031: 10001: 9932: 9776: 9749: 9649: 9566: 9280: 9094: 8986: 8189: 7635: 7173: 6988: 6873: 6830: 6820: 6668: 6141: 5862:

Transatlantic Ties in the Spanish Empire: Brihuega, Spain & Puebla, Mexico, 1560–1620

3845: 3778: 3017:. The region was diverse, and outlying provinces were resentful for elites in capital of 2615: 2552: 2482: 2474: 2294:) was founded in 1706. Other Mexican towns in the region included Paso del Norte (modern 2102:(import/export duties) for its first century (1531–1630), which helped promote commerce. 1600: 1597:

minted in New Spain. Silver was its most important export, starting in the 16th century.

1329: 1289: 1128: 1077: 1057: 957: 946: 906: 683: 669: 11700: 11401: 9502: 9358: 7331: 7311: 5971:

Bureaucrats, Planters, and Workers: The Making of the Tobacco Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico

3079: 2238:

independence, drought and other disasters made their choice more risky than beneficial.

1529:, turning New Spain into a vital part of the Spanish Empire. The discovery of silver in 1293: 400: 209: 157: 14505: 14459: 14037: 13950: 13520: 13502: 13349: 13324: 12887: 12873: 12689: 12155: 11715: 11705: 11680: 11634: 11599: 11457: 11166: 11043: 10916: 10414: 10394: 10054: 9942: 9669: 9020: 8937: 8906: 8843: 8821: 8682: 8568: 8048: 7750: 7625: 7590: 7396: 7168: 6825: 6815: 6576: 6458: 6053: 6045: 5948: 5916: 3697: 3642: 2896: 2390:

of New Mexico and had the authority to distribute rewards to those in the expedition.

2353: 2338: 2000: 1503: 1325: 902: 882: 466: 385: 337: 104: 11038: 10967: 8911: 8013: 7066: 7031: 6746: 6382: 3303: 2771:

soil, which could only support crops for two to three years with land cleared through

2589:, between 1769 and 1833 twenty-one missions were established) aimed at converting the 2188: 1711: 14322: 14217: 14199: 14005: 13747: 13632: 13484: 13453: 13390: 13274: 13254: 13239: 13136: 13068: 13009: 12983: 12796: 12771: 12761: 12579: 12356: 12191: 12181: 12022: 11895: 11837: 11670: 11442: 11416: 11406: 11396: 11331: 11286: 11216: 11196: 11171: 11118: 11093: 10358: 9885: 9826: 9781: 9640: 9143: 8366: 8326: 8109: 7645: 7516: 7431: 7421: 7406: 7188: 7142: 6950: 6848: 6810: 6465: 6377:

Hurtado, Albert L. "Bolton and Turner: The Borderlands and American Exceptionalism."

6335: 6289: 6262: 6250: 6217: 6210: 6149: 6057: 6015: 5999: 5983: 5955: 5923: 5842: 5817: 5792: 5755: 5736: 5689: 3981:"Imomachtilis iwan itlachihchiwalis in masewalyewehkahtlahtoh ipan Yankuik Kaxtillan" 3980: 3808: 3018: 2987: 2581:

The method used to "occupy and fortify" was the established Spanish colonial system:

1647: 1506:, Spanish rule was established, leading to the creation of governing bodies like the 1425: 1253: 1164: 997: 504: 309: 296: 161: 65: 9916: 8854: 8816: 8008: 7900: 7775: 4055:"Colección Juan Bautista Muñoz. Archivo de la Real Academia de la Historia – España" 3961: 3942: 3107: 3048: 972:

was established. Former royalist military officer turned insurgent for independence

14346: 14316: 14284: 14211: 14193: 13777: 13753: 13687: 13662: 13620: 13479: 13292: 13046: 12739: 12734: 12634: 12487: 12346: 11527: 11522: 11487: 11467: 11226: 11103: 11002: 10906: 10368: 10208: 9417: 9382: 9314: 8692: 8520: 8419: 8194: 7963: 7953: 7655: 7321: 7183: 7178: 7041: 6884: 6858: 6728: 6037: 5496: 4038: 3665: 3116: 2812: 2646:, with cattle, horses and sheep the source of wealth. The work was usually done by 2451: 2431: 2334: 1916: 1715: 1569: 1231: 1085: 1038: 989: 778: 770: 271: 234: 50: 11989: 11905: 9937: 9552: 9492: 9005: 8023: 7695: 4042: 2463: 2383: 2295: 1517:

During the 16th and 17th centuries, Spanish settlers founded major cities such as

1441:, whose broad fiscal powers cut into the authority of the viceroys, governors and 1404:, who would serve until his arrest for his support of popular sovereignty in 1808. 1103:

Spanish historical presence, claimed territories, and expeditions in North America

818:. Its jurisdiction comprised a large area of the southern and western portions of 14266: 14247: 14181: 14167: 14101: 13974: 13892: 13850: 13814: 13656: 13638: 13626: 13532: 13489: 13469: 13406: 13361: 13344: 13334: 13297: 13232: 13182: 12719: 12499: 12376: 12351: 11970:

Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)

11720: 11660: 11574: 11482: 11356: 11336: 11301: 11083: 11053: 10992: 10602: 10592: 10488: 10373: 10265: 10222: 9982: 9890: 9761: 8619: 8444: 8253: 8199: 7824: 7765: 7552: 7469: 7454: 7391: 7316: 7286: 7132: 7101: 7016: 6535: 6522: 6408: 6283: 3511: 3463: 3447: 3238: 3234: 3071: 3037: 2939: 2820: 2639: 2621: 2564: 2556: 2502: 2215: 2137: 2056: 2024: 1768: 1699: 1590: 1542: 1462: 1430: 1388: 1297: 1132: 1124: 1120: 1089: 1081: 1053: 1017: 917: 867: 843: 543: 276: 251: 11629: 6500: 2775:. Access to water was also a limiting factor on agriculture, with the limestone 2302:

in 1689; Panzacola, Tejas in 1681; and San Francisco de Cuéllar (modern city of

2071: 1891:

Mexico City was the center of the Central region, and the hub of New Spain. The

1821:

of various origin. These companies were initially financed by, at first, by the

1123:, that is, the Baja California peninsula, still part of Mexico and divided into 13932: 13906: 13602: 13031: 12853: 12454: 12371: 11564: 11477: 11361: 11113: 10936: 10921: 10822: 10796: 10781: 10662: 10257: 10251: 10155: 9922: 9836: 9786: 9664: 9618: 8720: 8687: 8598: 8593: 8477: 8303: 8263: 8204: 8169: 8159: 8053: 8043: 7973: 7923: 7710: 7376: 7301: 6912: 6797: 6740: 6716: 6528: 6404: 6396:

Van Young, Eric (1992). "Are Regions Good to Think?". In Eric Van Young (ed.).

5834: 3748: 3739: 3661: 3083: 3022: 2726:", some of whom were fully at home in both the indigenous and Hispanic worlds. 2662: 2369: 2315: 1964: 1787: 1772: 1760: 1752: 1561: 1538: 1446: 1359:

Audiencia districts further incorporated the older, smaller divisions known as

1236: 1065: 1029: 1013: 1005: 964:. Conspiracies of American-born Spaniards sought to take power, leading to the 953: 942: 807: 803: 725: 213: 10069: 9462: 7968: 6285:

At the Far Reaches of Empire: the Life of Juan Francisco De La Bodega Y Quadra

6097:

The Provinces of Early Mexico: Variants of Spanish American Regional Evolution

6067:

The Leverage of Labor: Managing the Cortés Haciendas of Tehuantepec, 1588–1688

1687:

In Peru, the other discovery that perpetuated the system of forced labor, the

1609: 1163:(including the western Mississippi River basin and the Missouri River basin); 968:, 1810–1821. At its conclusion in 1821, the viceroyalty was dissolved and the 14499: 14260: 14137: 14109: 13856: 13608: 13589: 13411: 13264: 12958: 12176: 11128: 9978: 9895: 9704: 9432: 8781: 8558: 8467: 8414: 8361: 8293: 7511: 7506: 7496: 7256: 6758: 6041: 5978: 5649:(Report). Departamento de la Estadistica Nacional. p. 62. Archived from 3711: 3677: 3572: 3132: 2839: 2796:

and horse breeding, depending on the local situation. There is evidence that

2727: 2706: 2459: 2349: 1296:, third-level administrative divisions, were established, the Governorate of 851: 819: 9562: 9532: 9452: 9369: 6704: 6314:

From Insurrection to Revolution: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence 1750–1940

6106:

Indian Population Decline: the Missions of Northwestern New Spain, 1687–1840

3918:[The heraldry corner Coats of arms of American cities and regions]. 3495: 3168: 2959: 2462:

in 1680, expelling the Spanish, who retreated to Paso del Norte, modern-day

1988: 177: 14149: 13880: 13735: 13729: 13302: 13103: 12699: 11900: 11890: 11619: 11158: 11012: 10837: 10353: 10129: 9811: 9659: 8811: 8791: 8755: 8713: 8588: 8462: 8424: 8399: 8381: 8318: 8235: 8179: 8154: 8104: 7998: 7617: 6650: 6115:

Of Things of the Indies: Essays Old and New in Early Latin American History

3725: 3078:. There were regions that were not subjugated to Spanish rule, such as the 2947: 2943: 2518: 1992: 1979: 1841: 1837: 1825: 1628: 1372: 1076:. New Spain also claimed jurisdiction over the overseas territories of the 894: 886: 11211: 9472: 7051: 2870:

between the local crown officials (alcaldes mayores), merchant investors (

2627:

Once missions and protective presidios were established in an area, large

2126: 1668:

some horrifying instances of abuse against the indigenous peoples, Bishop

1635:

in Mexico. Mules were the main way cargo was moved overland, engraving by

1586:

Economic history of Mexico § Economic history of New Spain, 1521-1821

984:

The Kingdom of New Spain was established on 18 August 1521, following the

14125: 13820: 13705: 13699: 13287: 12527:

Article also discusses colonization in Central and South America and Asia

12366: 10801: 10627: 10196: 10074: 8796: 8371: 7296: 7271: 7122: 7056: 6764: 3614: 3592: 3383: 3002: 2923: 2891: 2859: 2847: 2638:

Rancho activities centered on cattle-raising; many grantees emulated the

2560: 2404: 2400: 2307: 2287: 1896: 1783: 1656: 1594: 1526: 1518: 1360: 1227: 898: 859: 815: 224: 122: 10791: 8429: 7036: 6568: 6321:

Van Young, Eric (2006). "Introduction to the 25th Anniversary Edition".

6275:

Puebla de Los Angeles: Industry and Society in a Mexican City, 1700–1850

4033:

Mark A. Burkholder (2016) "Spain's America: from kingdoms to colonies",

1099: 13944: 13900: 12684: 12679: 12654: 12639: 12514: 11665: 10399: 9679: 8573: 8394: 8209: 7490: 7473: 7266: 7147: 7127: 7046: 6710: 6049: 5985:

Maya Society under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival

3431: 3287: 3136: 3027: 3014: 2776: 2714: 2694: 2651: 2481:

encouraged the settlement by individuals of large land parcels outside

2470: 2455: 2416: 2373: 2291: 2207: 2196: 2175:

Since portions of northern New Spain became part of the United States'

2154: 2133: 2049: 2045: 2028: 1802: 1707: 1636: 1534: 1377: 1184: 1140: 1116:, which explored and claimed the coast of British Columbia and Alaska. 1061: 831: 8404: 8283: 8273: 6372:

Do the Americas Have a Common History? A Critique of the Bolton Theory

5907:

Blacks in Colonial Veracruz: Race, Ethnicity, and Regional Development

3916:"El rincón de la heráldica. Escudos de ciudades y regiones americanas" 3641:, stand out as some of the viceroyalty's most notable contributors to 3567:

Indians to be citizens/subjects. For example the censuses made by the

3367: 3055:, one of the oldest Spanish churches in America and the oldest one of 10389: 10289: 10064: 9900: 8545: 8500: 8351: 7381: 7306: 7061: 7026: 5831:

Tenth edition, esp. chapters 6–15. New York: Oxford University Press.

3415: 3319: 3010: 2998: 2866: 2780: 2768: 2514: 2192: 2122: 2114: 1822: 1814: 1810: 1731: 1726: 1703: 1621: 1546: 1530: 1491:

The history of mainland New Spain spans three hundred years from the

1438: 1382: 1368: 945:. New Spain became a vital link between Spain's New World empire and 938: 925: 847: 13422: 9442: 8268: 6233:

Textiles and Capitalism in Mexico: An Economic History of the Obraje

6201:

The Black Middle: Africans, Mayas, and Spaniards in Colonial Yucatan

3190: 2310:, with funding from the Marqués de Villapuente, founded over twenty 1881: 1801:

However, these resources did not translate into development for the

1023: 13644: 13222: 12704: 12088: 10806: 9684: 9482: 8806: 8525: 8510: 8457: 8341: 8278: 8258: 7536: 7336: 7281: 7071: 3543: 3479: 3399: 3124: 3112: 3056: 3006: 2908: 2904: 2767:

A limiting factor in Yucatán's economy was the poor quality of the

2594: 2299: 2267: 2258:

of 1819 (not including the island territories of the Pacific Ocean)

2129:

had displaced Puebla as the mainstay of woolen textile production.

2106: 1928: 1756: 1748: 1688: 1502:

Beginning with the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521 by

1261: 1168: 1152: 1093: 1069: 934: 12536: 6558: 5827:

Meyer, Michael C., William L. Sherman, and Susan M. Deeds. (2014)

2227: 2091: 1968: 1779: 11964: 11935: 10445: 10430: 9587: 9413: 8745: 8735: 8730: 8563: 8553: 8535: 8530: 8472: 8409: 8356: 8230: 8174: 7531: 7458: 7326: 7276: 7117: 7086: 7021: 6456:

Lombardi, Cathryn L.; Lombardi, John V.; Stoner, K. Lynn (1983).

3617:(Giovanni Paoli). The first book printed in Mexico was entitled " 3335: 3128: 2824: 2808: 2537: 2361: 2184: 1975: 1632: 1550: 1537:

significantly boosted the economy, leading to conflicts like the

1393: 1223: 1156: 1136: 1009: 855: 835: 791: 238: 6559:

Map of the Border of the King's Dominion in the Northern America

5939:

Conquest of the Sierra: Spaniards and Indians in Colonial Oaxaca

2411:, or San Juan Pueblo. He also founded the Spanish settlement of 1052:; most of the United States west of the Mississippi River, plus 941:

terminus of the transpacific trade with the Philippines via the

13791:

Non-British colonial entities in the contemporary United States

12567: 10901: 10455: 10450: 10227: 8515: 8505: 8389: 8346: 8331: 8308: 8298: 8225: 8164: 8149: 7261: 7251: 7091: 7081: 7076: 3579: 3351: 3271: 3255: 3087: 3031: 2854: 2739: 2723: 2510: 2319: 2271: 2180: 2118: 1904: 1818: 1764: 1736: 1664: 1660: 1659:. In New Spain these grants were modeled after the tribute and 1573: 1522: 1381:. Provinces which were under military threat were grouped into 1144: 1049: 921: 890: 871: 823: 483: 2191:; but in New Spain, there were two major mining sites, one in 11942: 10216: 9880: 8750: 8740: 8708: 8583: 8578: 8452: 8434: 8288: 8184: 7500: 3578:

Once New Spain achieved independence, the legal basis of the

3527: 3145: 3021:, destroyed by an earthquake in 1773. There was a high court 2643: 2574: 2012: 1692: 1180: 1172: 979: 6390:

Herbert Eugene Bolton: Historian of the American Borderlands

5529:, vol. 3, pp.130–31. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996. 2807:

In the seventeenth century, patterns shifted in Yucatán and

2755:(literally community-owned chests that had locks and keys). 2505:

province since Cabrillo in 1542, sailed as far north up the

1465:, the Spanish crown created new administrative units called 1396:

announcing the transfer of powers from the outgoing viceroy

1197:

Spanish colonization of the Americas § Civil governance

160:; Right: Military flag of the Viceroyalty of New Spain with 10285: 10200: 8336: 7526: 7426: 5688:. Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico. p. 86. 5667:"El mestizaje es un mito, la identidad cultural sí importa" 5501:

Spanish Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520–1720

2793: 1795: 1148: 863: 12417: 10178: 5898:

Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajío: León 1700–1860

5808:

Mexico Under Spain: Society and the Origins of Nationality

1865: 6516:

MEXICO'S COLONIAL ERA—PART I: The Settlement of New Spain

6451:(2nd ed.). Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 5839:

Stormy Passage: Mexico from Colony to Republic, 1750-1850

5750:

Altman, Ida; Cline, Sarah; Pescador, Juan Javier (2003).

4139:"Viceroyalty of New Spain (historical territory, Mexico)" 4114:"Viceroyalty of New Spain (historical territory, Mexico)" 3664:

and some remote silver-mining towns. Composers including

3161:

New Spain in 1819 with the boundaries established at the

2393:

Oñate pioneered 'The Royal Road of the Interior Land' or

1791: 1723: 1292:(1776) (analogous to a dependent captaincy general). Two 57: 5485:

Forced Native Labor in Sixteenth-Century Central America

3627:

La Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España

5516:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1966. 4087:

harvp error: no target: CITEREFde_la_Mota_Padilla1870 (

2601:, four total) to protect the missionaries, and secular 1247: 810:. It was one of several domains established during the 6455: 6307:. Mexico City: El Colegio de Mexico. pp. 339–378. 6305:

El trabajo y los trabajadores en la historia de Mexico

6192:

The Maya World: Yucatec Culture and Society, 1550–1850

5542:

harvp error: no target: CITEREFNavarro_y_Noriega1820 (

4234: 4210: 4186: 2497:, the first Spanish presence in the 'New California' ( 2218:, indigenous culture retained considerable integrity. 9933:

Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France

8884: 7741:

Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (founder of Nicaragua)

7736:

Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (Yucatán conquistador)

6064: 5459: 5447: 5416: 5384: 2485:

and Pueblo boundaries, many of which became ranchos.

2281: 2136:

as part of the new administrative structuring of the

2003:

established an hacienda on lands taken from Orizaba.

1016:

administered in the continent until the 18th-century

13588:

Other British colonial entities in the contemporary

9412: 6135:. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 76–92. 3687: 1614:

Indigenous man collecting cochineal with a deer tail

14571:

Former regions and territories of the United States

12019: 6144:. In Michael R. Haines; Richard H. Steckel (eds.). 6142:"The peopling of Mexico from origins to revolution" 5954:. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. 5749: 5038: 5014: 4283:

harvp error: no target: CITEREFLockhartAltman1976 (

4249: 4162: 3920:

Gobierno de España. Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte

3606:), both located on the main square in the capital. 3602:

National Palace, and the Mexico City town council (

3562:

Europeans are included within the Mestizo category.

