Internal combustion engine

1717: 1538: 1832:(a conduit inside a crankcase wall) to which oil is introduced from the oil filter. The main bearings contain a groove through all or half its circumference; the oil enters these grooves from channels connected to the oil gallery. The crankshaft has drillings that take oil from these grooves and deliver it to the big end bearings. All big end bearings are lubricated this way. A single main bearing may provide oil for 0, 1 or 2 big end bearings. A similar system may be used to lubricate the piston, its gudgeon pin and the small end of its connecting rod; in this system, the connecting rod big end has a groove around the crankshaft and a drilling connected to the groove which distributes oil from there to the bottom of the piston and from then to the cylinder. 365: 1419:. In this design the cylinder wall contains several intake ports placed uniformly spaced along the circumference just above the position that the piston crown reaches when at BDC. An exhaust valve or several like that of 4-stroke engines is used. The final part of the intake manifold is an air sleeve that feeds the intake ports. The intake ports are placed at a horizontal angle to the cylinder wall (I.e: they are in plane of the piston crown) to give a swirl to the incoming charge to improve combustion. The largest reciprocating IC are low speed CI engines of this type; they are used for marine propulsion (see 1341:

valve opens when the crankcase pressure is slightly below intake pressure, to let it be filled with a new charge; this happens when the piston is moving upwards. When the piston is moving downwards the pressure in the crankcase increases and the reed valve closes promptly, then the charge in the crankcase is compressed. When the piston is moving downwards, it also uncovers the exhaust port and the transfer port and the higher pressure of the charge in the crankcase makes it enter the cylinder through the transfer port, blowing the exhaust gases. Lubrication is accomplished by adding

2767: 10835: 4144: 51: 1145:) in one end and to the piston in the other end through the gudgeon pin and thus transfers the force and translates the reciprocating motion of the pistons to the circular motion of the crankshaft. The end of the connecting rod attached to the gudgeon pin is called its small end, and the other end, where it is connected to the crankshaft, the big end. The big end has a detachable half to allow assembly around the crankshaft. It is kept together to the connecting rod by removable bolts. 1031: 2162: 1394: 584: 10797: 2109: 573: 1114: 2916: 931: 5119: 4210: 1972: 10845: 4156: 2227: 3205: 1552: 923: 10826: 10818: 10810: 1687:

into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the fuel to instantly ignite. HCCI type engines take in both air and fuel, but continue to rely on an unaided auto-combustion process, due to higher pressures and temperature. This is also why diesel and HCCI engines are more susceptible to cold-starting issues, although they run just as well in cold weather once started. Light duty diesel engines with

2866:. Most modern automotive engines are both water and air-cooled, as the water/liquid-coolant is carried to air-cooled fins and/or fans, whereas larger engines may be singularly water-cooled as they are stationary and have a constant supply of water through water-mains or fresh-water, while most power tool engines and other small engines are air-cooled. Some engines (air or water-cooled) also have an 990:) are common for motorcycles and other small engines found in light machinery. On the outer side of the cylinder, passages that contain cooling fluid are cast into the engine block whereas, in some heavy duty engines, the passages are the types of removable cylinder sleeves which can be replaceable. Water-cooled engines contain passages in the engine block where cooling fluid circulates (the 5060:. However, this method is primarily useful for measuring steady state loads and may not accurately reflect losses due to dynamic loads. More advanced methods can be used in a laboratory setting, such as measuring in-cylinder pressure measurements, flow rate and temperature at certain points, and testing of individual parts or sub-assemblies to determine friction and pumping losses. 1888: 1660:

and heated overnight and returned to the engine for cold starts. In the early 1950s, the gasoline Gasifier unit was developed, where, on cold weather starts, raw gasoline was diverted to the unit where part of the fuel was burned causing the other part to become a hot vapor sent directly to the intake valve manifold. This unit was quite popular until electric

1254:. Just before the piston reaches TDC, ignition begins. In the case of a SI engine, the spark plug receives a high voltage pulse that generates the spark which gives it its name and ignites the charge. In the case of a CI engine, the fuel injector quickly injects fuel into the combustion chamber as a spray; the fuel ignites due to the high temperature. 2893: 3102:

rises, the fuel becomes more prone to auto-ignition. This is caused when the cylinder temperature nears the flash point of the charge. At this point, ignition can spontaneously occur before the spark plug fires, causing excessive cylinder pressures. Auto-ignition can be mitigated by using fuels with high auto-ignition resistance (

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downward it first uncovers the exhaust, but on the first stroke there is no burnt fuel to exhaust. As the piston moves downward further, it uncovers the intake port which has a duct that runs to the crankcase. Since the fuel mix in the crankcase is under pressure, the mix moves through the duct and into the cylinder.

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have seen a boost in thermal efficiency past 50%. There are many inventions aimed at increasing the efficiency of IC engines. In general, practical engines are always compromised by trade-offs between different properties such as efficiency, weight, power, heat, response, exhaust emissions, or noise.

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or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any thermal energy that is not translated into work is normally considered a waste product

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A gas turbine is a rotary machine somewhat similar in principle to a steam turbine. It consists of three main components: compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. The air is compressed by the compressor where a temperature rise occurs. The temperature of the compressed air is further increased by

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The first internal combustion engines did not compress the mixture. The first part of the piston downstroke drew in a fuel-air mixture, then the inlet valve closed and, in the remainder of the down-stroke, the fuel-air mixture fired. The exhaust valve opened for the piston upstroke. These attempts at

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Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a four-stroke cycle, but with temperature increase by compression causing ignition, rather than needing a separate ignition system. This variation is called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycle, diesel fuel is injected directly into

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The fuel mixture is ignited at different progressions of the piston in the cylinder. At low rpm, the spark is timed to occur close to the piston achieving top dead center. In order to produce more power, as rpm rises the spark is advanced sooner during piston movement. The spark occurs while the fuel

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On the first upstroke of the engine there would be no fuel inducted into the cylinder as the crankcase was empty. On the downstroke, the piston now compresses the fuel mix, which has lubricated the piston in the cylinder and the bearings due to the fuel mix having oil added to it. As the piston moves

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They must use the transfer port(s) as a carefully designed and placed nozzle so that a gas current is created in a way that it sweeps the whole cylinder before reaching the exhaust port so as to expel the combustion gases, but minimize the amount of charge exhausted. 4-stroke engines have the benefit

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Scavenging: Around 75° of crankshaft rotation before BDC the exhaust valve or port opens, and blowdown occurs. Shortly thereafter the intake valve or transfer port opens. The incoming charge displaces the remaining combustion gases to the exhaust system and a part of the charge may enter the exhaust

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Intake, induction or suction: The intake valves are open as a result of the cam lobe pressing down on the valve stem. The piston moves downward increasing the volume of the combustion chamber and allowing air to enter in the case of a CI engine or an air-fuel mix in the case of SI engines that do not

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are short cylindrical parts which seal one end of the cylinder from the high pressure of the compressed air and combustion products and slide continuously within it while the engine is in operation. In smaller engines, the pistons are made of aluminum; while in larger applications, they are typically

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obtained the certification: "Obtaining Motive Power by the Explosion of Gases". In 1857 the Great Seal Patent Office conceded them patent No.1655 for the invention of an "Improved Apparatus for Obtaining Motive Power from Gases". Barsanti and Matteucci obtained other patents for the same invention in

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or an electric fan. Another modification to reduce parasitic loss, usually seen in track-only cars, is the replacement of an engine-driven water pump for an electrical water pump. The reduction in parasitic loss from these changes may be due to reduced friction or many other variables that cause the

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design. Because fuel inlets and outlets are positioned at opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow scavenging, which, as in the four-stroke engine is efficient over a wide range of engine speeds. Thermal efficiency is improved because of a lack of cylinder heads. This design was used in

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Typically forced lubrication systems have a lubricant flow higher than what is required to lubricate satisfactorily, in order to assist with cooling. Specifically, the lubricant system helps to move heat from the hot engine parts to the cooling liquid (in water-cooled engines) or fins (in air-cooled

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Because there is no obstruction in the cylinder of the fuel to move directly out of the exhaust port prior to the piston rising far enough to close the port, early engines used a high domed piston to slow down the flow of fuel. Later the fuel was "resonated" back into the cylinder using an expansion

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simplified Clerk's design into the type of 2 cycle engine that is very widely used today. Day cycle engines are crankcase scavenged and port timed. The crankcase and the part of the cylinder below the exhaust port is used as a pump. The operation of the Day cycle engine begins when the crankshaft is

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materials that can be made with greater thermal stability and desirable structural properties. Higher thermal stability allows for a greater temperature difference between the lower (ambient) and upper operating temperatures, hence greater thermodynamic efficiency. Also, as the cylinder temperature

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addresses the breathing problem by reducing the clearance between the piston and the cylinder head through various turbocharging techniques. The Scuderi design requires the use of outwardly opening valves that enable the piston to move very close to the cylinder head without the interference of the

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While gasoline internal combustion engines are much easier to start in cold weather than diesel engines, they can still have cold weather starting problems under extreme conditions. For years, the solution was to park the car in heated areas. In some parts of the world, the oil was actually drained

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to accomplish scavenging taking 2 of the 4 strokes, a 2-stroke engine uses the last part of the power stroke and the first part of the compression stroke for combined intake and exhaust. The work required to displace the charge and exhaust gases comes from either the crankcase or a separate blower.

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cycle, so may be thought of as a "four-phase" engine. While it is true that three power strokes typically occur per rotor revolution, due to the 3:1 revolution ratio of the rotor to the eccentric shaft, only one power stroke per shaft revolution actually occurs. The drive (eccentric) shaft rotates

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The defining characteristic of this kind of engine is that each piston completes a cycle every crankshaft revolution. The 4 processes of intake, compression, power and exhaust take place in only 2 strokes so that it is not possible to dedicate a stroke exclusively for each of them. Starting at TDC

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all act as parasitic loads that rob the system of power. These parasitic loads can be divided into two categories: those inherent to the working of the engine and those drivetrain losses incurred in the systems that transfer power from the engine to the road (such as the transmission, driveshaft,

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has better balance when the angle between the crankpins is 180° because the pistons move in opposite directions and inertial forces partially cancel, but this gives an odd firing pattern where one cylinder fires 180° of crankshaft rotation after the other, then no cylinder fires for 540°. With an

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engines rely solely on the high temperature and pressure created by the engine in its compression process. The compression level that occurs is usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines take in air only, and shortly before peak compression, spray a small quantity of diesel fuel

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Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress it by the movement of the piston from bottom dead center to top dead center when the fuel is at maximum compression. The reduction in the size of the swept area of the cylinder and taking into account the volume of the combustion

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chamber design. When the piston rose close to TDC, a spark ignited the fuel. As the piston is driven downward with power, it first uncovers the exhaust port where the burned fuel is expelled under high pressure and then the intake port where the process has been completed and will keep repeating.