3123:Spanish settlers brought to the American continent 1949: 1576:, ending three centuries of Spanish colonial rule. 1495:(1519–1521) to the collapse of Spanish rule in the 6457: 6440:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 6261: 6209: 6176:. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. 6108:. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. 6014: 5982: 5950:The Legal Culture of Northern New Spain, 1700–1810 5947: 5915: 5873:. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. 5816: 5681: 5631:"American Indians in the Federal Decennial Census" 5527:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 4897: 4895: 4800:harvp error: no target: CITEREFRojas_Rabiela1991 ( 4245: 4243: 4083: 2997:, which had primary jurisdiction over what became 2713:With dense indigenous Maya populations, Yucatán's 2563:were chosen to establish new northern missions in 2536:By the middle of the 1700s, the Catholic order of 1336:(1511, effective 1526, predated the Viceroyalty); 956:and the forced abdication of the Bourbon monarch, 6529:Index to the DeWitt Colony Region under New Spain 5810:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 5621:. London: Scarecrow Press, 1978. pp. 239–40. 5538: 4260: 4258: 3978: 3789:List of governors in the Viceroyalty of New Spain 3586: 2423:Pueblo, located just north of the modern city of 2327:missions throughout the Baja California Peninsula 1392:Official document of the New Spain government in 1080:in Asia and Oceania: the Philippine Islands, the 1024:Territorial extent of the overseas Spanish Empire 14497: 6323:Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth-Century Mexico 6148:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 241–304. 5889:Spanish Explorations in the Southwest, 1542–1706 5814: 5503:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1973. 5394: 5392: 2751:) from diverting of community revenues in their 1974:Spaniards also settled in the temperate area of 1831: 13772:Colony of British Columbia and Vancouver Island 10477: 6076:Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico 1750–1821 5735:. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Latin American Center. 5675: 5344: 5342: 4892: 4653:harvp error: no target: CITEREFHirschberg1979 ( 4402:harvp error: no target: CITEREFCoatsworth1998 ( 4240: 2722:. There was an important sector of mixed-race " 2161:the Spanish presence was minimal and marginal. 6464:. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. 6099:. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Latin American Center. 5730: 5593:(in Spanish). pp. 328–348. Archived from 4279: 4255: 2458:system of forced labor. The unrest led to the 2221: 1290:Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas 992:. The initial funds for exploration came from 14651:States and territories disestablished in 1821 14085: 13438: 12552: 12403: 12005: 10122:, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon) 9603: 9398: 9374: 8870: 6584: 6240:Sanchez, Joseph P.; Spude, Robert L. (2013). 5487:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1979. 5389: 4836:harvp error: no target: CITEREFSzewczyk1976 ( 4796: 4645: 4643: 4455:, p. 67, quoting Alexander von Humboldt. 4348:harvp error: no target: CITEREFLockhart1976 ( 3960:Wright-Carr, David Charles (September 2007). 3941:Wright-Carr, David Charles (September 2007). 3676:were active from the early 1500s through the 2513:, and named California coastal features from 1408: 42: 12114:Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories 9797:Independence of Spanish continental Americas 6316:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 6239: 6235:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 6082: 5989:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 5780:Race, Class, and Politics in Colonial Mexico 5556: 5525:Webre, Stephen. "Audiencia of Guatemala" in 5433:harvp error: no target: CITEREFZeitlin1989 ( 5402:harvp error: no target: CITEREFZeitlin1989 ( 5339: 5026: 4558:(a definitive study of the tobacco monopoly) 4481:harvp error: no target: CITEREFCarroll1979 ( 4275: 4273: 3962:"La política lingüística en la Nueva España" 3943:"La política lingüística en la Nueva España" 3152: 3115:, Book XII on the conquest of Mexico in the 2865:The most important commodity for Oaxaca was 2540:had established a number of missions on the 1456: 1371:), which had been originally established by 802:, was an integral territorial entity of the 92:Coat of arms of the viceroyalty of New Spain 14616:Spanish exploration in the Age of Discovery 13089:North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 6088:Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain 5968: 5941:. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 5922:. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. 5900:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. 5871:The Spanish Borderlands Frontier: 1513-1821 5823:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. 5731:Altman, Ida; Lockhart, James, eds. (1976). 5572: 4608:harvp error: no target: CITEREFGibson1952 ( 4579: 4567: 4555: 3979:Figueroa Saavedra, Miguel (December 2022). 3959: 3940: 3836:Supply of Franciscan missions in New Mexico 3041:18th century golden altar piece insede the 2631:encouraged settlement and establishment of 2477:jurisdiction. In the late 18th century the 102: 14646:States and territories established in 1535 14641:States and territories established in 1519 14621:Spanish-speaking countries and territories 14092: 14078: 13445: 13431: 12559: 12545: 12410: 12396: 12012: 11998: 9610: 9596: 9405: 9391: 8877: 8863: 8496:Indigenous people during De Soto's travels 6591: 6577: 6411:. (2004) vol. 20, No. 2 (summer), 275–326. 6365:Historiography of Colonial Spanish America 6353:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6268:. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. 6203:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6194:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6185:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6126:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6117:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6021:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 5882:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 5864:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 5841:. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2022. 5815:Lockhart, James; Schwartz, Stuart (1983). 5612: 5101: 4818:harvp error: no target: CITEREFLewis1976 ( 4782:harvp error: no target: CITEREFCline1991 ( 4649: 4640: 4397: 3769:Historiography of Colonial Spanish America 3613:was brought to Mexico in 1539, by printer 2907:, once the main Pacific Coast port before 2187:, it was from the single rich mountain of 1910: 980:The Crown and the Viceroyalty of New Spain 185: 14556:Colonization history of the United States 11916:Colonial universities in Hispanic America 6598: 6395: 6320: 6255:(in Spanish). Barcelona: Thomas Piferrer. 6162: 5913: 5853: 5791:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5644:Censo General De Habitantes (1921 Census) 4416: 4385: 4332: 4320: 4308: 4297: 4270: 2039:Founded in 1531 as a Spanish settlement, 1747:There were two major ports in New Spain, 27:Kingdom of the Spanish Empire (1521–1821) 11921:Colonial universities in the Philippines 9354:Francisco Novella Azabal Pérez y Sicardo 6687:Spain and the American Revolutionary War 6546:the public's library and digital archive 6460:Latin American History: a Teaching Atlas 6400:. Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, UCSD. 6288:. University of British Columbia Press. 6248: 6230: 6207: 6171: 6167:. Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, UCSD. 6130: 6121: 6112: 6025: 5973:. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 5909:. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 5782:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 5773:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 5285: 5084: 5061: 5050: 4832: 4754: 4731: 4543: 4452: 4440: 4428: 4374: 4362: 4344: 4101: 3913: 3645:. In 1693, Sigüenza y Góngora published 3619:La escala espiritual de San Juan Clímaco 3189: 3167: 3156: 3106: 3102: 3047: 3036: 2978: 2838: 2677: 2348: 2325:From 1697, Jesuits established eighteen 2249: 2070: 1875: 1751:the viceroyalty's principal port on the 1642: 1627: 1608: 1589: 1387: 1208: 1200: 1098: 1033: 10912:Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia 6446: 6392:(University of California Press; 2012). 6348: 6272: 6198: 6189: 6103: 6073: 5977: 5904: 5895: 5471: 5428: 5398: 5372: 5360: 5348: 5273: 5238: 5226: 5214: 5202: 5190: 5167: 5095: 5003: 4862: 4691: 4679: 4667: 4634: 4591: 4531: 4519: 4507: 4495: 4476: 4464: 4015: 3873: 1866:Mexico City, capital of the viceroyalty 1480: 14: 14591:History of the Philippines (1565–1898) 14498: 12419:European colonization of North America 11865: 7891:Spanish missions in the Sonoran Desert 6311: 6302: 6281: 6259: 6065:Gutiérrez Brockington, Lolita (1989). 6012: 5993: 5945: 5936: 5886: 5877: 5868: 5859: 5786: 5777: 5768: 5578: 5333: 5320: 5308: 5296: 5261: 4981: 4970: 4959: 4937: 4925: 4913: 4901: 4886: 4874: 4850: 4765: 4743: 4719: 4707: 4622: 4603: 4264: 4235:Lombardi, Lombardi & Stoner (1983) 4222: 4211:Lombardi, Lombardi & Stoner (1983) 4198: 4187:Lombardi, Lombardi & Stoner (1983) 4174: 4021: 3997: 2436:governor of the Province of New Mexico 2372:by making peace with the semi-nomadic 2245: 2206:, such as in the present-day state of 1222:The Viceroyalty was administered by a 988:, as a New World kingdom ruled by the 931:a transformation in the global economy 866:. Additional Asian colonies included " 14566:Former countries of the United States 14353:The Great Republic of Rough and Ready 14073: 13998:Discourse Concerning Western Planting 13452: 13426: 12540: 12391: 11993: 11864: 11760: 11759: 10883: 10761: 10476: 10335: 10303: 10240: 10177: 10092: 10015: 9955: 9869: 9858: 9630: 9629: 9591: 9386: 9373: 9334:Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont 9178:Juan Antonio de Vizarrón y Eguiarreta 8858: 6771:Spanish American wars of independence 6572: 6449:The Historical Geography of New Spain 6414: 6332:The Spanish Frontier in North America 6329: 6146:A Population History of North America 6139: 5567: 5072: 4992: 4948: 4814: 4777: 3799:Mexican settlement in the Philippines 3611:first printing press in the New World 777: 14611:Spanish colonization of the Americas 14511:1519 establishments in North America 13827:Captaincy General of the Philippines 10193:Captaincy General of the Philippines 9685:New Laws in favour of the indigenous 8100:California mission clash of cultures 7771:Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra 6621:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 6180: 6094: 6069:. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 5887:Bolton, Herbert Eugene, ed. (1956). 5805: 5724: 5672:, Mexico, Retrieved on 25 July 2017. 5250: 5178: 5155: 5143: 5131: 5119: 5107: 4009: 3649:, the first newspaper in New Spain. 1798:and silver received from New Spain. 1493:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 1248:Captaincies general and governorates 1114:expeditions to the Pacific Northwest 986:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 879:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 291:Captaincy General of the Philippines 14661:Viceroyalties of the Spanish Empire 14606:Pre-statehood history of New Mexico 14536:1821 disestablishments in New Spain 14121:Kingdoms and Provinces of New Spain 12566: 11896:Indochristian painting in New Spain 10016: 7851:Spanish missions in Baja California 6554:: Hispanic Heritage in The Americas 6419:. New York, NY: Garland Publishers. 6417:The Idea of the Spanish Borderlands 5752:The Early History of Greater Mexico 5039:Altman, Cline & Pescador (2003) 5015:Altman, Cline & Pescador (2003) 4250:Altman, Cline & Pescador (2003) 4163:Altman, Cline & Pescador (2003) 3764:Governor-General of the Philippines 2834: 2366:Luis de Velasco, marqués de Salinas 2337:, and named the location and river 2298:), founded in 1667; Santiago de la 2143: 2034: 911:Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire 779:[birejˈnatoðeˈnweβaesˈpaɲa] 740:Federal Republic of Central America 546:abolished the Kingdom of New Spain 24: 10863:Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires 10336: 9617: 6424: 6409:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 6216:. University of California Press. 5996:A Brief History of Central America 5719:Bibliography of California history 5619:Historical Dictionary of Argentina 3569:Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata 3090:. An American-born Spanish elite ( 2968: 2527:discovery of huge deposits of gold 2282:Missions and the northern frontier 1794:1.5 trillion (1990 terms) in 1340:(1527, predated the Viceroyalty); 25: 14672: 14030:Fundamental Orders of Connecticut 13511:(1629–1641; 1679–1686; 1689–1776) 12710:Institutional Revolutionary Party 10093: 9956: 9837:Independence of Equatorial Guinea 9349:Juan José Ruiz de Apodaca y Eliza 9246:Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa 7861:Spanish missions in the Carolinas 6480: 6358: 6208:Robinson, William Wilcox (1979). 5891:. New York, NY: Barnes and Noble. 4696:Seville et l'Atlantique 1504–1650 2368:the crown ended the long-running 2331:missions were founded in Trinidad 2125:. But by the eighteenth century, 1860: 14601:Pre-statehood history of Arizona 14561:Former colonies in North America 14551:Colonial United States (Spanish) 14531:1821 disestablishments in Mexico 14474: 14473: 14454:Provisional Government of Hawaii 14335:Provisional Government of Oregon 14254:Provisional Government of Mexico 14054: 14053: 13833:Captaincy General of Puerto Rico 12087: 12021: 11948:Criollos in the colonial society 11876:Spanish missions in the Americas 10998:Charles Bonaventure de Longueval 9571: 9561: 9551: 9541: 9531: 9515: 9501: 9491: 9481: 9471: 9461: 9451: 9441: 9431: 9080:Diego Osorio de Escobar y Llamas 8927: 8920: 8839: 8838: 6723:Philippine revolts against Spain 6349:Zeitlin, Judith Francis (2005). 6273:Thomson, Guy P. C. (1989). 5660: 5636: 5624: 5561: 5550: 5532: 5519: 5506: 5490: 5477: 5465: 5453: 5441: 5422: 5410: 5378: 5366: 5354: 5326: 5314: 5302: 5290: 5279: 5267: 5255: 3888: 3879: 3866: 3857: 3784:Index of Mexico-related articles 3732: 3718: 3704: 3690: 2438:, established the settlement of 2396:El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro 2329:. Between 1687 and 1700 several 1950:Veracruz, port city and province 1759:on the Pacific, terminus of the 1702:. Important mining centers like 1618:José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez 812:Spanish conquest of the Americas 744: 730: 716: 702: 688: 674: 660: 635: 176: 171: 134: 85: 11975:Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649 9859: 9271:Manuel Antonio Flores Maldonado 9158:Francisco Fernández de la Cueva 9070:Francisco Fernández de la Cueva 6090:(in French). Paris: F. Schoell. 5998:. New York, NY: Facts on File. 5769:Haring, Clarence Henry (1947). 5712: 5244: 5232: 5220: 5208: 5196: 5184: 5172: 5161: 5149: 5137: 5125: 5113: 5089: 5078: 5066: 5055: 5044: 5032: 5020: 5008: 4997: 4986: 4975: 4964: 4953: 4942: 4931: 4919: 4907: 4880: 4868: 4856: 4844: 4826: 4808: 4790: 4771: 4759: 4748: 4737: 4725: 4713: 4701: 4685: 4673: 4661: 4628: 4616: 4597: 4585: 4573: 4561: 4549: 4537: 4525: 4513: 4501: 4489: 4470: 4458: 4446: 4434: 4422: 4410: 4391: 4379: 4368: 4356: 4338: 4326: 4314: 4302: 4291: 4228: 4216: 4204: 4192: 4180: 4168: 4156: 4131: 4106: 4095: 4077: 3097: 901:in 1535, appointing as viceroy 14526:1520s establishments in Mexico 14521:1510s establishments in Mexico 10304: 10027:Captaincy General of Guatemala 9735:Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) 9266:Alonso Núñez de Haro y Peralta 7934:Toribio de Benavente Motolinia 7886:Spanish missions in New Mexico 7856:Spanish missions in California 7691:Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva 7194:Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762) 6926:Captaincy General of Guatemala 6415:Weber, David. J., ed. (1991). 4047: 4035:Colonial Latin American Review 4027: 4003: 3991: 3972: 3953: 3934: 3907: 3804:Spanish American Enlightenment 3774:History of democracy in Mexico 3759:Filipino immigration to Mexico 3587:Culture, art, and architecture 2995:Captaincy General of Guatemala 2975:Captaincy General of Guatemala 2885: 1315: 1217: 13: 1: 14365:Confederate States of America 13672: 12630:Centralist Republic of Mexico 11926:General Archive of the Indies 11187:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 10858:Camino Real de Tierra Adentro 10843:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas 9792:Third Treaty of San Ildefonso 9745:War of the Spanish Succession 9710:Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) 9212:Agustín de Ahumada y Villalón 9055:García Sarmiento de Sotomayor 8029:José Francisco de Paula Señan 7876:Spanish missions in Louisiana 7661:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 6903:List of viceroys of New Spain 6657:Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660) 6645:Anglo-Spanish War (1625–1630) 6639:Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) 6627:Spanish conquest of Guatemala 6078:. Cambridge University Press. 5869:Bannon, John Francis (1974). 5829:The Course of Mexican History 5771:The Spanish Empire in America 5733:The Provinces of Early Mexico 4698:, Pt. 2, vol. VIII 1959, 714. 4043:10.1080/10609164.2016.1205241 3901: 3824:List of viceroys of New Spain 3794:List of viceroys of New Spain 2488: 2442:near the southern end of the 2344: 2308:Father Eusebio Francisco Kino 2080: 2031:, a new administrative unit. 1832:Regions of mainland New Spain 1190: 976:would be crowned as emperor. 