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Compression: With both intake and exhaust closed the piston continues moving upwards compressing the charge and performing work on it. As in the case of a 4-stroke engine, ignition starts just before the piston reaches TDC and the same consideration on the thermodynamics of the compression on the

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Gas turbine cycle engines employ a continuous combustion system where compression, combustion, and expansion occur simultaneously at different places in the engine—giving continuous power. Notably, the combustion takes place at constant pressure, rather than with the Otto cycle, constant volume.

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separate the four strokes of intake, compression, combustion and exhaust into two separate but paired cylinders. The first cylinder is used for intake and compression. The compressed air is then transferred through a crossover passage from the compression cylinder into the second cylinder, where

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manufactured and sold a double expansion engine (the double and triple expansion principles had ample usage in steam engines), with two small cylinders at both sides of a low-pressure larger cylinder, where a second expansion of exhaust stroke gas took place; the owner returned it, alleging poor

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With early induction and ignition systems the compression ratios had to be kept low. With advances in fuel technology and combustion management, high-performance engines can run reliably at 12:1 ratio. With low octane fuel, a problem would occur as the compression ratio increased as the fuel was

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or a rotary disk valve driven by the engine. For each cylinder, a transfer port connects in one end to the crankcase and in the other end to the cylinder wall. The exhaust port is connected directly to the cylinder wall. The transfer and exhaust port are opened and closed by the piston. The reed

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Exhaust: The exhaust valve remains open while the piston moves upward expelling the combustion gases. For naturally aspirated engines a small part of the combustion gases may remain in the cylinder during normal operation because the piston does not close the combustion chamber completely; these

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Since air is plentiful at the surface of the earth, the oxidizer is typically atmospheric oxygen, which has the advantage of not being stored within the vehicle. This increases the power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios. Other materials are used for special purposes, often to increase power

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but the volumetric energetic storage is still roughly five times lower than gasoline. However, the energy density of hydrogen is considerably higher than that of electric batteries, making it a serious contender as an energy carrier to replace fossil fuels. The 'Hydrogen on Demand' process (see

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or transformer. The induction coil is a fly-back system, using interruption of electrical primary system current through some type of synchronized interrupter. The interrupter can be either contact points or a power transistor. The problem with this type of ignition is that as RPM increases the

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ratio. The flame is "quenched" by the relatively cool cylinder walls, leaving behind unreacted fuel that is expelled with the exhaust. When running at lower speeds, quenching is commonly observed in diesel (compression ignition) engines that run on natural gas. Quenching reduces efficiency and

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and it consists of three main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The temperature of the air, after being compressed in the compressor, is increased by burning fuel in it. The heated air and the products of combustion expand in a turbine, producing work output. About

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no oil pump is used. Instead the crankshaft dips into the oil in the sump and due to its high speed, it splashes the crankshaft, connecting rods and bottom of the pistons. The connecting rod big end caps may have an attached scoop to enhance this effect. The valve train may also be sealed in a

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system, and supplies electrical power when the engine is off. The battery also supplies electrical power during rare run conditions where the alternator cannot maintain more than 13.8 volts (for a common 12 V automotive electrical system). As alternator voltage falls below 13.8 volts, the

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While rules of thumb such as a 15% power loss from drivetrain parasitic loads have been commonly repeated, the actual loss of energy due to parasitic loads varies between systems. It can be influenced by powertrain design, lubricant type and temperature and many other factors. In automobiles,

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or a rotary disk valve (driven by the engine). There are cast in ducts from the crankcase to the port in the cylinder to provide for intake and another from the exhaust port to the exhaust pipe. The height of the port in relationship to the length of the cylinder is called the "port timing".

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just before starting to reduce no-start conditions in cold weather. Most diesels also have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system is secondary and is added by manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of starting, turning fuel on and off (which can also be done via a switch or

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drives the small amount of gas that escapes past the pistons during normal operation (the blow-by gases) out of the crankcase so that it does not accumulate contaminating the oil and creating corrosion. In two-stroke gasoline engines the crankcase is part of the air–fuel path and due to the

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Other systems are also used to lubricate the cylinder and piston. The connecting rod may have a nozzle to throw an oil jet to the cylinder and bottom of the piston. That nozzle is in movement relative to the cylinder it lubricates, but always pointed towards it or the corresponding piston.

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Some small engines use a pull-rope mechanism called "recoil starting", as the rope rewinds itself after it has been pulled out to start the engine. This method is commonly used in pushed lawn mowers and other settings where only a small amount of torque is needed to turn an engine over.

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assume that the engine is operating under ideal conditions: a frictionless world, ideal gases, perfect insulators, and operation for infinite time. Real world applications introduce complexities that reduce efficiency. For example, a real engine runs best at a specific load, termed its

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Although there are multiple ways of producing free hydrogen, those methods require converting combustible molecules into hydrogen or consuming electric energy. Unless that electricity is produced from a renewable source—and is not required for other purposes—hydrogen does not solve any

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of forcibly expelling almost all of the combustion gases because during exhaust the combustion chamber is reduced to its minimum volume. In crankcase scavenged 2-stroke engines, exhaust and intake are performed mostly simultaneously and with the combustion chamber at its maximum volume.

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Internal combustion engines must have their cycles started. In reciprocating engines this is accomplished by turning the crankshaft (Wankel Rotor Shaft) which induces the cycles of intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust. The first engines were started with a turn of their

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Using a separate blower avoids many of the shortcomings of crankcase scavenging, at the expense of increased complexity which means a higher cost and an increase in maintenance requirement. An engine of this type uses ports or valves for intake and valves for exhaust, except

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was invented in 1883. Four kinds of six-stroke engines use a regular piston in a regular cylinder (Griffin six-stroke, Bajulaz six-stroke, Velozeta six-stroke and Crower six-stroke), firing every three crankshaft revolutions. These systems capture the waste heat of the

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Even fluidized metal powders and explosives have seen some use. Engines that use gases for fuel are called gas engines and those that use liquid hydrocarbons are called oil engines; however, gasoline engines are also often colloquially referred to as "gas engines"

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Some systems disable alternator field (rotor) power during wide-open throttle conditions. Disabling the field reduces alternator pulley mechanical loading to nearly zero, maximizing crankshaft power. In this case, the battery supplies all primary electrical power.

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Sometimes economy also plays a role in not only the cost of manufacturing the engine itself, but also manufacturing and distributing the fuel. Increasing the engine's efficiency brings better fuel economy but only if the fuel cost per energy content is the same.

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to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of thermal energy, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the

1014:. Pistons are open at the bottom and hollow except for an integral reinforcement structure (the piston web). When an engine is working, the gas pressure in the combustion chamber exerts a force on the piston crown which is transferred through its web to a 4616:

are made by internal combustion engines. Automobile and truck traffic operating on highways and street systems produce noise, as do aircraft flights due to jet noise, particularly supersonic-capable aircraft. Rocket engines create the most intense noise.

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For scavenging, expulsion of burned gas and entry of fresh mix, two main approaches are described: Loop scavenging, and Uniflow scavenging. SAE news published in the 2010s that 'Loop Scavenging' is better under any circumstance than Uniflow Scavenging.

2899: 2897: 2895: 4301:(PM). The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. There are, however, some additional products of the combustion process that include 4946: 2898: 1278:

gases dissolve in the next charge. At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the intake valve opens, and the sequence repeats in the next cycle. The intake valve may open before the exhaust valve closes to allow better scavenging.

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than is required to compress the charge. Complementary to the compression stroke, the combustion gases expand and as a result their temperature, pressure and density decreases. When the piston is near to BDC the exhaust valve opens. In the

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For example, the former category (engine parasitic loads) includes the oil pump used to lubricate the engine, which is a necessary parasite that consumes power from the engine (its host). Another example of an engine parasitic load is a

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is often applied to devices that take energy from the engine in order to enhance the engine's ability to create more energy or convert energy to motion. In the internal combustion engine, almost every mechanical component, including the

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invented a hydrogen-based internal combustion engine and powered the engine by electric spark. In 1808, De Rivaz fitted his invention to a primitive working vehicle – "the world's first internal combustion powered automobile". In 1823,

660:. Thus, the efficiency is higher because more energy is extracted from the fuel than what could be extracted by the combustion engine alone. Combined cycle power plants achieve efficiencies in the range of 50–60%. In a smaller scale, 1368:

There are conflicting requirements for scavenging: On one side, enough fresh charge needs to be introduced in each cycle to displace almost all the combustion gases but introducing too much of it means that a part of it gets in the

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In the US, 2-stroke engines were banned for road vehicles due to the pollution. Off-road only motorcycles are still often 2-stroke but are rarely road legal. However, many thousands of 2-stroke lawn maintenance engines are in use.

994:). Some small engines are air-cooled, and instead of having a water jacket the cylinder block has fins protruding away from it to cool the engine by directly transferring heat to the air. The cylinder walls are usually finished by 2857:

Cooling is required to remove excessive heat—high temperature can cause engine failure, usually from wear (due to high-temperature-induced failure of lubrication), cracking or warping. Two most common forms of engine cooling are

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is the most common cycle for most cars' internal combustion engines that use gasoline as a fuel. It consists of the same major steps as described for the four-stroke engine: Intake, compression, ignition, expansion and exhaust.

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system as well. The piston reaches BDC and reverses direction. After the piston has traveled a short distance upwards into the cylinder the exhaust valve or port closes; shortly the intake valve or transfer port closes as well.