954:Napoleonic invasion of Iberia 404:(as Political chief superior) 14359:The Kingdom of Beaver Island 13778:Province of British Columbia 13059:Institutional stock exchange 12695:Second American intervention 10884: 9998:Captaincy General of Yucatan 9928:Union with Holy Roman Empire 9907:Southern Italy (Kingdoms of 9822:German–Spanish Treaty (1899) 9231:Francisco Cajigal de la Vega 8615:Taiwanese indigenous peoples 7994:Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora 7906:Spanish missions in Trinidad 7901:Spanish missions in Virginia 6698:peoples during colonial rule 6506:Resources in other libraries 6379:Western Historical Quarterly 5914:Castleman, Bruce A. (2005). 5905:Carroll, Patrick J. (1991). 5896:Brading, D. A. (1978). 5778:Israel, Jonathan I. (1975). 5633:. Retrieved on 25 July 2017. 5460:Gutiérrez Brockington (1989) 5448:Gutiérrez Brockington (1989) 5417:Gutiérrez Brockington (1989) 5385:Gutiérrez Brockington (1989) 4280:Lockhart & Altman (1976) 4061:(in Spanish). Archived from 3639:Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora 2684:cathedral of Mérida, Yucatán 2559:in Baja California, and the 2545:(lower) California peninsula 2413:San Gabriel de Yungue-Ouinge 1064:, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, the 858:archipelagos, including the 796:Yankwik Kaxtillan Birreiyotl 441:Conquest of the Aztec Empire 59:Yankwik Kaxtillan Birreiyotl 7: 13260:Water supply and sanitation 12625:Spanish reconquest attempts 12300:Archaeology of the Americas 10762: 10478:Administrative subdivisions 9675:War of the League of Cognac 9344:Félix María Calleja del Rey 9305:Félix Berenguer de Marquina 9295:Miguel de la Grúa Talamanca 9261:Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid 9256:Matías de Gálvez y Gallardo 9134:José Sarmiento y Valladares 9085:Antonio Sebastián de Toledo 8319:Oasisamerica (Southwest US) 7871:Spanish missions in Georgia 7866:Spanish missions in Florida 7846:Spanish missions in Arizona 7786:José de Bustamante y Guerra 7352:Yerba Buena (San Francisco) 6633:Spanish conquest of Yucatán 6538:at Texas A&M University 6282:Tovell, Freeman M. (2008). 6104:Jackson, Robert H. (1994). 5969:Deans-Smith, Susan (1992). 5946:Cutter, Charles R. (1995). 5682:Federico Navarrete (2016). 3841:Mexican War of Independence 3683: 2779:giving way in water filled 2659:Mexican War of Independence 2222:Bajío, Mexico's breadbasket 1497:Mexican War of Independence 1398:Félix Berenguer de Marquina 966:Mexican War of Independence 558:Declaration of Independence 10: 14677: 14329:Republic of the Rio Grande 13957:Brandenburger Saint Thomas 13766:Colony of British Columbia 12660:Second French intervention 12608:Control of Central America 11192:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 11177:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada 11079:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 10241: 9977:), Western United States ( 9870: 9740:Portuguese Restoration War 9011:Diego Fernández de Córdoba 8952:Martín Enríquez de Almanza 8918: 8095:Suppression of the Jesuits 8004:Francisco Javier Clavijero 7881:Spanish missions in Mexico 7781:Ignacio de Arteaga y Bazán 7731:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 7681:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 7606:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 6853:also reigned after Louis I 6542:1492 – Middle America 6443:. 5 vols. (1996) New York. 6362: 6260:Spicer, Edward H. (1962). 6249:de Solís, Antonio (1771). 6231:Salvucci, Richard (1987). 6074:Hamnett, Brian R. (1971). 5716: 5027:Sanchez & Spude (2013) 3754:Economic history of Mexico 3590: 3542: 3526: 3510: 3494: 3478: 3462: 3446: 3430: 3414: 3398: 3382: 3366: 3350: 3334: 3318: 3302: 3286: 3270: 3254: 3233: 3226:Indigenous population (%) 2972: 2899:acquired holdings for his 2773:slash and burn agriculture 2673: 2210:and in coastal regions of 2132:In 1787, Puebla became an 1893:development of Mexico City 1869: 1583: 1579: 1484: 1409:Local-level administration 1260:and these were relatively 1194: 1043:Nueva Hispania Tabula Nova 1041:'s 1548 map of New Spain, 1027: 828:Southwestern United States 775:Virreinato de Nueva España 471:Viceroyalty of New Granada 164:and Royal or Duchy Crown ( 44:Virreinato de Nueva España 14469: 14311:Republic of Indian Stream 14116: 14049: 13993: 13984: 13927:, 1682–1763 and 1801–1803 13845:Captaincy General of Cuba 13798: 13787: 13669:New England Confederation 13598: 13584: 13498: 13460: 13384: 13273: 13168: 13159: 13017: 13008: 12895: 12886: 12859:Tropical cyclone rainfall 12757: 12748: 12578: 12523: 12425: 12328: 12292: 12251: 12210: 12169: 12096: 12085: 12034: 11960:Slavery in Spanish Empire 11871: 11860: 11766: 11755: 11653: 11547: 11540: 11425: 11274: 11267: 11260: 11247:Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor 11157: 11026: 10988:Álvaro de Bazán the Elder 10950: 10894: 10890: 10879: 10848:Barcelona Trading Company 10815: 10772: 10768: 10757: 10661: 10613:New Andalusia (1501–1513) 10583: 10525: 10487: 10483: 10472: 10423: 10382: 10346: 10342: 10331: 10310: 10247: 10188: 10120:Venezuela, part of Guyana 10099: 10022: 9973:, Central United States ( 9962: 9876: 9865: 9854: 9705:Bruneian–Spanish conflict 9690:Expulsion of the Moriscos 9636: 9625: 9524: 9513: 9424: 9380: 9375:Links to related articles 9323: 9279: 9241:Carlos Francisco de Croix 9220: 9196: 9142: 9093: 9075:Juan de Leyva de la Cerda 9050:Juan de Palafox y Mendoza 9030:Diego Carrillo de Mendoza 9019: 8985: 8967:Álvaro Manrique de Zúñiga 8957:Lorenzo Suárez de Mendoza 8936: 8896: 8834: 8787:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 8764: 8701: 8670: 8632: 8607: 8544: 8486: 8443: 8380: 8317: 8244: 8218: 8142: 8131: 8122: 8082: 8069:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 7989:Juan de Palafox y Mendoza 7914: 7896:Spanish missions in Texas 7834: 7823: 7796:Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa 7756:Juan José Pérez Hernández 7701:Juan José Pérez Hernández 7614: 7576: 7565: 7545: 7440: 7234: 7221: 7156: 7110: 6997: 6949: 6911: 6895: 6839: 6796: 6783: 6696:Conflicts with indigenous 6695: 6616: 6607: 6501:Resources in your library 6435:. 2 vols. (1997) Chicago. 6334:. Yale University Press. 6199:Restall, Matthew (2009). 6190:Restall, Matthew (1997). 5579:Lerner, Victoria (1968). 4084:de la Mota Padilla (1870) 3914:Sierra López, Alejandro. 3670:Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla 3631:Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz 3153:Population in early 1800s 2501:) region of the frontier 2379:Provincia de Nuevo México 2274:(civilian towns) and the 1884:of Mexico City, 1695, by 1775:to the Spanish mainland. 1558:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 1457:Intendancies of the 1780s 1304:) and the Governorate of 814:, and had its capital in 614: 604: 600: 590: 580: 576: 571: 567: 554: 540: 527: 514: 497: 480: 463: 450: 437: 433: 423: 413: 409: 394: 379: 375: 365: 361: 346: 331: 327: 317: 305: 244: 230: 220: 196: 184: 150: 116: 98: 82: 77: 34: 18:Indendancies of New Spain 14581:History of North America 14273:Santa Fe de Nuevo México 14248:Second Republic of Texas 14242:Republic of the Floridas 14230:Republic of East Florida 14224:Republic of West Florida 14188:United States of America 14132:Santa Fe de Nuevo México 14108:within the contemporary 13839:Santa Fe de Nuevo México 13651:Massachusetts Bay Colony 12900:Administrative divisions 12310:North American timelines 11901:Quito painting tradition 11891:Cusco painting tradition 11252:García López de Cárdenas 11242:Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera 11149:Felipe González de Ahedo 11069:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 9646:Conquest of the Americas 9525:Americas and East Indies 9339:Francisco Javier Venegas 9251:Martín de Mayorga Ferrer 9207:Juan Francisco de Güemes 9060:Marcos de Torres y Rueda 7686:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 7641:Bernal Díaz del Castillo 7487:Santa Fe de Nuevo México 6330:Weber, David J. (1992). 6183:The Caste War of Yucatan 6181:Reed, Nelson A. (1964). 6122:Lockhart, James (1992). 6042:10.1525/ah.2003.77.2.293 6013:Gibson, Charles (1964). 5994:Foster, Lynn V. (2000). 5789:Mexico: The Colonial Era 5539:Navarro y Noriega (1820) 3850: 3623:Bernal Díaz del Castillo 3223:European population (%) 2668: 2170: 1899:, the merchants' guild ( 1886:Cristóbal de Villalpando 1367:, roughly equivalent to 1258:administrative divisions 1177:Santa Fe de Nuevo México 850:, and northern parts of 767:Viceroyalty of New Spain 36:Viceroyalty of New Spain 14576:Former Spanish colonies 14236:First Republic of Texas 13969:Scottish Darien Company 13913:Hospitaller Saint Croix 13712:Dominion of New England 13694:North-Western Territory 13315:Handcrafts and folk art 13084:National stock exchange 12822:Protected natural areas 12650:Second Mexican Republic 12615:Supreme Executive Power 12305:North America by period 12144:Portuguese colonization 12028:History of the Americas 11686:Comuneros (New Granada) 11463:Balearic Islands (1558) 11182:Hernán Pérez de Quesada 11109:Ruy López de Villalobos 11064:Miguel López de Legazpi 10978:García de Toledo Osorio 9842:Western Sahara conflict 9832:Independence of Morocco 9772:Treaty of Madrid (1750) 9715:Piracy in the Caribbean 9700:French Wars of Religion 9188:Pedro Cebrián y Agustín 9109:Payo Enríquez de Rivera 9065:Luis Enríquez de Guzmán 9040:Lope Díez de Armendáriz 8962:Pedro Moya de Contreras 8777:Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo 7761:Dionisio Alcalá Galiano 7726:Ruy López de Villalobos 7671:Miguel López de Legazpi 7666:Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo 6663:Piracy in the Caribbean 6565:and Nicolas de la Fora. 6552:Encyclopædia Britannica 6447:Gerhard, Peter (1993). 6172:Ouweneel, Arij (1997). 6084:von Humboldt, Alexander 5878:Baskes, Jeremy (2000). 5806:Liss, Peggy K. (1975). 4694:, citing Pierre Chaunu 4143:Encyclopædia Britannica 4118:Encyclopædia Britannica 3678:Baroque period of music 3654:Mexican Churrigueresque 3229:Mestizo population (%) 2844:Church of Santo Domingo 2555:replaced them with the 1911:Veracruz to Mexico City 1681:encomenderos de indios) 909:in 1542, following the 518:Treaty of San Ildefonso 231:Official languages 58: 14596:Latin American history 14022:Of Plymouth Plantation 13744:(1779–1783; 1814–1815) 13653:(1629–1686; 1689–1691) 13629:(1620–1686; 1689–1691) 13541:(1664–1673; 1702–1776) 13127:States by unemployment 13117:Science and technology 12620:First Mexican Republic 12259:Pre-Columbian cultures 11931:Colonial Spanish Horse 11605:Colonia del Sacramento 10828:Spanish treasure fleet 10405:Royal Decree of Graces 9359:Juan O'Donojú y O'Ryan 9290:Juan Vicente de Güemes 9163:Fernando de Alencastre 9153:Juan Ortega y Montañés 9129:Juan Ortega y Montañés 8996:Juan de Mendoza y Luna 8652:Colonial Baroque style 8642:Spanish Colonial style 8488:Southeastern Woodlands 7959:Bartolomé de las Casas 7806:Alexander von Humboldt 7199:Treaty of Paris (1783) 6879:Ferdinand VII of Spain 6534:3 October 2010 at the 6432:Encyclopedia of Mexico 6140:McCaa, Robert (2000). 5854:More specialized works 3819:History of El Salvador 3212:Alexander von Humboldt 3206: 3187: 3165: 3120: 3059: 3045: 2990: 2984:Arco de Santa Catalina 2850: 2686: 2661:(1821) and subsequent 2357: 2306:) in 1709. From 1687, 2259: 2204:indigenous populations 2086: 2075:An Indian Wedding and 1921:Alexander von Humboldt 1888: 1872:History of Mexico City 1807:Protestant Reformation 1744:due to the smuggling. 1677:encomenderos de negros 1670:Bartolomé de las Casas 1651: 1640: 1625: 1606: 1433:began phasing out the 1405: 1344:(1st one, 1538–1543); 1256:were the second-level 1214: 1206: 1167:(the modern states of 1104: 1045: 947:its East Indies empire 933:. New Spain's port of 774: 698:Louisiana (New France) 499:• Acquisition of 488:New Kingdom of Granada 257:Oto-Manguean languages 103: 43: 14541:1821 in North America 14516:1519 in North America 14305:Republic of Madawaska 14206:Trans-Oconee Republic 13803:Columbian Viceroyalty 13355:Our Lady of Guadalupe 12849:Territorial evolution 12665:Second Mexican Empire 12315:Mesoamerica by period 12129:European colonization 12109:Indigenous population 11089:Vasco Núñez de Balboa 11049:Juan Sebastián Elcano 10364:Council of the Indies 9725:Spanish–Moro conflict 9695:Ottoman–Habsburg wars 9655:Treaty of Tordesillas 9300:Miguel José de Azanza 9236:Joaquín de Montserrat 8772:Juan Bautista de Anza 8090:Our Lady of Guadalupe 7939:Bernardino de Sahagún 7601:Vasco Núñez de Balboa 7596:Juan Sebastián Elcano 7164:Treaty of Tordesillas 7138:Corregidor (position) 6896:Viceroys of New Spain 6735:Spanish–Moro conflict 6312:Tutino, John (1986). 6242:New Mexico: A History 5937:Chance, John (1989). 5787:Knight, Alan (2002). 5512:Woodward, Ralph Lee. 3831:Louisiana (New Spain) 3580:colonial caste system 3220:Intendancy/territory 3193: 3171: 3160: 3110: 3103:The role of epidemics 3076:Consulado de Comercio 3051: 3043:Tegucigalpa cathedral 3040: 2982: 2911:replaced it in 1563. 2842: 2681: 2452:indigenous population 2352: 2290:(modern Albuquerque, 2253: 2074: 2041:Puebla de los Angeles 1879: 1763:. In the Philippines 1646: 1631: 1612: 1593: 1568:and insurgent leader 1508:Council of the Indies 1391: 1242:Council of the Indies 1230:and appointed by the 1212: 1204: 1102: 1037: 889:, the capital of the 822:, mainly what became 609:Spanish colonial real 418:Council of the Indies 262:Uto-Aztecan languages 205:Columbian Viceroyalty 14586:History of New Spain 14299:Republic of Fredonia 13939:Dutch Virgin Islands 13887:Spanish West Florida 13881:Spanish East Florida 13760:Stickeen Territories 13465:New England Colonies 13372:World Heritage Sites 12787:Environmental issues 12645:Mexican–American War 12603:First Mexican Empire 12483:Fridtjof Nansen Land 12320:Mesoamerica timeline 12233:Indigenous languages 12149:British colonization 12134:Spanish colonization 12119:Christopher Columbus 12074:Andean South America 11886:Mesoamerican Codices 11610:Comuneros (Paraguay) 11448:Siege of Castelnuovo 11034:Christopher Columbus 10853:Consulate of the Sea 10833:Casa de Contratación 10424:Titles and positions 9817:Spanish–American War 9807:Liberal constitution 9650:Asia and the Pacific 9119:Melchor Portocarrero 8064:Manuel Abad y Queipo 7979:Gerónimo de Mendieta 7917:priests, and bishops 7586:Christopher Columbus 6521:1 March 2009 at the 6029:Agricultural History 5860:Altman, Ida (2000). 5483:Sherman, William L. 5134:, pp. 39, 59–60 5029:, Chapters 2 & 3 4797:Rojas Rabiela (1991) 4365:, map 2 p. 6; p. 288 3814:History of Guatemala 3635:Juan Ruiz de Alarcón 3597:Mexican architecture 2829:Caste War of Yucatan 2815:(now Belize) and in 2693:can be considered a 2531:Mexican–American War 2519:the Bay of Monterrey 2425:Española, New Mexico 2254:New Spain after the 1742:Kingdom of Guatemala 1675:In colonial Mexico, 1487:History of New Spain 1481:History of New Spain 1375:-governors known as 1320:The high courts, or 1159:); (from the 1760s) 1110:Mexican–American War 870:", on the island of 800:Kingdom of New Spain 712:Territory of Florida 656:First Mexican Empire 643:Pre-Columbian Mexico 454:Fall of Tenochtitlan 287:Philippine languages 267:Athabaskan languages 14636:Spanish West Indies 14631:Spanish East Indies 14448:Free State of Jones 14341:California Republic 14176:Republic of Watauga 14144:Provincias Internas 14106:unrecognized states 13875:Provincias Internas 13851:Spanish Saint Croix 13475:Chesapeake Colonies 13027:Automotive industry 12915:Chamber of Deputies 12598:War of Independence 12478:Erik the Red's Land 12362:Classical Antiquity 12139:French colonization 11615:Cartagena de Indias 11237:Diego de Mazariegos 11207:Pere Fages i Beleta 11074:Sebastián de Ocampo 10555:Provincias Internas 10527:Captaincies General 10441:Municipal president 10410:School of Salamanca 10181:Spanish East Indies 10160:Misiones Orientales 10032:Spanish West Indies 9996:, Central America ( 9943:Pyrénées-Orientales 9896:Union with Portugal 9787:Napoleonic invasion 9767:War of Jenkins' Ear 9310:José de Iturrigaray 9045:Diego López Pacheco 8059:Francisco Marroquín 7929:Gerónimo de Aguilar 7801:Antonio Gil Y'Barbo 7746:Gil González Dávila 7522:New Kingdom of León 7174:Peace of Westphalia 6989:Provincias Internas 6883:also reigned after 6675:War of Jenkins' Ear 6388:Hurtado, Albert L. 6381:44#1 (2013): 4–20. 5819:Early Latin America 5557:von Humboldt (1811) 5336:, pp. 121–122. 