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Automotive engineers and tuners commonly make design choices that reduce parasitic loads in order to improve efficiency and power output. These may involve the choice of major engine components or systems, such as the use of

4829: 614:(some are electrical but most use diesel engines). Rotary engines of the Wankel design are used in some automobiles, aircraft and motorcycles. These are collectively known as internal-combustion-engine vehicles (ICEV). 2896: 2824:

has been used—with extra gasoline—in tactical aircraft, and in specially equipped cars to allow short bursts of added power from engines that otherwise run on gasoline and air. It is also used in the Burt Rutan rocket

4667:. In reality diesel is a mixture of different molecules. As carbon has a molar mass of 12 g/mol and hydrogen (atomic) has a molar mass of about 1 g/mol, the fraction by weight of carbon in diesel is roughly 2173:. It is essentially a jet engine which directs its output to a shaft. There are three stages to a turbine: 1) air is drawn through a compressor where the temperature rises due to compression, 2) fuel is added in the 489:

gasoline engine. Later, in 1886, Benz began the first commercial production of motor vehicles with an internal combustion engine, in which a three-wheeled, four-cycle engine and chassis formed a single unit. In 1892,

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combustion of injected fuel in the combustion chamber which expands the air. This energy rotates the turbine which powers the compressor via a mechanical coupling. The hot gases are then exhausted to provide thrust.

1656:. With either system, a mechanical or electrical control system provides a carefully timed high-voltage to the proper cylinder. This spark, via the spark plug, ignites the air-fuel mixture in the engine's cylinders. 1458:

over 50%. For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke engines are around 43% thermally-efficient (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface area.

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Some SI engines are crankcase scavenged and do not use poppet valves. Instead, the crankcase and the part of the cylinder below the piston is used as a pump. The intake port is connected to the crankcase through a

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are also a form of internal combustion engine, though of a type so specialized that they are commonly treated as a separate category, along with weaponry such as mortars and anti-aircraft cannons.) In contrast, in

1066:. However, 2-stroke crankcase scavenged engines connect the gas ports directly to the cylinder wall without poppet valves; the piston controls their opening and occlusion instead. The cylinder head also holds the 1732:, or to make the mechanism work at all. Also, the lubricant used can reduce excess heat and provide additional cooling to components. At the very least, an engine requires lubrication in the following parts: 3118:. The engine in a car cruising on a highway is usually operating significantly below its ideal load, because it is designed for the higher loads required for rapid acceleration. In addition, factors such as 2080:

Previous split-cycle engines have had two major problems—poor breathing (volumetric efficiency) and low thermal efficiency. However, new designs are being introduced that seek to address these problems. The

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Multiple cylinder engines have their valve train and crankshaft configured so that pistons are at different parts of their cycle. It is desirable to have the pistons' cycles uniformly spaced (this is called

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The Wankel engine (rotary engine) does not have piston strokes. It operates with the same separation of phases as the four-stroke engine with the phases taking place in separate locations in the engine. In

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engines) which then transfer it to the environment. The lubricant must be designed to be chemically stable and maintain suitable viscosities within the temperature range it encounters in the engine.

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availability of electrical energy decreases. This is especially a problem, since the amount of energy needed to ignite a more dense fuel mixture is higher. The result was often a high RPM misfire.

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once during every power stroke instead of twice (crankshaft), as in the Otto cycle, giving it a greater power-to-weight ratio than piston engines. This type of engine was most notably used in the

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system. Alternately, this can be effected through substitution of minor components available as aftermarket modifications, such as exchanging a directly engine-driven fan for one equipped with a

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where it is mixed with fuel (typically JP fuel) and then ignited. The burning of the fuel raises the temperature of the air which is then exhausted out of the engine creating thrust. A modern

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Compression: In this stroke, both valves are closed and the piston moves upward reducing the combustion chamber volume which reaches its minimum when the piston is at TDC. The piston performs

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lead-acid storage battery increasingly picks up electrical load. During virtually all running conditions, including normal idle conditions, the alternator supplies primary electrical power.

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For gasoline, with a density of 0.75 kg/L and a ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms of about 6 to 14, the estimated value of carbon dioxide emission from burning 1 litre of gasoline is:

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of the engine. The upper operating temperature of an engine is limited by two main factors; the thermal operating limits of the materials, and the auto-ignition resistance of the fuel. All

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Carbon dioxide has a molar mass of 44 g/mol as it consists of 2 atoms of oxygen (16 g/mol) and 1 atom of carbon (12 g/mol). So 12 g of carbon yields 44 g of carbon dioxide.

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Forced induction is used in the automotive and aviation industry to increase engine power and efficiency. It particularly helps aviation engines, as they need to operate at high altitude.

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turned so that the piston moves from BDC upward (toward the head) creating a vacuum in the crankcase/cylinder area. The carburetor then feeds the fuel mixture into the crankcase through a

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is the movement of a piston from TDC to BDC or vice versa, together with the associated process. While an engine is in operation, the crankshaft rotates continuously at a nearly constant

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flooded compartment, or open to the crankshaft in a way that it receives splashed oil and allows it to drain back to the sump. Splash lubrication is common for small 4-stroke engines.

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that open to let the cylinder be filled with fresh air and exhaust valves that open to allow the combustion gases to escape. The valves are often poppet valves but they can also be

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Lomnicki, Slawo; Gullett, Brian; Stöger, Tobias; Kennedy, Ian; Diaz, Jim; Dugas, Tammy R.; Varner, Kurt; Carlin, Danielle; Dellinger, Barry; Cormier, Stephania A. (January 2014).