4065:on 6 September 2019 3846:Viceroyalty of Peru 3779:History of Honduras 3647:El Mercurio Volante 3111:Nahua depiction of 3053:Church of la Merced 2616:Provincias Internas 2591:Native Californians 2517:to as far north as 2475:Provincias Internas 2360:During the term of 2246:Spanish borderlands 2027:Veracruz became an 2023:In 1787 during the 1566:Agustín de Iturbide 1402:José de Iturrigaray 1383:captaincies general 1129:Baja California Sur 1108:U.S. following the 1092:, and parts of the 1078:Spanish East Indies 1058:Spanish West Indies 974:Agustín de Iturbide 962:José de Iturrigaray 684:Spanish East Indies 670:Spanish West Indies 14460:Republic of Hawaii 14156:Florida Occidental 14038:Quintipartite Deed 13951:Danish West Indies 13919:French Saint Croix 13228:Indigenous peoples 13132:Telecommunications 12991:State legislatures 12932:Federal government 12812:Metropolitan areas 12690:Mexican Revolution 12264:Indigenous peoples 12156:Columbian Exchange 12104:Indigenous peoples 11911:Academia Antártica 11866:Other civil topics 11232:Pánfilo de Narváez 11134:Sebastián Vizcaíno 11099:Andrés de Urdaneta 11059:Juan Ponce de León 11044:Ferdinand Magellan 11018:Bernardo de Gálvez 10917:Indian auxiliaries 10415:Trial of residence 10395:Laws of the Indies 10179:Asia and Oceania ( 10040:Dominican Republic 9168:Baltasar de Zúñiga 9124:Gaspar de la Cerda 8907:Antonio de Mendoza 8822:Hasekura Tsunenaga 8702:People and classes 8683:Columbian exchange 8569:Peoples of Palawan 8074:José María Morelos 8049:Francisco de Ayeta 7984:Juan de Torquemada 7949:Alonso de Montúfar 7791:José María Narváez 7751:Francisco de Ulloa 7721:Andrés de Urdaneta 7716:Cristóbal de Oñate 7676:Ángel de Villafañe 7651:Pánfilo de Narváez 7631:Juan Ponce de León 7591:Ferdinand Magellan 7169:Treaty of Zaragoza 6951:Captancies General 5017:, pp. 193–194 4877:, pp. 339–378 4780:, pp. 265–274 4594:, pp. 220–224 4580:Deans-Smith (1992) 4568:Deans-Smith (1992) 4556:Deans-Smith (1992) 4546:, pp. 188–189 4311:, pp. 247–254 4267:, pp. 101–103 4225:, pp. 133–135 4201:, pp. 133–135 4177:, pp. 133–135 3698:Philippines portal 3674:Antonio de Salazar 3643:Spanish Literature 3629:. Figures such as 3207: 3188: 3183:children, 1763 by 3166: 3121: 3060: 3046: 2991: 2851: 2817:Laguna de Términos 2753:cajas de comunidad 2687: 2633:California ranchos 2568:(upper) California 2495:Sebastián Vizcaíno 2479:Spanish land grant 2358: 2260: 2087: 2052:of the same name. 2001:Antonio de Mendoza 1923:called this area, 1889: 1652: 1641: 1626: 1607: 1419:(also known as an 1406: 1254:Captaincy Generals 1215: 1207: 1105: 1046: 903:Antonio de Mendoza 798:), originally the 386:Antonio de Mendoza 245:Regional languages 14493: 14492: 14487: 14486: 14323:Republic of Texas 14218:State of Muskogee 14200:State of Franklin 14067: 14066: 14042: 14034: 14026: 14018: 14010: 14006:Mayflower Compact 14002: 13987:Related Documents 13869:Spanish Louisiana 13748:Columbia District 13671:(1643–1654; 1675– 13557:Massachusetts Bay 13485:Southern Colonies 13454:Thirteen Colonies 13420: 13419: 13380: 13379: 13155: 13154: 13004: 13003: 12974:Political parties 12937:Foreign relations 12882: 12881: 12670:Restored Republic 12588:Pre-Columbian era 12534: 12533: 12385: 12384: 12357:Pre-Columbian era 12182:Pre-Columbian era 11987: 11986: 11983: 11982: 11856: 11855: 11761:Spanish conquests 11751: 11750: 11747: 11746: 11743: 11742: 11739: 11738: 11536: 11535: 11217:Pedro de Alvarado 11202:Gaspar de Portolà 11197:Pedro de Valdivia 11172:Francisco Pizarro 11124:Nicolás de Ovando 11119:Alonso de Ercilla 11094:Alonso de Salazar 10927:Ships of the line 10875: 10874: 10871: 10870: 10753: 10752: 10749: 10748: 10468: 10467: 10464: 10463: 10327: 10326: 10323: 10322: 10299: 10298: 10256:Northern Africa ( 10252:Equatorial Guinea 10236: 10235: 10173: 10172: 10088: 10087: 10011: 10010: 10002:Spanish Caribbean 9975:Spanish Louisiana 9951: 9950: 9886:Crown of Castille 9850: 9849: 9827:Spanish Civil War 9802:Adams–Onís Treaty 9782:Nootka Convention 9730:Thirty Years' War 9720:Eighty Years' War 9641:Catholic Monarchs 9631:Timeline–immersed 9585: 9584: 9367: 9366: 9114:Tomás de la Cerda 8947:Gastón de Peralta 8852: 8851: 8830: 8829: 8671:Trade and economy 8628: 8627: 8118: 8117: 8110:Indian Reductions 8039:Sebastián Montero 7944:Juan de Zumárraga 7819: 7818: 7706:Gaspar de Portolá 7646:Pedro de Alvarado 7561: 7560: 7517:Nueva Extremadura 7422:Antigua Guatemala 7217: 7216: 7209:Adams–Onís Treaty 7204:Treaty of Córdoba 7189:Congress of Breda 6811:Joanna of Castile 6779: 6778: 6753:Tzeltal Rebellion 6525:at mexconnect.com 6487:Library resources 6295:978-0-7748-1367-9 6277:. Westview Press. 5761:978-0-1309-1543-6 5754:. Prentice Hall. 5725:General histories 5497:MacLeod, Murdo J. 5375:, pp. xiv–xv 4650:Hirschberg (1979) 4398:Coatsworth (1998) 4037:, 25:2, 125–153, 4000:, pp. 7, 105 3809:History of Mexico 3563: 3558: 3557: 3163:Adams–Onís Treaty 3067:, were Spanish. 3030:and the blue dye 3019:Antigua Guatemala 2988:Antigua Guatemala 2823:) where they cut 2691:Yucatán Peninsula 2593:to Christianity, 2547:. Then, in 1767, 2354:San Miguel chapel 2256:Adams–Onís Treaty 1840:heartland of the 1648:Pedro de Alvarado 1306:Spanish Louisiana 1165:Nueva Extremadura 998:Iberian Peninsula 806:, established by 765:, officially the 760: 759: 756: 755: 752: 751: 648: 647: 563:28 September 1821 531:Adams-Onís Treaty 381:• 1535–1550 348:• 1813–1821 333:• 1521–1556 310:Roman Catholicism 297:Chamorro language 162:Cross of Burgundy 143: 66:Nahuatl languages 16:(Redirected from 14668: 14477: 14476: 14347:State of Deseret 14317:Indian Territory 14285:Coahuila y Tejas 14279:Sonora y Sinaloa 14212:Hawaiian Kingdom 14194:Vermont Republic 14150:Florida Oriental 14094: 14087: 14080: 14071: 14070: 14057: 14056: 14040: 14032: 14024: 14016: 14014:Mourt's Relation 14008: 14000: 13925:French Louisiana 13754:Red River Colony 13677: 13674: 13621:Berkeley Hundred 13480:Tobacco Colonies 13447: 13440: 13433: 13424: 13423: 13400: 13393: 13340:National symbols 13166: 13165: 13107: 13052:Renewable energy 13042:Economic history 13015: 13014: 12893: 12892: 12755: 12754: 12735:Chiapas conflict 12635:Texas Revolution 12561: 12554: 12547: 12538: 12537: 12488:Sverdrup Islands 12412: 12405: 12398: 12389: 12388: 12347:Three-age system 12091: 12026: 12025: 12014: 12007: 12000: 11991: 11990: 11862: 11861: 11828:Chibchan Nations 11757: 11756: 11726:Santiago de Cuba 11585:Guadalupe Island 11545: 11544: 11272: 11271: 11265: 11264: 11227:Diego de Almagro 11104:Antonio de Ulloa 11008:Ambrosio Spinola 11003:Pedro de Zubiaur 10973:Alfonso d'Avalos 10963:Antonio de Leyva 10907:Army of Flanders 10892: 10891: 10881: 10880: 10770: 10769: 10759: 10758: 10485: 10484: 10474: 10473: 10344: 10343: 10333: 10332: 10301: 10300: 10274:Peñón of Algiers 10238: 10237: 10175: 10174: 10090: 10089: 10013: 10012: 9995: 9953: 9952: 9867: 9866: 9856: 9855: 9777:Seven Years' War 9750:Queen Anne's War 9627: 9626: 9612: 9605: 9598: 9589: 9588: 9575: 9565: 9555: 9545: 9535: 9519: 9505: 9495: 9485: 9475: 9465: 9455: 9445: 9435: 9418:Spanish monarchy 9407: 9400: 9393: 9384: 9383: 9371: 9370: 9315:Pedro de Garibay 9104:Pedro Nuño Colón 8977:Gaspar de Zúñiga 8931: 8930: 8924: 8923: 8879: 8872: 8865: 8856: 8855: 8842: 8841: 8802:Fermín de Lasuén 8693:Triangular trade 8140: 8139: 8129: 8128: 8019:Fermín de Lasuén 7964:Alonso de Molina 7954:Vasco de Quiroga 7915:Friars, fathers, 7836:Spanish missions 7832: 7831: 7656:Hernando de Soto 7574: 7573: 7232: 7231: 7184:Peace of Utrecht 7179:Peace of Ryswick 7042:Santiago de Cuba 6887: 6854: 6794: 6793: 6729:Acaxee Rebellion 6681:Seven Years' War 6669:Queen Anne's War 6614: 6613: 6593: 6586: 6579: 6570: 6569: 6475: 6463: 6452: 6420: 6401: 6398:Mexico's Regions 6354: 6345: 6326: 6317: 6308: 6299: 6278: 6269: 6267: 6256: 6245: 6236: 6227: 6215: 6204: 6195: 6186: 6177: 6168: 6165:Mexico's Regions 6159: 6136: 6127: 6118: 6109: 6100: 6091: 6079: 6070: 6061: 6022: 6020: 6009: 5990: 5988: 5974: 5965: 5953: 5942: 5933: 5921: 5910: 5901: 5892: 5883: 5874: 5865: 5824: 5822: 5811: 5802: 5783: 5774: 5765: 5746: 5707: 5706: 5704: 5702: 5679: 5673: 5664: 5658: 5657: 5656:on 4 March 2016. 5655: 5648: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5609: 5607: 5605: 5599: 5592: 5576: 5570: 5565: 5559: 5554: 5548: 5547: 5536: 5530: 5523: 5517: 5510: 5504: 5494: 5488: 5481: 5475: 5474:, esp. Chapter 5 5469: 5463: 5457: 5451: 5445: 5439: 5438: 5426: 5420: 5414: 5408: 5407: 5396: 5387: 5382: 5376: 5370: 5364: 5358: 5352: 5346: 5337: 5330: 5324: 5323:, pp. 18–19 5318: 5312: 5306: 5300: 5294: 5288: 5283: 5277: 5271: 5265: 5259: 5253: 5248: 5242: 5241:, pp. 50–52 5236: 5230: 5224: 5218: 5212: 5206: 5200: 5194: 5188: 5182: 5181:, pp. 42–46 5176: 5170: 5165: 5159: 5158:, pp. 33–51 5153: 5147: 5146:, pp. 50–51 5141: 5135: 5129: 5123: 5122:, pp. 38–42 5117: 5111: 5110:, pp. 59–60 5105: 5099: 5093: 5087: 5082: 5076: 5070: 5064: 5059: 5053: 5048: 5042: 5036: 5030: 5024: 5018: 5012: 5006: 5001: 4995: 4990: 4984: 4979: 4973: 4968: 4962: 4957: 4951: 4946: 4940: 4935: 4929: 4923: 4917: 4911: 4905: 4899: 4890: 4884: 4878: 4872: 4866: 4865:, pp. 76–77 4860: 4854: 4853:, pp. 52–54 4848: 4842: 4841: 4830: 4824: 4823: 4812: 4806: 4805: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4775: 4769: 4763: 4757: 4752: 4746: 4741: 4735: 4729: 4723: 4717: 4711: 4705: 4699: 4689: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4665: 4659: 4658: 4647: 4638: 4632: 4626: 4620: 4614: 4613: 4606:, pp. 55–56 4601: 4595: 4589: 4583: 4577: 4571: 4565: 4559: 4553: 4547: 4541: 4535: 4529: 4523: 4517: 4511: 4510:, pp. 83–85 4505: 4499: 4493: 4487: 4486: 4474: 4468: 4462: 4456: 4450: 4444: 4438: 4432: 4426: 4420: 4417:Castleman (2005) 4414: 4408: 4407: 4395: 4389: 4386:Castleman (2005) 4383: 4377: 4372: 4366: 4360: 4354: 4353: 4342: 4336: 4335:, p. xxviii 4333:Van Young (2006) 4330: 4324: 4321:Van Young (1992) 4318: 4312: 4309:Monsivaís (1992) 4306: 4300: 4298:Van Young (1992) 4295: 4289: 4288: 4277: 4268: 4262: 4253: 4247: 4238: 4232: 4226: 4220: 4214: 4208: 4202: 4196: 4190: 4184: 4178: 4172: 4166: 4160: 4154: 4153: 4151: 4149: 4135: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4110: 4104: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4081: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4051: 4045: 4031: 4025: 4019: 4013: 4007: 4001: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3911: 3895: 3892: 3886: 3883: 3877: 3870: 3864: 3861: 3742: 3737: 3736: 3735: 3728: 3723: 3722: 3721: 3714: 3709: 3708: 3707: 3700: 3695: 3694: 3693: 3666:Manuel de Zumaya 3656:in the capital, 3561: 3464:Nueva California 3448:Vieja California 3217: 3216: 3117:Florentine Codex 2835:Valley of Oaxaca 2813:British Honduras 2783:(locally called 2648:Native Americans 2549:King Charles III 2499:Nueva California 2446:mountain range. 2444:Sangre de Cristo 2432:Pedro de Peralta 2177:Southwest region 2144:Valley of Mexico 2117:from Oaxaca and 2098:(sales tax) and 2085: 2082: 2035:Valley of Puebla 1917:port of Veracruz 1570:Vicente Guerrero 1086:Caroline Islands 1039:Giacomo Gastaldi 990:Crown of Castile 789: 788: 787: 781: 748: 747: 734: 733: 720: 719: 706: 705: 692: 691: 678: 677: 664: 663: 652: 651: 639: 638: 632: 631: 616: 615: 536:22 February 1819 405: 390: 357: 342: 272:Siouan languages 189: 180: 175: 158:San Juan de Ulúa 145: 144: 129: 112: 111:"Further Beyond" 108: 89: 69: 61: 54: 46: 32: 31: 21: 14676: 14675: 14671: 14670: 14669: 14667: 14666: 14665: 14656:The Californias 14546:Colonial Mexico 14496: 14495: 14494: 14489: 14488: 14483: 14465: 14291:Las Californias 14267:Alta California 14182:United Colonies 14168:Alta California 14112: 14098: 14068: 14063: 14045: 13989: 13980: 13975:Russian America 13893:Alta California 13863:Las Californias 13815:Spanish Florida 13794: 13783: 13675: 13594: 13580: 13494: 13490:United Colonies 13470:Middle Colonies 13456: 13451: 13421: 13416: 13403: 13396: 13389: 13376: 13269: 13245:Public holidays 13218:Nationality law 13213:Life expectancy 13151: 13105: 13000: 12964:Law enforcement 12878: 12869:Water resources 12744: 12720:Mexican miracle 12574: 12565: 12535: 12530: 12519: 12421: 12416: 12386: 12381: 12352:Ancient history 12324: 12288: 12247: 12206: 12165: 12092: 12083: 12054:Central America 12030: 12020: 12018: 11988: 11979: 11955:Old inquisition 11867: 11852: 11762: 11735: 11691:Trinidad (1797) 11661:La Noche Triste 11649: 11645:San Juan (1797) 11595:San Juan (1595) 11532: 11421: 11261:Notable battles 11256: 11222:Martín de Ursúa 11153: 11084:Alonso de Ojeda 11054:Juan de la Cosa 11039:Pinzón brothers 11022: 10993:John of Austria 10968:Martín de Goiti 10946: 10886: 10867: 10811: 10764: 10745: 10657: 10653:Terra Australis 10648:Río de la Plata 10593:Castilla de Oro 10579: 10521: 10517:Río de la Plata 10479: 10460: 10419: 10378: 10374:Santa Hermandad 10338: 10319: 10315:Terra Australis 10306: 10295: 10262:Spanish Morocco 10243: 10232: 10223:Northern Taiwan 10184: 10169: 10140:Río de la Plata 10095: 10084: 10018: 10017:Central America 10007: 9989: 9958: 9947: 9891:Crown of Aragon 9872: 9861: 9846: 9762:Bourbon Reforms 9632: 9621: 9616: 9586: 9581: 9577:Río de la Plata 9520: 9511: 9420: 9411: 9376: 9368: 9363: 9319: 9275: 9216: 9192: 9183:Pedro de Castro 9138: 9089: 9035:Rodrigo Pacheco 9015: 9001:Luis de Velasco 8981: 8972:Luis de Velasco 8932: 8928: 8926: 8925: 8921: 8916: 8912:Luís de Velasco 8892: 8883: 8853: 8848: 8826: 8760: 8697: 8666: 8624: 8620:Chamorro people 8603: 8540: 8482: 8445:Southern Plains 8439: 8376: 8313: 8254:Mission Indians 8240: 8214: 8134: 8124: 8114: 8078: 8034:Mariano Payeras 8014:Francisco Palóu 7916: 7910: 7838:in the Americas 7837: 7827: 7825:Catholic Church 7815: 7766:Bruno de Heceta 7616: 7610: 7578: 7569: 7568:adventurers and 7567: 7557: 7553:Spanish Formosa 7541: 7480:Baja California 7470:Alta California 7465:Las Californias 7442: 7436: 7342:San Luis Potosí 7228:and territories 7227: 7225: 7223: 7213: 7152: 7133:Captain general 7106: 7097:Mérida, Yucatán 7067:San Luis Potosí 7017:State of Mexico 6993: 6945: 6907: 6891: 6882: 6852: 6835: 6789: 6787: 6785: 6775: 6747:Tepehuán Revolt 6697: 6691: 6603: 6597: 6563:José de Urrútia 6544:at ibiblio.org 6536:Wayback Machine 6523:Wayback Machine 6512: 6511: 6510: 6495: 6494: 6490: 6483: 6478: 6472: 6427: 6425:Reference works 6405:Van Young, Eric 6367: 6361: 6342: 6325:(2nd ed.). 6296: 6224: 6156: 6006: 5962: 5930: 5856: 5835:Van Young, Eric 5799: 5762: 5743: 5727: 5721: 5715: 5710: 5700: 5698: 5696: 5680: 5676: 5665: 5661: 5653: 5646: 5642: 5641: 5637: 5629: 5625: 5617: 5613: 5603: 5601: 5600:on 31 July 2017 5597: 5590: 5577: 5573: 5566: 5562: 5555: 5551: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5524: 5520: 5511: 5507: 5495: 5491: 5482: 5478: 5470: 5466: 5458: 5454: 5446: 5442: 5432: 5427: 5423: 5415: 5411: 5401: 5397: 5390: 5383: 5379: 5371: 5367: 5359: 5355: 5347: 5340: 5331: 5327: 5319: 5315: 5307: 5303: 5295: 5291: 5286:Marichal (2006) 5284: 5280: 5272: 5268: 5260: 5256: 5249: 5245: 5237: 5233: 5225: 5221: 5213: 5209: 5201: 5197: 5189: 5185: 5177: 5173: 5166: 5162: 5154: 5150: 5142: 5138: 5130: 5126: 5118: 5114: 5106: 5102: 5094: 5090: 5085:Robinson (1979) 5083: 5079: 5071: 5067: 5062:Gonzales (2003) 5060: 5056: 5051:Gonzales (2003) 5049: 5045: 5037: 5033: 5025: 5021: 5013: 5009: 5002: 4998: 4991: 4987: 4980: 4976: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4954: 4947: 4943: 4936: 4932: 4924: 4920: 4912: 4908: 4900: 4893: 4885: 4881: 4873: 4869: 4861: 4857: 4849: 4845: 4835: 4833:Szewczyk (1976) 4831: 4827: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4781: 4776: 4772: 4764: 4760: 4755:Lockhart (1992) 4753: 4749: 4742: 4738: 4732:Salvucci (1987) 4730: 4726: 4718: 4714: 4706: 4702: 4690: 4686: 4678: 4674: 4666: 4662: 4652: 4648: 4641: 4633: 4629: 4621: 4617: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4590: 4586: 4578: 4574: 4566: 4562: 4554: 4550: 4544:Ouweneel (1997) 4542: 4538: 4530: 4526: 4518: 4514: 4506: 4502: 4494: 4490: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4463: 4459: 4453:Ouweneel (1997) 4451: 4447: 4441:Ouweneel (1997) 4439: 4435: 4429:Ouweneel (1997) 4427: 4423: 4415: 4411: 4401: 4396: 4392: 4384: 4380: 4375:Lockhart (1991) 4373: 4369: 4363:Ouweneel (1997) 4361: 4357: 4347: 4345:Lockhart (1976) 4343: 4339: 4331: 4327: 4319: 4315: 4307: 4303: 4296: 4292: 4282: 4278: 4271: 4263: 4256: 4248: 4241: 4233: 4229: 4221: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4197: 4193: 4185: 4181: 4173: 4169: 4161: 4157: 4147: 4145: 4137: 4136: 4132: 4122: 4120: 4112: 4111: 4107: 4102:de Solís (1771) 4100: 4096: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4068: 4066: 4053: 4052: 4048: 4032: 4028: 4020: 4016: 4008: 4004: 3996: 3992: 3977: 3973: 3958: 3954: 3939: 3935: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3899: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3880: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3858: 3853: 3828: 3738: 3733: 3731: 3724: 3719: 3717: 3710: 3705: 3703: 3696: 3691: 3689: 3686: 3599: 3591:Main articles: 3589: 3512:Nuevo Santander 3304:San Luis Potosí 3239:State of Mexico 3155: 3105: 3100: 3072:Bourbon Reforms 2977: 2971: 2969:Central America 2901:entailed estate 2890:The Isthmus of 2888: 2837: 2821:Isla del Carmen 2676: 2671: 2622:Las Californias 2557:Dominican Order 2509:as present-day 2503:Las Californias 2491: 2421:Native American 2388:capitán general 2382:. In 1595, Don 2347: 2322:and Arizona). 2284: 2248: 2224: 2216:Alta California 2195:, the other in 2173: 2146: 2138:Bourbon Reforms 2083: 2057:Juan de Palafox 2037: 2025:Bourbon Reforms 1952: 1925:Mesa de Anahuac 1913: 1874: 1868: 1863: 1834: 1788:precious metals 1769:South China Sea 1712:San Luis Potosí 1700:Bourbon Reforms 1663:labor that the 1588: 1582: 1543:Bourbon Reforms 1489: 1483: 1463:Bourbon Reforms 1459: 1437:and introduced 1431:Bourbon dynasty 1411: 1318: 1298:Spanish Florida 1250: 1232:Spanish monarch 1220: 1199: 1193: 1155:, and southern 1133:Alta California 1125:Baja California 1121:Las Californias 1082:Mariana Islands 1032: 1026: 1018:Bourbon Reforms 982: 877:After the 1521 868:Spanish Formosa 844:Central America 783: 782: 745: 731: 717: 703: 689: 675: 661: 636: 593: 583: 560: 547: 544:Trienio Liberal 533: 520: 507: 490: 473: 456: 443: 403: 397: 388: 382: 355: 349: 340: 334: 312: 301: 252:Mayan languages 237: 208: 192: 170: 146: 135: 132: 130: 127: 126: 110: 109: 94: 93: 90: 73: 72: 63: 48: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 14674: 14664: 14663: 14658: 14653: 14648: 14643: 14638: 14633: 14628: 14623: 14618: 14613: 14608: 14603: 14598: 14593: 14588: 14583: 14578: 14573: 14568: 14563: 14558: 14553: 14548: 14543: 14538: 14533: 14528: 14523: 14518: 14513: 14508: 14491: 14490: 14485: 14484: 14482: 14481: 14470: 14467: 14466: 14464: 14463: 14457: 14451: 14445: 14444: 14443: 14438: 14433: 14428: 14423: 14421:South Carolina 14418: 14416:North Carolina 14413: 14408: 14403: 14398: 14393: 14388: 14383: 14378: 14373: 14362: 14356: 14350: 14344: 14338: 14332: 14326: 14320: 14314: 14308: 14302: 14296: 14295: 14294: 14288: 14282: 14276: 14270: 14264: 14251: 14245: 14239: 14233: 14227: 14221: 14215: 14209: 14203: 14197: 14191: 14185: 14179: 14173: 14172: 14171: 14165: 14159: 14153: 14147: 14141: 14135: 14129: 14117: 14114: 14113: 14097: 14096: 14089: 14082: 14074: 14065: 14064: 14062: 14061: 14050: 14047: 14046: 14044: 14043: 14035: 14027: 14019: 14011: 14003: 13994: 13991: 13990: 13985: 13982: 13981: 13979: 13978: 13972: 13966: 13960: 13954: 13948: 13942: 13936: 13933:New Netherland 13930: 13929: 13928: 13922: 13916: 13910: 13907:French Florida 13898: 13897: 13896: 13890: 13884: 13878: 13872: 13866: 13860: 13854: 13848: 13842: 13836: 13830: 13824: 13818: 13806: 13799: 13796: 13795: 13793: 13792: 13788: 13785: 13784: 13782: 13781: 13775: 13769: 13763: 13757: 13751: 13745: 13739: 13733: 13727: 13721: 13718:Indian Reserve 13715: 13709: 13703: 13697: 13691: 13685: 13679: 13666: 13660: 13654: 13648: 13642: 13636: 13630: 13624: 13618: 13612: 13606: 13599: 13596: 13595: 13593: 13592: 13585: 13582: 13581: 13579: 13578: 13572: 13569:South Carolina 13566: 13563:North Carolina 13560: 13554: 13548: 13542: 13536: 13530: 13524: 13518: 13512: 13506: 13499: 13496: 13495: 13493: 13492: 13487: 13482: 13477: 13472: 13467: 13461: 13458: 13457: 13450: 13449: 13442: 13435: 13427: 13418: 13417: 13415: 13414: 13409: 13402: 13401: 13394: 13386: 13385: 13382: 13381: 13378: 13377: 13375: 13374: 13369: 13364: 13359: 13358: 13357: 13347: 13342: 13337: 13332: 13327: 13322: 13317: 13312: 13307: 13306: 13305: 13295: 13290: 13285: 13279: 13277: 13271: 13270: 13268: 13267: 13262: 13257: 13252: 13247: 13242: 13237: 13236: 13235: 13230: 13220: 13215: 13210: 13205: 13200: 13195: 13190: 13185: 13180: 13175: 13169: 13163: 13157: 13156: 13153: 13152: 13150: 13149: 13147:Water scarcity 13144: 13142:Transportation 13139: 13134: 13129: 13124: 13119: 13114: 13109: 13101: 13099:Pension system 13096: 13091: 13086: 13081: 13076: 13071: 13066: 13061: 13056: 13055: 13054: 13044: 13039: 13034: 13029: 13024: 13018: 13012: 13006: 13005: 13002: 13001: 12999: 12998: 12993: 12988: 12987: 12986: 12976: 12971: 12966: 12961: 12956: 12955: 12954: 12949: 12939: 12934: 12929: 12924: 12919: 12918: 12917: 12912: 12902: 12896: 12890: 12884: 12883: 12880: 12879: 12877: 12876: 12871: 12866: 12861: 12856: 12851: 12846: 12841: 12840: 12839: 12837:Municipalities 12829: 12824: 12819: 12814: 12809: 12804: 12799: 12794: 12792:Extreme points 12789: 12784: 12779: 12776:Climate change 12769: 12764: 12758: 12752: 12746: 12745: 12743: 12742: 12737: 12732: 12727: 12722: 12717: 12712: 12707: 12702: 12697: 12692: 12687: 12682: 12677: 12672: 12667: 12662: 12657: 12652: 12647: 12642: 12637: 12632: 12627: 12622: 12617: 12612: 12611: 12610: 12600: 12595: 12590: 12584: 12582: 12576: 12575: 12564: 12563: 12556: 12549: 12541: 12532: 12531: 12529: 12528: 12524: 12521: 12520: 12518: 12517: 12512: 12507: 12502: 12497: 12492: 12491: 12490: 12485: 12480: 12472: 12467: 12462: 12457: 12452: 12447: 12442: 12437: 12432: 12426: 12423: 12422: 12415: 12414: 12407: 12400: 12392: 12383: 12382: 12380: 12379: 12374: 12372:Modern history 12369: 12364: 12359: 12354: 12349: 12344: 12339: 12329: 12326: 12325: 12323: 12322: 12317: 12312: 12307: 12302: 12296: 12294: 12290: 12289: 12287: 12286: 12285: 12284: 12279: 12271: 12266: 12261: 12255: 12253: 12249: 12248: 12246: 12245: 12240: 12235: 12230: 12225: 12220: 12214: 12212: 12208: 12207: 12205: 12204: 12199: 12194: 12189: 12184: 12179: 12173: 12171: 12167: 12166: 12164: 12163: 12161:Decolonization 12158: 12153: 12152: 12151: 12146: 12141: 12136: 12126: 12121: 12116: 12111: 12106: 12100: 12098: 12094: 12093: 12086: 12084: 12082: 12081: 12076: 12071: 12066: 12061: 12056: 12051: 12046: 12040: 12038: 12032: 12031: 12017: 12016: 12009: 12002: 11994: 11985: 11984: 11981: 11980: 11978: 11977: 11972: 11967: 11962: 11957: 11952: 11951: 11950: 11940: 11939: 11938: 11928: 11923: 11918: 11913: 11908: 11903: 11898: 11893: 11888: 11883: 11878: 11872: 11869: 11868: 11858: 11857: 11854: 11853: 11851: 11850: 11845: 11840: 11835: 11830: 11825: 11820: 11815: 11810: 11809: 11808: 11803: 11798: 11793: 11783: 11778: 11773: 11771:Canary Islands 11767: 11764: 11763: 11753: 11752: 11749: 11748: 11745: 11744: 11741: 11740: 11737: 11736: 11734: 11733: 11728: 11723: 11718: 11713: 11708: 11703: 11698: 11693: 11688: 11683: 11678: 11673: 11668: 11663: 11657: 11655: 11651: 11650: 11648: 11647: 11642: 11637: 11632: 11627: 11625:Túpac Amaru II 11622: 11617: 11612: 11607: 11602: 11597: 11592: 11587: 11582: 11577: 11572: 11570:Bogotá savanna 11567: 11562: 11557: 11551: 11549: 11542: 11538: 11537: 11534: 11533: 11531: 11530: 11525: 11520: 11515: 11510: 11505: 11500: 11495: 11490: 11485: 11480: 11478:Spanish Armada 11475: 11470: 11465: 11460: 11455: 11450: 11445: 11440: 11435: 11429: 11427: 11423: 11422: 11420: 11419: 11414: 11409: 11404: 11399: 11394: 11389: 11384: 11379: 11374: 11372:White Mountain 11369: 11367:Cape Celidonia 11364: 11362:English Armada 11359: 11354: 11349: 11344: 11339: 11334: 11329: 11324: 11319: 11314: 11309: 11304: 11299: 11294: 11289: 11284: 11278: 11276: 11269: 11262: 11258: 11257: 11255: 11254: 11249: 11244: 11239: 11234: 11229: 11224: 11219: 11214: 11209: 11204: 11199: 11194: 11189: 11184: 11179: 11174: 11169: 11163: 11161: 11155: 11154: 11152: 11151: 11146: 11141: 11139:Juan Fernández 11136: 11131: 11126: 11121: 11116: 11114:Diego Columbus 11111: 11106: 11101: 11096: 11091: 11086: 11081: 11076: 11071: 11066: 11061: 11056: 11051: 11046: 11041: 11036: 11030: 11028: 11024: 11023: 11021: 11020: 11015: 11010: 11005: 11000: 10995: 10990: 10985: 10980: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10960: 10954: 10952: 10948: 10947: 10945: 10944: 10942:Army of Africa 10939: 10934: 10929: 10924: 10922:Spanish Armada 10919: 10914: 10909: 10904: 10898: 10896: 10888: 10887: 10877: 10876: 10873: 10872: 10869: 10868: 10866: 10865: 10860: 10855: 10850: 10845: 10840: 10835: 10830: 10825: 10823:Manila galleon 10819: 10817: 10813: 10812: 10810: 10809: 10804: 10799: 10794: 10789: 10784: 10778: 10776: 10766: 10765: 10755: 10754: 10751: 10750: 10747: 10746: 10744: 10743: 10738: 10733: 10728: 10723: 10718: 10713: 10708: 10703: 10698: 10693: 10688: 10683: 10678: 10673: 10667: 10665: 10659: 10658: 10656: 10655: 10650: 10645: 10640: 10635: 10630: 10625: 10620: 10615: 10610: 10605: 10600: 10595: 10589: 10587: 10581: 10580: 10578: 10577: 10572: 10567: 10562: 10557: 10552: 10547: 10542: 10537: 10531: 10529: 10523: 10522: 10520: 10519: 10514: 10509: 10504: 10499: 10493: 10491: 10481: 10480: 10470: 10469: 10466: 10465: 10462: 10461: 10459: 10458: 10453: 10448: 10443: 10438: 10433: 10427: 10425: 10421: 10420: 10418: 10417: 10412: 10407: 10402: 10397: 10392: 10386: 10384: 10380: 10379: 10377: 10376: 10371: 10366: 10361: 10356: 10350: 10348: 10340: 10339: 10337:Administration 10329: 10328: 10325: 10324: 10321: 10320: 10318: 10317: 10311: 10308: 10307: 10297: 10296: 10294: 10293: 10258:Western Sahara 10254: 10248: 10245: 10244: 10234: 10233: 10231: 10230: 10225: 10220: 10189: 10186: 10185: 10171: 10170: 10168: 10167: 10156:Banda Oriental 10137: 10123: 10100: 10097: 10096: 10086: 10085: 10083: 10082: 10077: 10072: 10067: 10062: 10057: 10052: 10047: 10029: 10023: 10020: 10019: 10009: 10008: 10006: 10005: 9971:Coastal Alaska 9963: 9960: 9959: 9949: 9948: 9946: 9945: 9940: 9935: 9930: 9925: 9920: 9905: 9904: 9903: 9898: 9893: 9888: 9877: 9874: 9873: 9863: 9862: 9852: 9851: 9848: 9847: 9845: 9844: 9839: 9834: 9829: 9824: 9819: 9814: 9809: 9804: 9799: 9794: 9789: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9769: 9764: 9759: 9754: 9753: 9752: 9742: 9737: 9732: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9672: 9667: 9662: 9657: 9652: 9643: 9637: 9634: 9633: 9623: 9622: 9619:Spanish Empire 9615: 9614: 9607: 9600: 9592: 9583: 9582: 9580: 9579: 9569: 9559: 9549: 9539: 9528: 9526: 9522: 9521: 9514: 9512: 9510: 9509: 9499: 9489: 9479: 9469: 9459: 9449: 9439: 9428: 9426: 9422: 9421: 9410: 9409: 9402: 9395: 9387: 9381: 9378: 9377: 9365: 9364: 9362: 9361: 9356: 9351: 9346: 9341: 9336: 9330: 9328: 9321: 9320: 9318: 9317: 9312: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9286: 9284: 9277: 9276: 9274: 9273: 9268: 9263: 9258: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9227: 9225: 9218: 9217: 9215: 9214: 9209: 9203: 9201: 9194: 9193: 9191: 9190: 9185: 9180: 9175: 9170: 9165: 9160: 9155: 9149: 9147: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9136: 9131: 9126: 9121: 9116: 9111: 9106: 9100: 9098: 9091: 9090: 9088: 9087: 9082: 9077: 9072: 9067: 9062: 9057: 9052: 9047: 9042: 9037: 9032: 9026: 9024: 9017: 9016: 9014: 9013: 9008: 9003: 8998: 8992: 8990: 8983: 8982: 8980: 8979: 8974: 8969: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8949: 8943: 8941: 8934: 8933: 8919: 8917: 8915: 8914: 8909: 8903: 8901: 8894: 8893: 8882: 8881: 8874: 8867: 8859: 8850: 8849: 8847: 8846: 8835: 8832: 8831: 8828: 8827: 8825: 8824: 8819: 8817:Junípero Serra 8814: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8794: 8789: 8784: 8779: 8774: 8768: 8766: 8762: 8761: 8759: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8717: 8716: 8705: 8703: 8699: 8698: 8696: 8695: 8690: 8688:Manila galleon 8685: 8680: 8674: 8672: 8668: 8667: 8665: 8664: 8659: 8654: 8649: 8644: 8638: 8636: 8630: 8629: 8626: 8625: 8623: 8622: 8617: 8611: 8609: 8605: 8604: 8602: 8601: 8596: 8591: 8586: 8581: 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8550: 8548: 8542: 8541: 8539: 8538: 8533: 8528: 8523: 8518: 8513: 8508: 8503: 8498: 8492: 8490: 8484: 8483: 8481: 8480: 8475: 8470: 8465: 8460: 8455: 8449: 8447: 8441: 8440: 8438: 8437: 8432: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8407: 8402: 8397: 8392: 8386: 8384: 8378: 8377: 8375: 8374: 8369: 8367:Tohono O'odham 8364: 8359: 8354: 8352:Pueblo peoples 8349: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8327:Akimel O'odham 8323: 8321: 8315: 8314: 8312: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8250: 8248: 8242: 8241: 8239: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8222: 8220: 8216: 8215: 8213: 8212: 8207: 8202: 8197: 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8152: 8146: 8144: 8137: 8126: 8120: 8119: 8116: 8115: 8113: 8112: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8086: 8084: 8080: 8079: 8077: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8054:Antonio Margil 8051: 8046: 8044:Marcos de Niza 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8011: 8009:Junípero Serra 8006: 8001: 7996: 7991: 7986: 7981: 7976: 7974:Diego de Landa 7971: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7951: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7931: 7926: 7924:Pedro de Gante 7920: 7918: 7912: 7911: 7909: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7842: 7840: 7829: 7821: 7820: 7817: 7816: 7814: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7776:Alonso de León 7773: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7711:Manuel Quimper 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7636:Nuño de Guzmán 7633: 7628: 7622: 7620: 7612: 7611: 7609: 7608: 7603: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7582: 7580: 7571: 7563: 7562: 7559: 7558: 7556: 7555: 7549: 7547: 7543: 7542: 7540: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7494: 7484: 7483: 7482: 7477: 7462: 7452: 7446: 7444: 7438: 7437: 7435: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7238: 7236: 7229: 7219: 7218: 7215: 7214: 7212: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7181: 7176: 7171: 7166: 7160: 7158: 7154: 7153: 7151: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7114: 7112: 7108: 7107: 7105: 7104: 7099: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7064: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7034: 7029: 7024: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7003: 7001: 6995: 6994: 6992: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6955: 6953: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6917: 6915: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6905: 6899: 6897: 6893: 6892: 6890: 6889: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6845: 6843: 6837: 6836: 6834: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6802: 6800: 6798:Habsburg Spain 6791: 6790:administration 6781: 6780: 6777: 6776: 6774: 6773: 6768: 6762: 6756: 6750: 6744: 6741:Acoma Massacre 6738: 6732: 6726: 6720: 6717:Chichimeca War 6714: 6708: 6701: 6699: 6693: 6692: 6690: 6689: 6684: 6678: 6672: 6666: 6660: 6654: 6648: 6642: 6636: 6630: 6624: 6617: 6611: 6605: 6604: 6596: 6595: 6588: 6581: 6573: 6567: 6566: 6556: 6548: 6539: 6526: 6509: 6508: 6503: 6497: 6496: 6485: 6484: 6482: 6481:External links 6479: 6477: 6476: 6470: 6453: 6444: 6436: 6426: 6423: 6422: 6421: 6412: 6402: 6393: 6386: 6375: 6370:Hanke, Lewis. 6360: 6359:Historiography 6357: 6356: 6355: 6346: 6340: 6327: 6318: 6309: 6300: 6294: 6279: 6270: 6257: 6246: 6237: 6228: 6222: 6205: 6196: 6187: 6178: 6169: 6160: 6154: 6137: 6128: 6119: 6110: 6101: 6092: 6080: 6071: 6062: 6036:(2): 293–324. 6023: 6010: 6004: 5991: 5979:Farriss, Nancy 5975: 5966: 5960: 5943: 5934: 5928: 5911: 5902: 5893: 5884: 5875: 5866: 5855: 5852: 5851: 5850: 5832: 5825: 5812: 5803: 5797: 5784: 5775: 5766: 5760: 5747: 5741: 5726: 5723: 5722: 5714: 5711: 5709: 5708: 5695:978-6073143646 5694: 5685:Mexico Racista 5674: 5659: 5635: 5623: 5611: 5571: 5560: 5549: 5531: 5518: 5505: 5489: 5476: 5472:Zeitlin (2005) 5464: 5452: 5440: 5429:Zeitlin (1989) 5421: 5409: 5399:Zeitlin (1989) 5388: 5377: 5373:Zeitlin (2005) 5365: 5363:, p. 265. 5361:Gerhard (1993) 5353: 5349:Gerhard (1993) 5338: 5332:For instance, 5325: 5313: 5301: 5289: 5278: 5274:Hamnett (1971) 5266: 5254: 5243: 5239:Gerhard (1993) 5231: 5227:Farriss (1984) 5219: 5215:Farriss (1984) 5207: 5203:Farriss (1984) 5195: 5191:Restall (1997) 5183: 5171: 5168:Restall (2009) 5160: 5148: 5136: 5124: 5112: 5100: 5096:Gerhard (1993) 5088: 5077: 5065: 5054: 5043: 5031: 5019: 5007: 5004:Jackson (1994) 4996: 4985: 4974: 4963: 4952: 4941: 4930: 4918: 4906: 4891: 4879: 4867: 4863:Brading (1978) 4855: 4843: 4825: 4807: 4789: 4770: 4758: 4747: 4736: 4724: 4712: 4700: 4692:Thomson (1989) 4684: 4680:Thomson (1989) 4672: 4668:Thomson (1989) 4660: 4639: 4635:Thomson (1989) 4627: 4615: 4596: 4592:Gerhard (1993) 4584: 4572: 4560: 4548: 4536: 4532:Carroll (1991) 4524: 4520:Gerhard (1993) 4512: 4508:Gerhard (1993) 4500: 4496:Gerhard (1993) 4488: 4477:Carroll (1979) 4469: 4465:Carroll (1991) 4457: 4445: 4433: 4421: 4409: 4390: 4378: 4367: 4355: 4337: 4325: 4313: 4301: 4290: 4269: 4254: 4239: 4227: 4215: 4203: 4191: 4179: 4167: 4155: 4130: 4105: 4094: 4076: 4046: 4026: 4014: 4002: 3990: 3971: 3952: 3933: 3922:(in Spanish). 3905: 3903: 3900: 3897: 3896: 3887: 3878: 3874:Hamnett (1971) 3865: 3855: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3827: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3749:Criollo people 3745: 3744: 3743: 3740:History portal 3729: 3715: 3701: 3685: 3682: 3588: 3585: 3556: 3555: 3552: 3549: 3546: 3540: 3539: 3536: 3533: 3530: 3524: 3523: 3520: 3517: 3514: 3508: 3507: 3504: 3501: 3498: 3492: 3491: 3488: 3485: 3482: 3476: 3475: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3456: 3453: 3450: 3444: 3443: 3440: 3437: 3434: 3428: 3427: 3424: 3421: 3418: 3412: 3411: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3396: 3395: 3392: 3389: 3386: 3380: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3344: 3341: 3338: 3332: 3331: 3328: 3325: 3322: 3316: 3315: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3296: 3293: 3290: 3284: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3268: 3267: 3264: 3261: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3248: 3245: 3242: 3231: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3205:children, 1763 3185:Miguel Cabrera 3154: 3151: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3084:Mosquito Coast 2973:Main article: 2970: 2967: 2887: 2884: 2836: 2833: 2675: 2672: 2670: 2667: 2663:secularization 2603:municipalities 2553:José de Gálvez 2490: 2487: 2370:Chichimeca War 2346: 2343: 2341:in his honor. 