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in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. Though the same chemical substance, ground-level ozone should not be confused with

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has extremely low density (14 times lower than water) and requires extensive insulation—whilst gaseous hydrogen requires heavy tankage. Even when liquefied, hydrogen has a higher

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it became the primary system for producing electricity to energize a spark plug. Many small engines still use magneto ignition. Small engines are started by hand cranking using a

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Laboratory testing of a heavy-duty diesel engine determined that 1.3% of the fuel energy input was lost to parasitic loads of engine accessories such as water and oil pumps.

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to the surfaces serviced by the system and then returns the oil to a reservoir. The auxiliary equipment of an engine is typically not serviced by this loop; for instance, an

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have come into use. This is due to the lack of torque in electric starters. Air starters work by pumping compressed air into the cylinders of an engine to start it turning.

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than their 4-stroke counterparts. Despite having twice as many power strokes per cycle, less than twice the power of a comparable 4-stroke engine is attainable in practice.

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Not all of the fuel is completely consumed by the combustion process. A small amount of fuel is present after combustion, and some of it reacts to form oxygenates, such as

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Drivetrain parasitic losses include both steady state and dynamic loads. Steady state loads occur at constant speeds and may originate in discrete components such as the

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or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous

5004:, which derives its power from the engine and creates more power for the engine. The power that the supercharger consumes is parasitic loss and is usually expressed in 1351:

refers to the mix of gasoline with the aforesaid oil. This kind of 2-stroke engine has a lower efficiency than comparable 4-strokes engines and releases more polluting

564:

In boating, an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, but the engines that sit on the transom are referred to as motors.

5012:. While the power that the supercharger consumes in comparison to what it generates is small, it is still measurable or calculable. One of the desirable features of a 2831:

power was under development for German World War II submarines. It may have been used in some non-nuclear submarines, and was used on some rocket engines (notably the

2283:, and other vehicle models. The engine is also used in unmanned aerial vehicles, where the small size and weight and the high power-to-weight ratio are advantageous. 1766:

In 2-stroke crankcase scavenged engines, the interior of the crankcase, and therefore the crankshaft, connecting rod and bottom of the pistons are sprayed by the

1454:

turbocharged 2-stroke diesel, used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful reciprocating internal combustion engine in the world with a

1006:

made of cast iron. In performance applications, pistons can also be titanium or forged steel for greater strength. The top surface of the piston is called its

6452: 1477:

developed the first two-cycle engine in 1879. It used a separate cylinder which functioned as a pump in order to transfer the fuel mixture to the cylinder.

7644: 6923: 1250:

on the charge as it is being compressed; as a result, its pressure, temperature and density increase; an approximation to this behavior is provided by the

5638: 5606: 1770:

in the air-fuel-oil mixture which is then burned along with the fuel. The valve train may be contained in a compartment flooded with lubricant so that no

2017:

designed and successfully tested a 5-stroke double expansion internal combustion engine, with high power output and low SFC (Specific Fuel Consumption).

7286: 8313: 1074:

for engines that use direct injection. All CI (compression ignition) engines use fuel injection, usually direct injection but some engines instead use

5689: 4643:

A good way to estimate the mass of carbon dioxide that is released when one litre of diesel fuel (or gasoline) is combusted can be found as follows:

2652:. They are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly so for their increased 1815:

system. When there is a different oil reservoir the crankcase still catches it, but it is continuously drained by a dedicated pump; this is called a

1230:. In a 4-stroke ICE, each piston experiences 2 strokes per crankshaft revolution in the following order. Starting the description at TDC, these are: 1133:, which allow it to rotate. Bulkheads in the crankcase form a half of every main bearing; the other half is a detachable cap. In some cases a single 4754: 1094:

prevents the gas from leaking between the cylinder head and the engine block. The opening and closing of the valves is controlled by one or several

6084: 5998: 5930: 3157:

For internal combustion engines in the form of jet engines, the power output varies drastically with airspeed and a less variable measure is used:

2089:

Firing ATDC can be accomplished by using high-pressure air in the transfer passage to create sonic flow and high turbulence in the power cylinder.

5957: 2928:, while the first vehicle (the Daimler Reitwagen) was started with a hand crank. All ICE engined automobiles were started with hand cranks until 1648:

was developed. It produces a rising voltage that is sent to the spark plug. CD system voltages can reach 60,000 volts. CD ignitions use step-up

10784: 7330: 5153: 4108: 6571: 6549: 4411:

Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete combustion products, but also promotes reaction between oxygen and

2297:

Forced induction is the process of delivering compressed air to the intake of an internal combustion engine. A forced induction engine uses a

1125:

that collects the falling oil during normal operation to be cycled again. The cavity created between the cylinder block and the sump houses a

6620: 5323: 1129:

that converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons to rotational motion. The crankshaft is held in place relative to the engine block by

4604:

which are used by equipment and vehicles that are not operated on the public roadways. The standards are separated from the road vehicles.

1704:

mechanical apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and accessories. Most new engines rely on electrical and electronic

6140: 3165:

that is measured in either pound force-hour or the grams of propellant needed to generate an impulse that measures one kilonewton-second.