2316:Sonoran Desert 2283: 2280: 2247: 2244: 2223: 2220: 2172: 2169: 2145: 2142: 2036: 2033: 1978:, east of the 1965:Manila Galleon 1951: 1948: 1912: 1909: 1870:Main article: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1861:Central region 1859: 1833: 1830: 1773:Manila Galleon 1761:Manila Galleon 1584:Main article: 1581: 1578: 1562:Cry of Dolores 1539:Chichimeca War 1485:Main article: 1482: 1479: 1458: 1455: 1447:Mexican states 1410: 1407: 1330:Nuño de Guzmán 1317: 1314: 1249: 1246: 1219: 1216: 1195:Main article: 1192: 1189: 1066:Cayman Islands 1030:Spanish Empire 1028:Main article: 1025: 1022: 1014:Spanish empire 1006:Patronato real 994:Queen Isabella 981: 978: 970:Mexican Empire 943:Manila galleon 808:Habsburg Spain 804:Spanish Empire 758: 757: 754: 753: 750: 749: 742: 736: 735: 728: 726:Oregon Country 722: 721: 714: 708: 707: 700: 694: 693: 686: 680: 679: 672: 666: 665: 658: 649: 646: 645: 640: 628: 627: 622: 612: 611: 606: 602: 601: 598: 597: 594: 591: 588: 587: 584: 581: 578: 577: 574: 573: 569: 568: 565: 564: 561: 555: 552: 551: 548: 541: 538: 537: 534: 528: 525: 524: 523:1 October 1800 521: 515: 512: 511: 508: 498: 495: 494: 491: 481: 478: 477: 474: 464: 461: 460: 459:13 August 1521 457: 451: 448: 447: 444: 438: 435: 434: 431: 430: 425: 424:Historical era 421: 420: 415: 411: 410: 407: 406: 398: 395: 392: 391: 383: 380: 377: 376: 373: 372: 369: 363: 362: 359: 358: 350: 347: 344: 343: 335: 332: 329: 328: 325: 324: 321: 315: 314: 307: 303: 302: 300: 299: 294: 284: 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 248: 246: 242: 241: 232: 228: 227: 222: 218: 217: 214:Spanish Empire 198: 194: 193: 190: 182: 181: 148: 147: 133: 114: 113: 96: 95: 91: 84: 83: 80: 79: 75: 74: 71: 70: 55: 39: 38: 35: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14673: 14662: 14659: 14657: 14654: 14652: 14649: 14647: 14644: 14642: 14639: 14637: 14634: 14632: 14629: 14627: 14626:Spanish Texas 14624: 14622: 14619: 14617: 14614: 14612: 14609: 14607: 14604: 14602: 14599: 14597: 14594: 14592: 14589: 14587: 14584: 14582: 14579: 14577: 14574: 14572: 14569: 14567: 14564: 14562: 14559: 14557: 14554: 14552: 14549: 14547: 14544: 14542: 14539: 14537: 14534: 14532: 14529: 14527: 14524: 14522: 14519: 14517: 14514: 14512: 14509: 14507: 14504: 14503: 14501: 14480: 14472: 14471: 14468: 14461: 14458: 14455: 14452: 14449: 14446: 14442: 14441:West Virginia 14439: 14437: 14434: 14432: 14429: 14427: 14424: 14422: 14419: 14417: 14414: 14412: 14409: 14407: 14404: 14402: 14399: 14397: 14394: 14392: 14389: 14387: 14384: 14382: 14379: 14377: 14374: 14372: 14368: 14367: 14366: 14363: 14360: 14357: 14354: 14351: 14348: 14345: 14342: 14339: 14336: 14333: 14330: 14327: 14324: 14321: 14318: 14315: 14312: 14309: 14306: 14303: 14300: 14297: 14292: 14289: 14286: 14283: 14280: 14277: 14274: 14271: 14268: 14265: 14262: 14261:Mexican Texas 14258: 14257: 14255: 14252: 14249: 14246: 14243: 14240: 14237: 14234: 14231: 14228: 14225: 14222: 14219: 14216: 14213: 14210: 14207: 14204: 14201: 14198: 14195: 14192: 14189: 14186: 14183: 14180: 14177: 14174: 14169: 14166: 14163: 14160: 14157: 14154: 14151: 14148: 14145: 14142: 14139: 14136: 14133: 14130: 14127: 14124: 14123: 14122: 14119: 14118: 14115: 14111: 14110:United States 14107: 14103: 14095: 14090: 14088: 14083: 14081: 14076: 14075: 14072: 14060: 14052: 14051: 14048: 14039: 14036: 14031: 14028: 14023: 14020: 14015: 14012: 14007: 14004: 13999: 13996: 13995: 13992: 13988: 13983: 13976: 13973: 13970: 13967: 13964: 13961: 13958: 13955: 13952: 13949: 13946: 13943: 13940: 13937: 13934: 13931: 13926: 13923: 13920: 13917: 13914: 13911: 13908: 13904: 13903: 13902: 13899: 13894: 13891: 13888: 13885: 13882: 13879: 13876: 13873: 13870: 13867: 13864: 13861: 13858: 13857:Spanish Texas 13855: 13852: 13849: 13846: 13843: 13840: 13837: 13834: 13831: 13828: 13825: 13822: 13819: 13816: 13812: 13811: 13810: 13807: 13804: 13801: 13800: 13797: 13790: 13789: 13786: 13779: 13776: 13773: 13770: 13767: 13764: 13761: 13758: 13755: 13752: 13749: 13746: 13743: 13740: 13737: 13734: 13731: 13728: 13725: 13722: 13719: 13716: 13713: 13710: 13707: 13704: 13701: 13698: 13695: 13692: 13689: 13688:Rupert's Land 13686: 13683: 13680: 13670: 13667: 13664: 13661: 13658: 13655: 13652: 13649: 13646: 13643: 13640: 13637: 13634: 13631: 13628: 13625: 13622: 13619: 13616: 13613: 13610: 13607: 13604: 13601: 13600: 13597: 13591: 13590:United States 13587: 13586: 13583: 13576: 13573: 13570: 13567: 13564: 13561: 13558: 13555: 13552: 13549: 13546: 13543: 13540: 13537: 13534: 13531: 13528: 13525: 13522: 13519: 13516: 13513: 13510: 13509:New Hampshire 13507: 13504: 13501: 13500: 13497: 13491: 13488: 13486: 13483: 13481: 13478: 13476: 13473: 13471: 13468: 13466: 13463: 13462: 13459: 13455: 13448: 13443: 13441: 13436: 13434: 13429: 13428: 13425: 13413: 13410: 13408: 13405: 13404: 13399: 13395: 13392: 13388: 13387: 13383: 13373: 13370: 13368: 13365: 13363: 13360: 13356: 13353: 13352: 13351: 13348: 13346: 13343: 13341: 13338: 13336: 13333: 13331: 13328: 13326: 13323: 13321: 13318: 13316: 13313: 13311: 13308: 13304: 13301: 13300: 13299: 13296: 13294: 13291: 13289: 13286: 13284: 13281: 13280: 13278: 13276: 13272: 13266: 13263: 13261: 13258: 13256: 13253: 13251: 13250:States by HDI 13248: 13246: 13243: 13241: 13238: 13234: 13231: 13229: 13226: 13225: 13224: 13221: 13219: 13216: 13214: 13211: 13209: 13206: 13204: 13201: 13199: 13196: 13194: 13191: 13189: 13186: 13184: 13181: 13179: 13176: 13174: 13171: 13170: 13167: 13164: 13162: 13158: 13148: 13145: 13143: 13140: 13138: 13135: 13133: 13130: 13128: 13125: 13123: 13122:States by GDP 13120: 13118: 13115: 13113: 13110: 13108: 13102: 13100: 13097: 13095: 13092: 13090: 13087: 13085: 13082: 13080: 13079:Manufacturing 13077: 13075: 13072: 13070: 13067: 13065: 13062: 13060: 13057: 13053: 13050: 13049: 13048: 13045: 13043: 13040: 13038: 13035: 13033: 13030: 13028: 13025: 13023: 13020: 13019: 13016: 13013: 13011: 13007: 12997: 12996:Supreme Court 12994: 12992: 12989: 12985: 12982: 12981: 12980: 12977: 12975: 12972: 12970: 12967: 12965: 12962: 12960: 12957: 12953: 12950: 12948: 12945: 12944: 12943: 12940: 12938: 12935: 12933: 12930: 12928: 12925: 12923: 12920: 12916: 12913: 12911: 12908: 12907: 12906: 12903: 12901: 12898: 12897: 12894: 12891: 12889: 12885: 12875: 12872: 12870: 12867: 12865: 12862: 12860: 12857: 12855: 12852: 12850: 12847: 12845: 12842: 12838: 12835: 12834: 12833: 12830: 12828: 12825: 12823: 12820: 12818: 12815: 12813: 12810: 12808: 12805: 12803: 12800: 12798: 12795: 12793: 12790: 12788: 12785: 12783: 12780: 12777: 12773: 12770: 12768: 12765: 12763: 12760: 12759: 12756: 12753: 12751: 12747: 12741: 12738: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12728: 12726: 12723: 12721: 12718: 12716: 12713: 12711: 12708: 12706: 12703: 12701: 12698: 12696: 12693: 12691: 12688: 12686: 12683: 12681: 12678: 12676: 12673: 12671: 12668: 12666: 12663: 12661: 12658: 12656: 12653: 12651: 12648: 12646: 12643: 12641: 12638: 12636: 12633: 12631: 12628: 12626: 12623: 12621: 12618: 12616: 12613: 12609: 12606: 12605: 12604: 12601: 12599: 12596: 12594: 12591: 12589: 12586: 12585: 12583: 12581: 12577: 12573: 12569: 12562: 12557: 12555: 12550: 12548: 12543: 12542: 12539: 12526: 12525: 12522: 12516: 12513: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12501: 12498: 12496: 12493: 12489: 12486: 12484: 12481: 12479: 12476: 12475: 12473: 12471: 12468: 12466: 12463: 12461: 12458: 12456: 12453: 12451: 12448: 12446: 12443: 12441: 12438: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12428: 12427: 12424: 12420: 12413: 12408: 12406: 12401: 12399: 12394: 12393: 12390: 12378: 12375: 12373: 12370: 12368: 12365: 12363: 12360: 12358: 12355: 12353: 12350: 12348: 12345: 12343: 12340: 12338: 12334: 12331: 12330: 12327: 12321: 12318: 12316: 12313: 12311: 12308: 12306: 12303: 12301: 12298: 12297: 12295: 12291: 12283: 12282:South America 12280: 12278: 12277:North America 12275: 12274: 12272: 12270: 12267: 12265: 12262: 12260: 12257: 12256: 12254: 12250: 12244: 12241: 12239: 12236: 12234: 12231: 12229: 12226: 12224: 12221: 12219: 12216: 12215: 12213: 12209: 12203: 12200: 12198: 12195: 12193: 12190: 12188: 12185: 12183: 12180: 12178: 12177:Paleo-Indians 12175: 12174: 12172: 12168: 12162: 12159: 12157: 12154: 12150: 12147: 12145: 12142: 12140: 12137: 12135: 12132: 12131: 12130: 12127: 12125: 12122: 12120: 12117: 12115: 12112: 12110: 12107: 12105: 12102: 12101: 12099: 12095: 12090: 12080: 12077: 12075: 12072: 12070: 12069:South America 12067: 12065: 12064:Latin America 12062: 12060: 12057: 12055: 12052: 12050: 12047: 12045: 12044:North America 12042: 12041: 12039: 12037: 12033: 12029: 12024: 12015: 12010: 12008: 12003: 12001: 11996: 11995: 11992: 11976: 11973: 11971: 11968: 11966: 11963: 11961: 11958: 11956: 11953: 11949: 11946: 11945: 11944: 11941: 11937: 11934: 11933: 11932: 11929: 11927: 11924: 11922: 11919: 11917: 11914: 11912: 11909: 11907: 11906:Tapada limeña 11904: 11902: 11899: 11897: 11894: 11892: 11889: 11887: 11884: 11882: 11879: 11877: 11874: 11873: 11870: 11863: 11859: 11849: 11846: 11844: 11841: 11839: 11836: 11834: 11831: 11829: 11826: 11824: 11821: 11819: 11816: 11814: 11811: 11807: 11804: 11802: 11799: 11797: 11794: 11792: 11789: 11788: 11787: 11784: 11782: 11779: 11777: 11774: 11772: 11769: 11768: 11765: 11758: 11754: 11732: 11729: 11727: 11724: 11722: 11719: 11717: 11714: 11712: 11709: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11697: 11694: 11692: 11689: 11687: 11684: 11682: 11679: 11677: 11674: 11672: 11669: 11667: 11664: 11662: 11659: 11658: 11656: 11652: 11646: 11643: 11641: 11638: 11636: 11633: 11631: 11628: 11626: 11623: 11621: 11618: 11616: 11613: 11611: 11608: 11606: 11603: 11601: 11598: 11596: 11593: 11591: 11588: 11586: 11583: 11581: 11578: 11576: 11573: 11571: 11568: 11566: 11563: 11561: 11558: 11556: 11553: 11552: 11550: 11546: 11543: 11539: 11529: 11526: 11524: 11521: 11519: 11516: 11514: 11511: 11509: 11506: 11504: 11501: 11499: 11498:Montes Claros 11496: 11494: 11491: 11489: 11486: 11484: 11481: 11479: 11476: 11474: 11471: 11469: 11466: 11464: 11461: 11459: 11456: 11454: 11451: 11449: 11446: 11444: 11441: 11439: 11438:Vienna (1529) 11436: 11434: 11431: 11430: 11428: 11424: 11418: 11415: 11413: 11410: 11408: 11405: 11403: 11400: 11398: 11395: 11393: 11390: 11388: 11385: 11383: 11380: 11378: 11375: 11373: 11370: 11368: 11365: 11363: 11360: 11358: 11355: 11353: 11350: 11348: 11345: 11343: 11340: 11338: 11335: 11333: 11330: 11328: 11325: 11323: 11320: 11318: 11315: 11313: 11310: 11308: 11305: 11303: 11300: 11298: 11295: 11293: 11290: 11288: 11285: 11283: 11280: 11279: 11277: 11273: 11270: 11266: 11263: 11259: 11253: 11250: 11248: 11245: 11243: 11240: 11238: 11235: 11233: 11230: 11228: 11225: 11223: 11220: 11218: 11215: 11213: 11210: 11208: 11205: 11203: 11200: 11198: 11195: 11193: 11190: 11188: 11185: 11183: 11180: 11178: 11175: 11173: 11170: 11168: 11167:Hernán Cortés 11165: 11164: 11162: 11160: 11159:Conquistadors 11156: 11150: 11147: 11145: 11142: 11140: 11137: 11135: 11132: 11130: 11129:Juan de Ayala 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11117: 11115: 11112: 11110: 11107: 11105: 11102: 11100: 11097: 11095: 11092: 11090: 11087: 11085: 11082: 11080: 11077: 11075: 11072: 11070: 11067: 11065: 11062: 11060: 11057: 11055: 11052: 11050: 11047: 11045: 11042: 11040: 11037: 11035: 11032: 11031: 11029: 11025: 11019: 11016: 11014: 11011: 11009: 11006: 11004: 11001: 10999: 10996: 10994: 10991: 10989: 10986: 10984: 10983:Duke of Savoy 10981: 10979: 10976: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10959: 10956: 10955: 10953: 10949: 10943: 10940: 10938: 10935: 10933: 10930: 10928: 10925: 10923: 10920: 10918: 10915: 10913: 10910: 10908: 10905: 10903: 10900: 10899: 10897: 10893: 10889: 10882: 10878: 10864: 10861: 10859: 10856: 10854: 10851: 10849: 10846: 10844: 10841: 10839: 10836: 10834: 10831: 10829: 10826: 10824: 10821: 10820: 10818: 10814: 10808: 10805: 10803: 10800: 10798: 10795: 10793: 10790: 10788: 10785: 10783: 10782:Dollar (Peso) 10780: 10779: 10777: 10775: 10771: 10767: 10760: 10756: 10742: 10741:Santo Domingo 10739: 10737: 10734: 10732: 10729: 10727: 10724: 10722: 10719: 10717: 10714: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10669: 10668: 10666: 10664: 10660: 10654: 10651: 10649: 10646: 10644: 10641: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10631: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10621: 10619: 10618:New Andalusia 10616: 10614: 10611: 10609: 10606: 10604: 10601: 10599: 10596: 10594: 10591: 10590: 10588: 10586: 10582: 10576: 10573: 10571: 10568: 10566: 10565:Santo Domingo 10563: 10561: 10558: 10556: 10553: 10551: 10548: 10546: 10543: 10541: 10538: 10536: 10533: 10532: 10530: 10528: 10524: 10518: 10515: 10513: 10510: 10508: 10505: 10503: 10500: 10498: 10495: 10494: 10492: 10490: 10489:Viceroyalties 10486: 10482: 10475: 10471: 10457: 10454: 10452: 10449: 10447: 10444: 10442: 10439: 10437: 10434: 10432: 10429: 10428: 10426: 10422: 10416: 10413: 10411: 10408: 10406: 10403: 10401: 10398: 10396: 10393: 10391: 10388: 10387: 10385: 10381: 10375: 10372: 10370: 10367: 10365: 10362: 10360: 10357: 10355: 10352: 10351: 10349: 10345: 10341: 10334: 10330: 10316: 10313: 10312: 10309: 10302: 10291: 10287: 10283: 10279: 10275: 10271: 10267: 10263: 10259: 10255: 10253: 10250: 10249: 10246: 10239: 10229: 10226: 10224: 10221: 10218: 10214: 10210: 10206: 10202: 10198: 10194: 10191: 10190: 10187: 10182: 10176: 10165: 10161: 10157: 10153: 10149: 10145: 10141: 10138: 10135: 10131: 10127: 10124: 10121: 10117: 10113: 10109: 10105: 10102: 10101: 10098: 10094:South America 10091: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10071: 10068: 10066: 10063: 10061: 10058: 10056: 10053: 10051: 10048: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10024: 10021: 10014: 10003: 9999: 9993: 9988: 9984: 9980: 9979:Spanish Texas 9976: 9972: 9968: 9965: 9964: 9961: 9957:North America 9954: 9944: 9941: 9939: 9938:Franche-Comté 9936: 9934: 9931: 9929: 9926: 9924: 9921: 9918: 9914: 9910: 9906: 9902: 9899: 9897: 9894: 9892: 9889: 9887: 9884: 9883: 9882: 9879: 9878: 9875: 9868: 9864: 9857: 9853: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9835: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9818: 9815: 9813: 9810: 9808: 9805: 9803: 9800: 9798: 9795: 9793: 9790: 9788: 9785: 9783: 9780: 9778: 9775: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9751: 9748: 9747: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9733: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9686: 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9671: 9668: 9666: 9663: 9661: 9658: 9656: 9653: 9651: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9638: 9635: 9628: 9624: 9620: 9613: 9608: 9606: 9601: 9599: 9594: 9593: 9590: 9578: 9574: 9570: 9568: 9564: 9560: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9548: 9544: 9540: 9538: 9534: 9530: 9529: 9527: 9523: 9518: 9508: 9504: 9500: 9498: 9494: 9490: 9488: 9484: 9480: 9478: 9474: 9470: 9468: 9464: 9460: 9458: 9454: 9450: 9448: 9444: 9440: 9438: 9434: 9430: 9429: 9427: 9423: 9419: 9415: 9408: 9403: 9401: 9396: 9394: 9389: 9388: 9385: 9379: 9372: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9352: 9350: 9347: 9345: 9342: 9340: 9337: 9335: 9332: 9331: 9329: 9326: 9325:Ferdinand VII 9322: 9316: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9278: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9219: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9204: 9202: 9199: 9195: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9173:Juan de Acuña 9171: 9169: 9166: 9164: 9161: 9159: 9156: 9154: 9151: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9141: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9112: 9110: 9107: 9105: 9102: 9101: 9099: 9096: 9092: 9086: 9083: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9038: 9036: 9033: 9031: 9028: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9018: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9006:García Guerra 9004: 9002: 8999: 8997: 8994: 8993: 8991: 8988: 8984: 8978: 8975: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8935: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8895: 8890: 8887: 8880: 8875: 8873: 8868: 8866: 8861: 8860: 8857: 8845: 8837: 8836: 8833: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8788: 8785: 8783: 8782:Francis Drake 8780: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8769: 8767: 8763: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8715: 8712: 8711: 8710: 8707: 8706: 8704: 8700: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8675: 8673: 8669: 8663: 8660: 8658: 8655: 8653: 8650: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8639: 8637: 8635: 8631: 8621: 8618: 8616: 8613: 8612: 8610: 8606: 8600: 8597: 8595: 8592: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8551: 8549: 8547: 8543: 8537: 8534: 8532: 8529: 8527: 8524: 8522: 8519: 8517: 8514: 8512: 8509: 8507: 8504: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8493: 8491: 8489: 8485: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8468:Plains Apache 8466: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8450: 8448: 8446: 8442: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8393: 8391: 8388: 8387: 8385: 8383: 8379: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8324: 8322: 8320: 8316: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8252: 8251: 8249: 8247: 8243: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8223: 8221: 8217: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8193: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8147: 8145: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8130: 8127: 8121: 8111: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8087: 8085: 8081: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8024:Esteban Tápis 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8010: 8007: 8005: 8002: 8000: 7997: 7995: 7992: 7990: 7987: 7985: 7982: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7921: 7919: 7913: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7843: 7841: 7839: 7833: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7696:Juan de Oñate 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7626:Hernán Cortés 7624: 7623: 7621: 7619: 7618:conquistadors 7615:Explorers and 7613: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7583: 7581: 7577:Pre-New Spain 7575: 7572: 7570:conquistadors 7564: 7554: 7551: 7550: 7548: 7544: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7512:Nueva Vizcaya 7510: 7508: 7507:Nueva Galicia 7505: 7502: 7498: 7495: 7492: 7488: 7485: 7481: 7478: 7475: 7471: 7468: 7467: 7466: 7463: 7460: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7447: 7445: 7441:Provinces and 7439: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7412:Santo Domingo 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7402:St. Augustine 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7239: 7237: 7233: 7230: 7220: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7161: 7159: 7155: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7123:Gobernaciones 7121: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7113: 7109: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7004: 7002: 7000: 6996: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6979:Santo Domingo 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6952: 6948: 6942: 6941:Santo Domingo 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6918: 6916: 6914: 6910: 6904: 6901: 6900: 6898: 6894: 6886: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6850: 6847: 6846: 6844: 6842: 6841:Bourbon Spain 6838: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6799: 6795: 6792: 6782: 6772: 6769: 6766: 6763: 6760: 6759:Pueblo Revolt 6757: 6754: 6751: 6748: 6745: 6742: 6739: 6736: 6733: 6730: 6727: 6724: 6721: 6718: 6715: 6712: 6709: 6706: 6703: 6702: 6700: 6694: 6688: 6685: 6682: 6679: 6676: 6673: 6670: 6667: 6664: 6661: 6658: 6655: 6652: 6649: 6646: 6643: 6640: 6637: 6634: 6631: 6628: 6625: 6622: 6619: 6618: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6606: 6601: 6594: 6589: 6587: 6582: 6580: 6575: 6574: 6571: 6564: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6553: 6549: 6547: 6543: 6540: 6537: 6533: 6530: 6527: 6524: 6520: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6473: 6471:0-299-09714-5 6467: 6462: 6461: 6454: 6450: 6445: 6442: 6441: 6437: 6434: 6433: 6429: 6428: 6418: 6413: 6410: 6406: 6403: 6399: 6394: 6391: 6387: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6373: 6369: 6368: 6366: 6352: 6347: 6343: 6337: 6333: 6328: 6324: 6319: 6315: 6310: 6306: 6301: 6297: 6291: 6287: 6286: 6280: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6265: 6258: 6254: 6253: 6247: 6243: 6238: 6234: 6229: 6225: 6223:9780520038752 6219: 6214: 6213: 6206: 6202: 6197: 6193: 6188: 6184: 6179: 6175: 6170: 6166: 6161: 6157: 6155:9780521496667 6151: 6147: 6143: 6138: 6134: 6129: 6125: 6120: 6116: 6111: 6107: 6102: 6098: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6072: 6068: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6030: 6024: 6019: 6018: 6011: 6007: 6005:0-8160-3962-3 6001: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5986: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5967: 5963: 5961:9780826316417 5957: 5952: 5951: 5944: 5940: 5935: 5931: 5929:9780816524396 5925: 5920: 5919: 5912: 5908: 5903: 5899: 5894: 5890: 5885: 5881: 5876: 5872: 5867: 5863: 5858: 5857: 5848: 5847:9781442209015 5844: 5840: 5836: 5833: 5830: 5826: 5821: 5820: 5813: 5809: 5804: 5800: 5798:9780521891967 5794: 5790: 5785: 5781: 5776: 5772: 5767: 5763: 5757: 5753: 5748: 5744: 5742:0-87903-036-4 5738: 5734: 5729: 5728: 5720: 5697: 5691: 5687: 5686: 5678: 5671: 5668: 5663: 5652: 5645: 5639: 5632: 5627: 5620: 5615: 5596: 5588: 5584: 5583: 5575: 5569: 5564: 5558: 5553: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5528: 5522: 5515: 5509: 5502: 5498: 5493: 5486: 5480: 5473: 5468: 5461: 5456: 5449: 5444: 5436: 5430: 5425: 5418: 5413: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5393: 5386: 5381: 5374: 5369: 5362: 5357: 5351:, p. 264 5350: 5345: 5343: 5335: 5334:Chance (1989) 5329: 5322: 5321:Baskes (2000) 5317: 5311:, p. 121 5310: 5309:Chance (1989) 5305: 5299:, p. 185 5298: 5297:Baskes (2000) 5293: 5287: 5282: 5275: 5270: 5264:, p. 186 5263: 5262:Baskes (2000) 5258: 5252: 5247: 5240: 5235: 5229:, p. 270 5228: 5223: 5217:, p. 267 5216: 5211: 5205:, p. 266 5204: 5199: 5193:, p. 185 5192: 5187: 5180: 5175: 5169: 5164: 5157: 5152: 5145: 5140: 5133: 5128: 5121: 5116: 5109: 5104: 5097: 5092: 5086: 5081: 5075:, p. 242 5074: 5069: 5063: 5058: 5052: 5047: 5041:, p. 194 5040: 5035: 5028: 5023: 5016: 5011: 5005: 5000: 4994: 4989: 4983: 4982:Spicer (1962) 4978: 4972: 4971:Cutter (1995) 4967: 4961: 4960:Bolton (1956) 4956: 4950: 4945: 4939: 4938:Bannon (1974) 4934: 4928:, p. 366 4927: 4926:Tutino (1979) 4922: 4916:, p. 363 4915: 4914:Tutino (1979) 4910: 4904:, p. 364 4903: 4902:Tutino (1979) 4898: 4896: 4889:, p. 354 4888: 4887:Tutino (1979) 4883: 4876: 4875:Tutino (1979) 4871: 4864: 4859: 4852: 4851:Tutino (1986) 4847: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4785: 4779: 4774: 4768:, p. 409 4767: 4766:Gibson (1964) 4762: 4756: 4751: 4745: 4744:Gibson (1964) 4740: 4733: 4728: 4721: 4720:Altman (2000) 4716: 4709: 4708:Altman (2000) 4704: 4697: 4693: 4688: 4681: 4676: 4669: 4664: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4644: 4636: 4631: 4625:, p. 219 4624: 4623:Israel (1975) 4619: 4611: 4605: 4604:Gibson (1952) 4600: 4593: 4588: 4582:, p. 157 4581: 4576: 4570:, p. 106 4569: 4564: 4557: 4552: 4545: 4540: 4533: 4528: 4522:, p. 206 4521: 4516: 4509: 4504: 4498:, p. 205 4497: 4492: 4484: 4479:, p. 124 4478: 4473: 4466: 4461: 4454: 4449: 4442: 4437: 4430: 4425: 4418: 4413: 4405: 4399: 4394: 4387: 4382: 4376: 4371: 4364: 4359: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4334: 4329: 4322: 4317: 4310: 4305: 4299: 4294: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4274: 4266: 4265:Foster (2000) 4261: 4259: 4252:, p. 172 4251: 4246: 4244: 4236: 4231: 4224: 4223:Haring (1947) 4219: 4212: 4207: 4200: 4199:Haring (1947) 4195: 4188: 4183: 4176: 4175:Haring (1947) 4171: 4164: 4159: 4144: 4140: 4134: 4119: 4115: 4109: 4103: 4098: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4050: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4030: 4023: 4022:Haring (1947) 4018: 4011: 4006: 3999: 3998:Haring (1947) 3994: 3987:(in Nāhuatl). 3986: 3982: 3975: 3968:(in Spanish). 3967: 3963: 3956: 3949:(in Spanish). 3948: 3944: 3937: 3930: 3929: 3921: 3917: 3910: 3906: 3891: 3882: 3876:, p. 16. 3875: 3869: 3860: 3856: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3792: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3746: 3741: 3730: 3727: 3716: 3713: 3712:Mexico portal 3702: 3699: 3688: 3681: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3650: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3607: 3605: 3598: 3594: 3584: 3581: 3576: 3574: 3573:United States 3570: 3564: 3553: 3550: 3547: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3438: 3435: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3422: 3419: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3342: 3339: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3262: 3259: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3241:and capital) 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3218: 3215: 3213: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3164: 3159: 3150: 3147: 3141: 3138: 3134: 3133:typhoid fever 3130: 3126: 3118: 3114: 3109: 3095: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3068: 3066: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3033: 3029: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2976: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2955: 2951: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2925: 2922:The Villa of 2920: 2918: 2912: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2897:Hernán Cortés 2893: 2883: 2879: 2877: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2861: 2856: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2832: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2805: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2741: 2737: 2732: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2685: 2680: 2666: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2636: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2617: 2610: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2579: 2576: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2544: 2539: 2534: 2532: 2528: 2522: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2507:Pacific Coast 2504: 2500: 2496: 2486: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2467: 2465: 2464:Ciudad Juárez 2461: 2460:Pueblo Revolt 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2409:Ohkay Owingeh 2406: 2402: 2398: 2397: 2391: 2389: 2385: 2384:Juan de Oñate 2381: 2380: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2356:in New Mexico 2355: 2351: 2342: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2323: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2296:Ciudad Juárez 2293: 2289: 2279: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2264: 2257: 2252: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2229: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2168: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2156: 2150: 2141: 2139: 2135: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2110: 2108: 2103: 2101: 2100:almojarifazgo 2097: 2093: 2078: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2058: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2042: 2032: 2030: 2026: 2021: 2019: 2014: 2008: 2004: 2002: 1996: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1970: 1966: 1960: 1956: 1947: 1943: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1908: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1887: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1843: 1839: 1829: 1827: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1745: 1743: 1738: 1734: 1733: 1728: 1725: 1722:The fast red 1720: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1682: 1678: 1673: 1671: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1649: 1645: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1604: 1602: 1596: 1592: 1587: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1515: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1504:Hernán Cortés 1500: 1499:(1810–1821). 1498: 1494: 1488: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1468: 1464: 1454: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1427: 1422: 1421:alcalde mayor 1418: 1417: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1390: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1379: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1365:gobernaciones 1362: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1334:Santo Domingo 1331: 1327: 1326:Hernán Cortés 1323: 1313: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1266:Santo Domingo 1263: 1259: 1255: 1245: 1243: 1239: 1238: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1211: 1203: 1198: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1117: 1115: 1111: 1101: 1097: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1001: 999: 995: 991: 987: 977: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 950: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 927: 923: 919: 914: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 883:Hernán Cortés 880: 875: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 852:South America 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 820:North America 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 786: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 743: 741: 738: 737: 729: 727: 724: 723: 715: 713: 710: 709: 701: 699: 696: 695: 687: 685: 682: 681: 673: 671: 668: 667: 659: 657: 654: 653: 650: 644: 641: 634: 633: 630: 629: 626: 623: 621: 618: 617: 613: 610: 607: 603: 599: 595: 589: 585: 579: 575: 570: 566: 562: 559: 553: 549: 545: 539: 535: 532: 526: 522: 519: 513: 509: 506: 502: 496: 492: 489: 485: 479: 475: 472: 468: 462: 458: 455: 449: 445: 442: 436: 432: 429: 426: 422: 419: 416: 412: 408: 402: 401:Juan O'Donojú 399: 393: 387: 384: 378: 374: 370: 368: 364: 360: 354: 353:Ferdinand VII 351: 345: 339: 336: 330: 326: 322: 320: 316: 311: 308: 304: 298: 295: 292: 288: 285: 282: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 249: 247: 243: 240: 236: 233: 229: 226: 223: 219: 215: 211: 206: 202: 199: 195: 188: 183: 179: 174: 169: 167: 166:military flag 163: 159: 155: 154:Flag of Spain 149: 128:"Royal March" 125: 124: 119: 115: 107: 106: 101: 97: 88: 81: 76: 67: 60: 56: 52: 45: 41: 40: 33: 30: 19: 14256:(1823–1824) 14120: 13986: 13963:Krabbeninsel 13808: 13736:West Florida 13730:East Florida 13551:Pennsylvania 13527:Rhode Island 13283:Architecture 13188:Demographics 13032:Central bank 12942:Human rights 12922:Constitution 12740:War on drugs 12715:World War II 12700:Cristero War 12593:Colonial era 12592: 12509: 11881:Architecture 11776:The Americas 11640:Newfoundland 11630:Túpac Katari 11620:Cuerno Verde 11555:Tenochtitlan 11387:Valenciennes 11144:Luis Fajardo 11013:Blas de Lezo 10958:Duke of Alba 10838:Spanish Road 10676:Buenos Aires 10632: 10585:Governorates 10354:Ayuntamiento 10347:Organization 9966: 9812:Carlist Wars 9660:Italian Wars 9556: 9198:Ferdinand VI 8888: 8812:Moctezuma II 8792:Eusebio Kino 8714:Peninsulares 8634:Architecture 8463:Lipan Apache 8400:Coahuiltecan 8382:Aridoamerica 8236:Guanahatabey 8143:Mesoamerican 8105:Cargo system 8083:Other events 7999:Eusebio Kino 7828:in New Spain 6864:Ferdinand VI 6651:Dutch Revolt 6599: 6561:is a map by 6551: 6545: 6491: 6459: 6448: 6438: 6430: 6416: 6397: 6389: 6378: 6371: 6350: 6331: 6322: 6313: 6304: 6284: 6274: 6263: 6251: 6241: 6232: 6211: 6200: 6191: 6182: 6173: 6164: 6145: 6132: 6123: 6114: 6105: 6096: 6087: 6075: 6066: 6033: 6027: 6016: 5995: 5984: 5970: 5949: 5938: 5917: 5906: 5897: 5888: 5879: 5870: 5861: 5838: 5828: 5818: 5807: 5788: 5779: 5770: 5751: 5732: 5713:Bibliography 5699:. Retrieved 5684: 5677: 5669: 5662: 5651:the original 5638: 5626: 5618: 5614: 5602:. Retrieved 5595:the original 5586: 5581: 5574: 5568:McCaa (2000) 5563: 5552: 5534: 5526: 5521: 5513: 5508: 5500: 5492: 5484: 5479: 5467: 5462:, p. 16 5455: 5450:, p. 15 5443: 5431:, p. 55 5424: 5412: 5380: 5368: 5356: 5328: 5316: 5304: 5292: 5281: 5276:, p. 40 5269: 5257: 5246: 5234: 5222: 5210: 5198: 5186: 5174: 5163: 5151: 5139: 5127: 5115: 5103: 5091: 5080: 5073:Weber (1992) 5068: 5057: 5046: 5034: 5022: 5010: 4999: 4993:Weber (1992) 4988: 4977: 4966: 4955: 4949:Weber (1991) 4944: 4933: 4921: 4909: 4882: 4870: 4858: 4846: 4828: 4815:Lewis (1976) 4810: 4792: 4778:Cline (1991) 4773: 4761: 4750: 4739: 4734:, p. 80 4727: 4722:, p. 62 4715: 4710:, p. 51 4703: 4695: 4687: 4682:, p. 12 4675: 4663: 4637:, p. 16 4630: 4618: 4599: 4587: 4575: 4563: 4551: 4539: 4534:, p. 93 4527: 4515: 4503: 4491: 4472: 4460: 4448: 4443:, p. 68 4436: 4431:, p. 90 4424: 4419:, p. 31 4412: 4400:, p. 34 4393: 4388:, p. 10 4381: 4370: 4358: 4340: 4328: 4316: 4304: 4293: 4237:, p. 50 4230: 4218: 4213:, p. 50 4206: 4194: 4189:, p. 50 4182: 4170: 4165:, p. 69 4158: 4146:. Retrieved 4142: 4133: 4121:. Retrieved 4117: 4108: 4097: 4079: 4067:. Retrieved 4063:the original 4058: 4049: 4034: 4029: 4017: 4012:, p. 33 4005: 3993: 3985:ResearchGate 3984: 3974: 3966:ResearchGate 3965: 3955: 3947:ResearchGate 3946: 3936: 3926: 3923: 3919: 3909: 3890: 3881: 3868: 3859: 3726:Spain portal 3651: 3646: 3626: 3621:". In 1568, 3618: 3608: 3603: 3600: 3577: 3565: 3559: 3432:Nuevo México 3208: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3142: 3122: 3098:Demographics 3091: 3075: 3069: 3064: 3061: 2992: 2964: 2956: 2952: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2921: 2916: 2913: 2889: 2880: 2871: 2864: 2852: 2806: 2801: 2797: 2789:congregación 2788: 2784: 2766: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2749:gobernadores 2748: 2744: 2735: 2733: 2712: 2702: 2688: 2656: 2637: 2626: 2613: 2611: 2606: 2598: 2586: 2580: 2572: 2565: 2542: 2535: 2523: 2498: 2492: 2468: 2429: 2394: 2392: 2387: 2377: 2359: 2324: 2286:The town of 2285: 2265: 2261: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2225: 2201: 2174: 2163: 2159: 2151: 2147: 2131: 2111: 2104: 2099: 2095: 2088: 2066: 2062: 2054: 2038: 2022: 2018:estanquillos 2017: 2009: 2005: 1997: 1993:Gaspar Yanga 1980:Citlaltepetl 1973: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1944: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1924: 1914: 1900: 1890: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1842:Aztec Empire 1838:Mesoamerican 1835: 1826:stock market 1800: 1777: 1746: 1730: 1721: 1697: 1686: 1680: 1674: 1653: 1613: 1598: 1555: 1547:intendancies 1516: 1501: 1490: 1475: 1471: 1467:intendancies 1460: 1451:independence 1442: 1435:corregidores 1434: 1424: 1420: 1414: 1412: 1376: 1373:conquistador 1364: 1361:governorates 1358: 1321: 1319: 1309: 1301: 1294:governorates 1251: 1235: 1226:residing in 1221: 1118: 1106: 1054:the Floridas 1047: 1042: 1002: 983: 951: 915: 887:Tenochtitlan 881:, conqueror 876: 799: 795: 766: 762: 761: 625:Succeeded by 624: 619: 592:• 1810 582:• 1519 428:Colonial era 396:• 1821 151: 121: 117: 100:Motto: 99: 29: 14462:(1894–1898) 14456:(1893–1894) 14450:(1863–1865) 14406:Mississippi 14369:1861–1865; 14361:(1850–1856) 14349:(1849–1850) 14337:(1841–1848) 14325:(1836–1846) 14319:(1834–1907) 14313:(1832–1835) 14301:(1826–1827) 14293:, 1836–1846 14287:, 1824–1835 14281:, 1824–1830 14275:, 1821–1846 14269:, 1821–1836 14263:, 1821–1824 14259:1835–1846; 14238:(1812–1813) 14220:(1799–1803) 14214:(1795–1893) 14202:(1784–1788) 14196:(1777–1791) 14190:(1776–1783) 14184:(1775–1776) 14178:(1772–1777) 14170:, 1804–1821 14164:, 1769–1801 14162:La Luisiana 14158:, 1783–1821 14152:, 1783–1821 14146:, 1776–1821 14140:, 1690–1821 14134:, 1598–1821 14128:, 1565–1821 14126:New Navarre 14025:(1630–1651) 13977:(1799–1867) 13965:(1689–1693) 13959:(1685–1754) 13953:(1672–1917) 13947:(1638–1655) 13941:(1625–1672) 13935:(1614–1667) 13921:, 1665–1733 13915:, 1651–1665 13909:, 1562–1565 13905:1534–1763; 13895:, 1804–1821 13889:, 1783–1821 13883:, 1783–1821 13877:, 1776–1821 13871:, 1769–1801 13865:, 1767–1804 13859:, 1690–1821 13853:, 1650–1651 13847:, 1607–1801 13841:, 1598–1821 13835:, 1580–1898 13829:, 1565–1898 13823:, 1565–1821 13821:New Navarre 13817:, 1565–1763 13813:1521–1821; 13805:(1492–1535) 13780:(1871–1903) 13774:(1866–1871) 13768:(1863–1866) 13762:(1862–1863) 13756:(1811–1818) 13750:(1810–1846) 13742:New Ireland 13738:(1763–1783) 13732:(1763–1783) 13726:(1763–1783) 13720:(1763–1783) 13714:(1686–1689) 13708:(1674–1702) 13706:West Jersey 13702:(1674–1702) 13700:East Jersey 13696:(1670–1870) 13690:(1670–1811) 13684:(1663–1712) 13676: 1680 13665:(1638–1664) 13659:(1635–1644) 13647:(1629–1663) 13641:(1625–1650) 13639:Saint Croix 13635:(1622–1658) 13617:(1607–1699) 13611:(1607–1608) 13605:(1585–1590) 13577:(1732–1776) 13571:(1712–1776) 13565:(1712–1776) 13559:(1691–1776) 13553:(1681–1776) 13547:(1664–1776) 13535:(1664–1776) 13529:(1636–1776) 13523:(1636–1776) 13521:Connecticut 13517:(1632–1776) 13505:(1607–1776) 13208:Immigration 13074:Land reform 13022:Agriculture 12844:Territories 12782:Earthquakes 12730:Peso crisis 12725:Lost Decade 12465:Hospitaller 12367:Middle Ages 12124:Exploration 12049:Mesoamerica 11848:Philippines 11813:El Salvador 11433:Capo d'Orso 11317:St. Quentin 11292:Rome (1527) 10951:Strategists 10701:Guadalajara 10628:New Navarre 10623:New Castile 10608:La Luisiana 10560:Puerto Rico 10550:Philippines 10507:New Granada 10197:Philippines 10158:(Uruguay), 10154:(Bolivia), 10104:New Granada 10044:Puerto Rico 9990: [ 9860:Territories 9680:Encomiendas 9547:New Granada 9327:(1809–1821) 9283:(1789–1809) 9224:(1760–1789) 9222:Charles III 9200:(1746–1760) 9146:(1701–1746) 9097:(1665–1701) 9023:(1621–1665) 8989:(1603–1621) 8940:(1566–1603) 8900:(1535–1564) 8891:(1535–1821) 8886:Viceroys of 8797:La Malinche 8170:P'urhépecha 8125:and culture 7969:Diego Durán 7811:Thomas Gage 7546:Other areas 7443:territories 7387:San Antonio 7372:Albuquerque 7347:Los Ángeles 7297:Guadalajara 7242:Mexico City 7057:Guadalajara 7012:New Orleans 6974:Puerto Rico 6969:Philippines 6921:Guadalajara 6869:Charles III 6765:Pima Revolt 6602:(1521–1821) 5701:23 February 5419:, p. 9 5251:Reed (1964) 5179:Hunt (1976) 5156:Hunt (1976) 5144:Hunt (1976) 5132:Hunt (1976) 5120:Hunt (1976) 5108:Hunt (1976) 5098:, p. 3 4670:, p. 6 4467:, p. 3 4323:, p. 3 n. 3 4024:, p. 7 4010:Liss (1975) 3615:Juan Pablos 3593:Mexican art 3384:Guadalajara 3201:with their 3179:with their 3003:El Salvador 2924:Tehuantepec 2892:Tehuantepec 2886:Tehuantepec 2876:nopal cacti 2860:Oaxaca City 2848:Oaxaca City 2652:Californios 2629:land grants 2561:Franciscans 2533:(1846–48). 