10479: 5082:

equipped with a modified 455ci V8 engine and a 4-speed manual transmission was measured to have an average drivetrain power loss of 21%.

4231: 4186: 3874: 2716: 5797: 1022:

fitted around its circumference that mostly prevent the gases from leaking into the crankcase or the oil into the combustion chamber. A

9208: 7114:, Ubierna Laciana, "Perfeccionamientos en Motores de Explosion, con Cinco Tiem-Pos y Doble Expansion", published 1976-11-01 6693:"Combustion By-Products and their Health Effects - Combustion Engineering and Global Health in the 21st Century: Issues and Challenges" 6893: 5473: 1828:

outside the crankcase. From there it is diverted to the crankshaft main bearings and valve train. The crankcase contains at least one

342:(ethyl tert-butyl ether) produced from bioethanol in spark ignition (SI) engines. As early as 1900 the inventor of the diesel engine, 6531: 1164:. It distributes the air incoming from these devices to the individual cylinders. The exhaust manifold is the first component in the 359: 7039: 1716: 1050:. It has several functions. The cylinder head seals the cylinders on the side opposite to the pistons; it contains short ducts (the 9229: 7637: 7268: 6983:. Automobile Mechanical and Electrical Systems: Automotive Technology : Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. Taylor & Francis. 5561: 5534: 271:, energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids for 5984:"WEIRD STUFF! COATES SPHERICAL ROTARY VALVE ENGINE: There Are No Valves, Just a Series of Spheres on a Rod: Sort of a Shish-Kabob" 5507: 10718: 9063: 7492: 6368: 5229: 1683: 2679:, sophisticated diesel-engined cars have taken over about 45% of the market since the 1990s. There are also engines that run on 9397: 9201: 8306: 6748: 6653:

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Diesel and Gasoline Engine Exhausts and Some Nitroarenes

6048: 4516:

to levels where human health and welfare are protected. Other pollutants, such as benzene and 1,3-butadiene, are regulated as

10761: 9243: 9222: 9215: 8212: 7234: 7206: 7187: 7168: 7098: 7077: 7058: 7028: 7009: 6988: 6789: 6008: 5967: 5940: 5844: 5571: 5544: 5517: 5483: 5369: 5024: 4093: 1771: 290:

While there are many stationary applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the primary power supply for

4383:, or hydrocarbons not originally present in the input fuel mixture. Incomplete combustion usually results from insufficient 1410:

but other types have been used too. This design is commonplace in CI engines, and has been occasionally used in SI engines.

10049: 9861: 9257: 9236: 4749:

Putting everything together the mass of carbon dioxide that is produced by burning 1 litre of diesel can be calculated as:

3367: 42: 6806: 2388:. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on 1809:

sealed with their own lubricant. The reservoir for the oil is usually the sump, and when this is the case, it is called a

1537: 10868: 10014: 9907: 9577: 9264: 9250: 7630: 5138: 4453:). Ozone is not emitted directly; rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the atmosphere by the reaction of 3494: 3414: 2010: 17: 6474: 10779: 10756: 9935: 9595: 9535: 8151: 7323: 4088: 4002: 3444: 2852: 1559:

The spark-ignition engine was a refinement of the early engines which used Hot Tube ignition. When Bosch developed the

1525:. Before the invention of reliable electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used. Experimental engines with 998:, which is able to retain more oil. A too rough surface would quickly harm the engine by excessive wear on the piston. 397: 2251:

The Wankel rotary cycle. The shaft turns three times for each rotation of the rotor around the lobe and once for each

1941:

diesel aircraft engine, using two crankshafts at either end of a single bank of cylinders, and most remarkably in the

10821: 10568: 10454: 9948: 9943: 8299: 7558: 4257: 3944: 3849: 2932:

developed the electric starter for automobiles. This method is now the most widely used, even among non-automobiles.

1824:

On its bottom, the sump contains an oil intake covered by a mesh filter which is connected to an oil pump then to an

637:; both of which are types of turbines. In addition to providing propulsion, aircraft may employ a separate ICE as an 7093:. Woodhead Publishing in materials The science and technology of materials in automotive engines. Elsevier Science. 4239: 2729:

technology may come to deliver its promise and the use of the internal combustion engines could even be phased out.

10873: 10748: 6441: 3158: 3054:

by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons.

2988: 2045:, two pistons in a single cylinder, firing every two revolutions rather than every four like a four-stroke engine. 10494: 10231: 9621: 7596: 6837: 6170: 4392:

increases knocking, sometimes causing the engine to stall. Incomplete combustion also leads to the production of

4179: 3889: 3652: 3234: 3151: 2984: 2428:

made from other convenient biomass. Experiments have also been conducted using powdered solid fuels, such as the

1427:

and achieve the highest thermal efficiencies among internal combustion engines of any kind. Some diesel–electric

1298:

Power: While the piston is descending the combustion gases perform work on it, as in a 4-stroke engine. The same

6192: 2208:

Gas turbines are among the most efficient internal combustion engines. The General Electric 7HA and 9HA turbine

1117:

Engine block seen from below. The cylinders, oil spray nozzle and half of the main bearings are clearly visible.