2471:land grants 2407:village of 2401:Mexico City 2339:San Antonio 2335:St. Anthony 2318:(in modern 2288:Albuquerque 2084: 1690 2077:Flying Pole 1940:Camino Real 1897:Inquisition 1882:Plaza Mayor 1786:, plus the 1784:Philippines 1657:encomiendas 1595:Silver coin 1527:Guadalajara 1519:Mexico City 1378:adelantados 1350:Guadalajara 1316:High courts 1274:Puerto Rico 1270:Philippines 1228:Mexico City 1218:Viceroyalty 1088:, parts of 1074:Bay Islands 937:became the 899:viceroyalty 860:Philippines 830:, but also 816:Mexico City 620:Preceded by 550:31 May 1820 486:annexed to 476:27 May 1717 469:annexed to 414:Legislature 216:(1535–1821) 210:Viceroyalty 207:(1521–1535) 201:Governorate 131:(1775–1821) 123:Marcha Real 14500:Categories 13945:New Sweden 13901:New France 13539:New Jersey 13367:Television 13325:Literature 13203:Healthcare 13178:Censorship 13173:Corruption 13106:(currency) 13064:Irrigation 12685:Porfiriato 12680:Yaqui Wars 12655:La Reforma 12640:Pastry War 12495:Portuguese 12474:Norwegian 12293:Chronology 12273:Conflicts 12269:Population 12097:Settlement 11518:Somosierra 11508:Manila Bay 11382:Nördlingen 11322:Gravelines 10802:Columnario 10774:Currencies 10691:Concepción 10663:Audiencias 10638:New Toledo 10603:La Florida 10436:Corregidor 10400:Papal bull 10305:Antarctica 10213:Micronesia 9670:Golden Age 9281:Charles IV 9095:Charles II 8987:Philip III 8647:by country 8395:Chichimeca 8246:California 8133:Indigenous 7566:Explorers, 7491:New Mexico 7474:California 7455:La Florida 7317:Guanajuato 7267:Cuernavaca 7226:provinces, 7148:Encomienda 7128:Adelantado 7102:La Florida 7052:Valladolid 7047:Guanajuato 6999:Intendancy 6913:Audiencias 6874:Charles IV 6831:Charles II 6786:government 6711:Yaqui Wars 6705:Mixtón War 6363:See also: 6341:0300059175 5717:See also: 3902:References 3637:, and don 3496:Nuevo León 3416:Valladolid 3288:Guanajuato 3137:antibodies 3015:Costa Rica 2946:, and the 2903:including 2802:cofradías' 2777:escarpment 2720:Valladolid 2715:encomienda 2695:cul-de-sac 2657:After the 2489:California 2456:encomienda 2434:, a later 2417:Rio Grande 2374:Chichimeca 2345:New Mexico 2292:New Mexico 2208:New Mexico 2197:Guanajuato 2155:Xochimilco 2134:intendancy 2050:intendancy 2046:encomienda 2029:intendancy 1811:buccaneers 1803:Metropolis 1708:Guanajuato 1637:Carl Nebel 1601:Carlos III 1535:Guanajuato 1439:intendants 1416:corregidor 1322:audiencias 1308:(Spanish: 1302:La Florida 1300:(Spanish: 1262:autonomous 1237:audiencias 1191:Government 1185:New Mexico 1179:(parts of 1151:, western 1141:California 1072:, and the 1062:Hispaniola 958:Charles IV 854:; several 832:California 586:10 million 572:Population 313:(official) 105:Plus Ultra 14506:New Spain 14426:Tennessee 14401:Louisiana 14102:sovereign 13809:New Spain 13663:New Haven 13615:Jamestown 13330:Monuments 13320:Languages 13193:Education 13112:Petroleum 13069:Labor law 13037:Companies 12979:President 12927:Elections 12817:Mountains 12750:Geography 12675:Caste War 12342:By region 12337:By period 12238:Epidemics 12228:Geography 12170:Societies 12059:Caribbean 11823:Nicaragua 11801:Guatemala 11711:Pichincha 11696:Chacabuco 11635:Pensacola 11580:Mataquito 11560:Cajamarca 11541:New World 11513:Trafalgar 11417:Alhucemas 11297:Landriano 11282:Comuneros 11268:Old World 11212:Joan Orpí 10932:Royalists 10706:Guatemala 10633:New Spain 10570:Venezuela 10545:Guatemala 10502:New Spain 10497:Columbian 10390:Exequatur 10290:Cape Juby 10144:Argentina 9967:New Spain 9901:Gibraltar 9665:Habsburgs 9557:New Spain 9537:Columbian 9447:Catalonia 9021:Philip IV 8938:Philip II 8898:Charles V 8889:New Spain 8546:Filipinos 8521:Pensacola 8501:Apalachee 8219:Caribbean 8195:Kaqchikel 7579:explorers 7450:Louisiana 7397:Pensacola 7382:Los Adaes 7362:San Diego 7332:Querétaro 7322:Zacatecas 7307:Monterrey 7062:Zacatecas 7032:Nicaragua 7027:Comayagua 6964:Guatemala 6826:Philip IV 6821:Philp III 6816:Philip II 6806:Charles I 6609:Conflicts 6600:New Spain 6492:New Spain 6058:154553608 5604:24 August 3625:finished 3320:Zacatecas 3023:Audiencia 3011:Nicaragua 2999:Guatemala 2917:cacicazgo 2872:aviadores 2867:cochineal 2798:cofradías 2781:sinkholes 2769:limestone 2757:Cofradías 2745:cofradías 2599:presidios 2515:San Diego 2493:In 1602, 2430:In 1610, 2419:near the 2304:Chihuahua 2270:(forts), 2268:Presidios 2193:Zacatecas 2127:Querétaro 2123:Guatemala 2115:cochineal 1901:consulado 1823:Amsterdam 1767:near the 1727:cochineal 1704:Zacatecas 1622:Cochineal 1599:8 reales 1531:Zacatecas 1512:Audiencia 1369:provinces 1356:(1583). 1346:Guatemala 1328:'s rival 1282:Guatemala 1161:Louisiana 939:New World 926:Zacatecas 848:Caribbean 840:Louisiana 763:New Spain 596:8 million 501:Louisiana 467:Venezuela 446:1519–1521 338:Charles I 306:Religion 281:Louisiana 78:1521–1821 14479:Category 14436:Virginia 14411:Missouri 14396:Kentucky 14381:Arkansas 14059:Category 13682:Carolina 13657:Saybrook 13645:Carolana 13627:Plymouth 13545:New York 13533:Delaware 13515:Maryland 13503:Virginia 13407:Category 13350:Religion 13310:Folklore 12969:Military 12947:Intersex 12905:Congress 12888:Politics 12874:Wildlife 12864:Volcanos 12705:Maximato 12572:articles 12505:Scottish 12440:Curonian 12079:Genetics 11833:Colombia 11818:Honduras 11731:Asomante 11716:Ayacucho 11706:Carabobo 11681:Curalaba 11458:Ceresole 11352:Gembloux 11312:Mühlberg 11027:Mariners 10885:Military 10807:Doubloon 10792:Maravedí 10736:Santiago 10643:Paraguay 10369:Germania 10209:Caroline 10164:Malvinas 10148:Paraguay 10108:Colombia 10050:Trinidad 9917:Sardinia 9757:Bourbons 9507:Valencia 9487:Sardinia 9477:Portugal 9414:Viceroys 9144:Philip V 8844:Category 8807:Limahong 8662:Missions 8526:Seminole 8511:Muscogee 8458:Comanche 8430:Tepehuán 8420:La Junta 8342:Hualapai 8279:Kumeyaay 8259:Cahuilla 7537:Pampanga 7417:San Juan 7367:Santa Fe 7357:San José 7337:Saltillo 7287:Campeche 7282:Acapulco 7247:Veracruz 7157:Treaties 7111:Politics 7072:Veracruz 7037:Camagüey 6885:Joseph I 6849:Philip V 6532:Archived 6519:Archived 6086:(1811). 5981:(1984). 4069:20 March 3684:See also 3544:Tlaxcala 3480:Coahuila 3400:Veracruz 3125:smallpox 3113:smallpox 3092:criollos 3082:and the 3065:añileros 3057:Honduras 3007:Honduras 2960:cimarrón 2909:Acapulco 2905:Huatulco 2761:cofradía 2707:Campeche 2587:misiones 2583:missions 2448:Missions 2440:Santa Fe 2403:and the 2399:between 2312:missions 2300:Monclova 2276:misiones 2165:Tlaxcala 2107:Brihuega 2096:alcabala 1989:cimarrón 1929:Acapulco 1815:corsairs 1813:, Dutch 1757:Acapulco 1753:Atlantic 1749:Veracruz 1633:Arrieros 1620:(1777). 1560:'s 1810 1510:and the 1443:cabildos 1352:(1548); 1348:(1543); 1310:Luisiana 1288:(1617); 1284:(1609); 1280:(1608); 1276:(1580); 1272:(1565); 1268:(1535); 1169:Coahuila 1153:Colorado 1135:(modern 1094:Moluccas 1070:Trinidad 935:Acapulco 918:Veracruz 893:(Aztec) 826:and the 605:Currency 14391:Georgia 14386:Florida 14376:Arizona 14371:Alabama 14100:Former 13603:Roanoke 13575:Georgia 13391:Outline 13298:Cuisine 13275:Culture 13265:Welfare 13255:Smoking 13240:Poverty 13161:Society 13137:Tourism 13010:Economy 12984:Cabinet 12802:Islands 12797:Forests 12772:Climate 12762:Borders 12580:History 12515:Swedish 12510:Spanish 12500:Russian 12435:Belgian 12430:British 12243:Slavery 12223:Culture 12211:Related 12036:History 11965:Asiento 11936:Mustang 11796:Yucatán 11791:Chiapas 11671:Tucapel 11503:Passaro 11453:Algiers 11443:Preveza 11412:Tetouan 11407:Vitoria 11397:Bitonto 11337:Antwerp 11332:Lepanto 11287:Bicocca 10763:Economy 10686:Charcas 10681:Caracas 10575:Yucatán 10446:Regidor 10431:Alcalde 10359:Cabildo 10266:Tripoli 10205:Mariana 10152:Charcas 10128:(Peru, 10112:Ecuador 10075:Bonaire 10070:Curazao 10055:Jamaica 9983:Florida 9467:Navarre 9416:of the 8741:Coyotes 8736:Castizo 8731:Mestizo 8721:Criollo 8599:Cebuano 8594:Tagalog 8564:Mangyan 8554:Negrito 8536:Yustaga 8531:Timucua 8478:Wichita 8473:Tonkawa 8410:Cocopah 8405:Cochimí 8357:Quechan 8304:Serrano 8284:Luiseño 8274:Juaneño 8264:Chumash 8231:Ciboney 8205:Poqomam 8200:Zapotec 8190:Kʼicheʼ 8175:Totonac 8160:Huastec 8135:peoples 8123:Society 7532:Bulacan 7459:Florida 7377:El Paso 7327:Pachuca 7302:Durango 7277:Morelia 7224:cities, 7222:Notable 7143:Cabildo 7118:Viceroy 7087:Durango 7022:Chiapas 6984:Yucatán 6859:Louis I 6784:Central 6374:(1964). 6050:3744837 3928:México. 3658:Ocotlan 3604:cabildo 3368:Yucatán 3336:Durango 3195:Mestizo 3181:Morisco 3173:Español 3129:measles 2940:Zapotec 2825:logwood 2809:Tabasco 2785:cenotes 2674:Yucatán 2607:pueblos 2575:Spanish 2538:Jesuits 2483:Mission 2415:on the 2362:viceroy 2314:in the 2272:pueblos 2185:Bolivia 1985:Córdoba 1976:Orizaba 1819:pirates 1716:Hidalgo 1580:Economy 1551:Jesuits 1426:cabildo 1423:) or a 1394:Nahuatl 1286:Yucatán 1224:viceroy 1213:In 1819 1205:In 1794 1175:); and 1157:Wyoming 1137:Arizona 1010:viceroy 856:Pacific 836:Florida 792:Nahuatl 771:Spanish 556:• 542:• 529:• 516:• 482:• 465:• 452:• 439:• 389:(first) 367:Viceroy 341:(first) 239:Nahuatl 235:Spanish 221:Capital 212:of the 203:of the 118:Anthem: 51:Spanish 14355:(1850) 14343:(1846) 14331:(1840) 14307:(1827) 14250:(1819) 14244:(1817) 14232:(1812) 14226:(1810) 14208:(1794) 14041:(1676) 14033:(1638) 14017:(1622) 14009:(1620) 14001:(1584) 13971:(1698) 13724:Quebec 13623:(1619) 13609:Popham 13412:Portal 13362:Sports 13293:Cinema 13223:People 13047:Energy 12910:Senate 12832:States 12827:Rivers 12767:Cities 12570: 12568:Mexico 12460:French 12450:German 12445:Danish 12377:Future 12197:Muisca 11943:Castas 11701:Boyacá 11676:Guiana 11666:Iguape 11590:Recife 11528:Mactan 11523:Annual 11488:Rocroi 11483:Leiden 11468:Djerba 11402:Bailén 11357:Ostend 11342:Azores 10937:Legión 10902:Tercio 10895:Armies 10797:Escudo 10726:Panamá 10721:Mexico 10716:Manila 10671:Bogotá 10456:Vecino 10451:Syndic 10282:Béjaïa 10242:Africa 10228:Tidore 10116:Panama 10080:Belize 9987:Mexico 9913:Sicily 9909:Naples 9871:Europe 9497:Sicily 9457:Naples 9437:Aragon 9425:Europe 8765:People 8756:Negros 8746:Pardos 8726:Indios 8608:Others 8559:Igorot 8516:Jororo 8506:Calusa 8415:Kiliwa 8390:Acaxee 8362:Solano 8347:Navajo 8332:Apache 8309:Tongva 8299:Ohlone 8294:Mohave 8269:Cupeño 8226:Arawak 8165:Mixtec 8150:Aztecs 7432:Manila 7407:Havana 7392:Tucson 7292:Mérida 7272:Oaxaca 7262:Toluca 7257:Puebla 7252:Xalapa 7235:Cities 7092:Sonora 7082:Oaxaca 7077:Puebla 7007:Havana 6936:Mexico 6931:Manila 6489:about 6468: 6383:online 6338: 6292: 6220: 6152: 6056: 6048: 6002: 5958: 5926: 5845: 5795: 5758: 5739: 5692: 5589:] 4148:8 July 4123:8 July 3672:, and 3662:Puebla 3554:13.8% 3551:72.4% 3548:13.6% 3538:32.4% 3535:27.3% 3532:39.7% 3522:50.8% 3519:23.3% 3516:25.8% 3506:31.6% 3503:05.5% 3500:62.6% 3490:40.0% 3487:28.9% 3484:30.9% 3474:09.8% 3471:89.9% 3458:47.9% 3455:51.7% 3442:69.0% 3439:30.8% 3426:29.6% 3423:42.5% 3420:27.6% 3410:15.2% 3407:74.0% 3404:10.4% 3394:34.7% 3391:33.3% 3388:31.7% 3378:12.3% 3375:72.6% 3372:14.8% 3362:26.4% 3359:44.9% 3356:28.5% 3352:Sonora 3346:43.5% 3343:36.0% 3340:20.2% 3330:55.1% 3327:29.0% 3324:15.8% 3314:35.7% 3311:51.2% 3308:13.0% 3298:29.9% 3295:44.0% 3292:25.8% 3282:05.2% 3279:88.2% 3276:06.3% 3272:Oaxaca 3266:15.3% 3263:74.3% 3260:10.1% 3256:Puebla 3250:16.7% 3247:66.1% 3244:16.9% 3237:(only 3235:México 3203:Coyote 3177:Mulata 3119:(1576) 3088:Belize 3032:indigo 3013:, and 2942:, the 2855:Oaxaca 2853:Since 2740:cotton 2728:Blacks 2724:castas 2699:Mérida 2511:Oregon 2320:Sonora 2189:Potosí 2181:silver 2119:indigo 1905:castas 1765:Manila 1755:, and 1737:indigo 1665:Mexica 1661:corvee 1603:- 1778 1574:Mexico 1525:, and 1523:Puebla 1449:after 1354:Manila 1342:Panama 1338:Mexico 1145:Nevada 1090:Taiwan 1084:, the 1056:. The 1050:Panama 922:silver 895:Empire 891:Mexica 872:Taiwan 846:, the 824:Mexico 505:France 484:Panama 371: 356:(last) 323: 277:French 225:México 197:Status 152:Left: 120: 62: 47: 14431:Texas 14138:Tejas 13633:Maine 13398:Index 13345:Radio 13335:Music 13233:Women 13198:Flags 13183:Crime 13104:Peso 12807:Lakes 12470:Norse 12455:Dutch 12252:Lists 12187:Aztec 11838:Chile 11806:Petén 11781:Aztec 11600:Bahia 11575:Penco 11565:Cusco 11493:Downs 11473:Tunis 11392:Ceuta 11377:Breda 11327:Malta 11307:Tunis 11302:Pavia 10816:Trade 10731:Quito 10696:Cusco 10535:Chile 10270:Tunis 10217:Palau 10134:Chile 10065:Aruba 10060:Haiti 9994:] 9923:Milan 9881:Spain 8751:Zambo 8709:Casta 8657:Forts 8589:Bajau 8584:Lumad 8579:Panay 8453:Caddo 8435:Yaqui 8425:Opata 8289:Miwok 8185:Kowoj 8180:Pipil 7501:Texas 7497:Tejas 6054:S2CID 6046:JSTOR 5670:Istmo 5654:(PDF) 5647:(PDF) 5598:(PDF) 5591:(PDF) 5585:[ 4059:LANIC 3851:Notes 3528:Texas 3199:India 3146:maize 3080:Petén 3028:cacao 2948:Huave 2944:Zoque 2703:villa 2669:South 2644:Spain 2595:forts 2228:Bajío 2183:. In 2171:North 2121:from 2092:Bajío 2013:casta 1969:Cádiz 1780:Cádiz 1732:Cacao 1693:Taxco 1689:mit'a 1181:Texas 1173:Texas 503:from 13303:Wine 12952:LGBT 12854:Time 12218:Maps 12202:Inca 12192:Maya 11843:Inca 11786:Maya 11721:Guam 11654:Lost 11426:Lost 11347:Mons 10787:Real 10711:Lima 10598:Cuba 10540:Cuba 10512:Perú 10288:and 10286:Ifni 10278:Oran 10201:Guam 10130:Acre 10126:Peru 10036:Cuba 9915:and 9567:Peru 8678:Real 8372:Zuni 8337:Hopi 8155:Maya 7527:Cebu 7427:Cebu 7312:León 6959:Cuba 6466:ISBN 6336:ISBN 6290:ISBN 6218:ISBN 6150:ISBN 6000:ISBN 5956:ISBN 5924:ISBN 5843:ISBN 5793:ISBN 5756:ISBN 5737:ISBN 5703:2018 5690:ISBN 5606:2017 5544:help 5435:help 5404:help 4838:help 4820:help 4802:help 4784:help 4655:help 4610:help 4483:help 4404:help 4350:help 4285:help 4150:2013 4125:2013 4089:help 4071:2008 3609:The 3595:and 3197:and 3175:and 2794:mule 2689:The 2682:The 2640:Dons 2566:Alta 2543:Baja 2405:Tewa 2364:Don 2266:The 2226:The 2214:and 2212:Baja 1880:The 1817:and 1796:gold 1792:US$ 1735:and 1714:and 1533:and 1278:Cuba 1252:The 1183:and 1171:and 1149:Utah 1127:and 907:Peru 864:Guam 862:and 838:and 510:1762 493:1739 319:King 14104:or 13288:Art 13094:Oil 12959:Law 12333:Era 11548:Won 11275:Won 10383:Law 10280:, 10000:), 9981:), 8574:Ati 8210:Mam 6788:and 6038:doi 4039:doi 3034:. 2736:cah 2705:of 2642:of 1971:. 1724:dye 1616:by 1400:to 1312:). 1187:). 924:in 14502:: 13673:c. 12335:: 10284:, 10276:, 10272:, 10268:, 10264:, 10260:, 10215:, 10211:, 10207:, 10203:, 10199:, 10162:, 10150:, 10146:, 10132:, 10118:, 10114:, 10110:, 10042:, 10038:, 9992:es 9985:, 9911:, 9648:, 6052:. 6044:. 6034:77 6032:. 5837:. 5499:, 5391:^ 5341:^ 4894:^ 4642:^ 4272:^ 4257:^ 4242:^ 4141:. 4116:. 4057:. 3983:. 3964:. 3945:. 3680:. 3668:, 3660:, 3633:, 3468:~ 3452:~ 3436:~ 3131:, 3127:, 3009:, 3005:, 3001:, 2986:, 2846:, 2831:. 2570:. 2521:. 2466:. 2199:. 2157:. 2140:. 2081:c. 2079:, 1919:. 1907:. 1710:, 1706:, 1521:, 1453:. 1244:. 1147:, 1143:, 1139:, 1131:; 1068:, 1020:. 1000:. 949:. 874:. 842:; 834:, 794:: 790:; 773:: 14093:e 14086:t 14079:v 13678:) 13446:e 13439:t 13432:v 12778:) 12774:( 12560:e 12553:t 12546:v 12411:e 12404:t 12397:v 12013:e 12006:t 11999:v 10292:) 10219:) 10195:( 10183:) 10166:) 10142:( 10136:) 10106:( 10046:) 10034:( 10004:) 9969:( 9919:) 9611:e 9604:t 9597:v 9406:e 9399:t 9392:v 8878:e 8871:t 8864:v 7503:) 7499:( 7493:) 7489:( 7476:) 7472:( 7461:) 7457:( 6888:) 6881:( 6855:) 6851:( 6767:→ 6761:→ 6755:→ 6749:→ 6743:→ 6737:→ 6731:→ 6725:→ 6719:→ 6713:→ 6707:→ 6683:→ 6677:→ 6671:→ 6665:→ 6659:→ 6653:→ 6647:→ 6641:→ 6635:→ 6629:→ 6623:→ 6592:e 6585:t 6578:v 6474:. 6385:. 6344:. 6298:. 6244:. 6226:. 6158:. 6060:. 6040:: 6008:. 5964:. 5932:. 5849:. 5801:. 5764:. 5745:. 5705:. 5608:. 5546:) 5437:) 5406:) 4840:) 4822:) 4804:) 4786:) 4657:) 4612:) 4485:) 4406:) 4352:) 4287:) 4152:. 4127:. 4091:) 4073:. 4041:: 3560:~ 2858:( 2819:( 2743:( 2618:) 2614:( 2605:( 2597:( 2585:( 2016:( 1639:. 1605:. 1363:( 769:( 293:) 289:( 283:) 279:( 168:) 68:) 64:( 53:) 49:( 20:)

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