995: 218: 9364: 7829: 6946: 5642: 5613: 5590:, Barsanti, Eugenio & Matteucci, Felice, "Obtaining motive power by the explosion of gases" 4298: 4235: 9121: 8068: 3150:

For stationary and shaft engines including propeller engines, fuel consumption is measured by calculating the

2878:, fuel is used as a coolant, as it is simultaneously preheated before injecting it into a combustion chamber. 2842:

Other chemicals such as chlorine or fluorine have been used experimentally, but have not been found practical.

1920:

require odd firing to achieve better balance than what is possible with even firing. For instance, a 4-stroke

10829: 10804: 10109: 9017: 8493: 8126: 7316: 6892:

Thiruvengadam, Arvind; Pradhan, Saroj; Thiruvengadam, Pragalath; Besch, Marc; Carder, Daniel (October 2014).

5078:

engine and an automatic transmission had a measured drivetrain power loss averaging 33%. In the same test, a

4520:

whose emissions must be lowered as much as possible depending on technological and practical considerations.

4513: 4360:

from engine exhaust is impractical, there is increasing interest in alternatives. Sustainable fuels such as

4124: 3574: 2875: 1679: 1168:. It collects the exhaust gases from the cylinders and drives it to the following component in the path. The 5446: 4631:

Internal combustion engines continue to consume fuel and emit pollutants while idling. Idling is reduced by

1501:

Later engines used a type of porting devised by the Deutz company to improve performance. It was called the

10280: 10029: 10009: 9761: 9023: 7710: 7543: 5167: 3662: 3514: 3489: 3284: 2751: 1645: 1451: 1023: 1257:

Power or working stroke: The pressure of the combustion gases pushes the piston downward, generating more

10385: 10039: 7297: 5133: 3773: 3524: 3123: 2959:

There are also starters where a spring is compressed by a crank motion and then used to start an engine.

2518: 2512: 2345: 1949:

arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-bank

775: 5587: 10883: 10813: 10713: 10636: 10044: 9874: 9499: 9390: 7347: 5299: 5203: 4172: 3529: 3379: 3173: 3168:

For rockets, TSFC can be used, but typically other equivalent measures are traditionally used, such as

2801: 2306: 2177:, and 3) hot air is exhausted through turbine blades which rotate a shaft connected to the compressor. 1315: 653: 495: 284: 260: 6655:(Technical report). Vol. 46. International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1989. pp. 41–185. 6244: 4941:{\displaystyle 0.75kg/L\cdot {{\frac {6\cdot 12}{6\cdot 12+14}}\cdot 1}\cdot {\frac {44}{12}}=2.3kg/L} 433: 392:. Also in 1794, Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use 10516: 10474: 10436: 10001: 9795: 9057: 8262: 8176: 8141: 8121: 8073: 7981: 7611: 7137: 7124: 7111: 5250: 5214: 4532: 4463: 3904: 3869: 3829: 3482: 3449: 3299: 2429: 1692: 1571:

of Delco's development of the automotive starter all gasoline engined automobiles used a hand crank.

1424: 1236: 1083: 551:

are not referred to as "engines"; however, combustion engines are often referred to as "motors". (An

276: 5420: 4595: 3077:

transfer into the engine) and as such their theoretical efficiency can be approximated by idealized

346:, was using peanut oil to run his engines. Renewable fuels are commonly blended with fossil fuels. 10511: 10034: 9975: 9886: 9457: 9012: 8968: 8470: 8257: 8098: 7807: 7372: 6918: 6575: 5275: 4992: 4984: 4220: 3899: 3519: 3454: 3391: 1361: 836: 6419: 617:

Where high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion engines appear in the form of

10893: 10723: 10489: 10019: 9570: 9093: 9068: 8687: 8032: 7591: 7576: 7566: 7522: 5075: 4517: 4405: 4309:

and some uncombusted hydrocarbons, depending on the operating conditions and the fuel-air ratio.

4224: 3929: 3884: 3504: 2692: 2470: 2381: 1802: 1696: 1610:

of 6 to 1. As compression ratios were increased, the efficiency of the engine increased as well.

883:, similar to a turbojet but uses vehicle speed to compress (ram) the air instead of a compressor. 642: 438: 8872: 6394: 791:

By mechanical/thermodynamic cycle (these cycles are infrequently used but are commonly found in

648:

ICEs drive large electric generators that power electrical grids. They are found in the form of

254:, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described. ( 10878: 10682: 10072: 9316: 9088: 8998: 8925: 8498: 7854: 6148: 6107: 4509: 4067: 3554: 3018: 2999: 2704: 2482: 2446: 1431:

operate on the 2-stroke cycle. The most powerful of them have a brake power of around 4.5

1027:

continuous flow of it, two-stroke engines do not need a separate crankcase ventilation system.

983: 950:. In the latter case, the cylinder liners are made of cast iron or steel, or a coating such as 381: 35: 8414: 6317: 5776: 5361: 3130:

or in liters per 100 kilometers. The volume of hydrocarbon assumes a standard energy content.

2086:

valves. Scuderi addresses the low thermal efficiency via firing after top dead center (ATDC).

1587: 1102:

that uses no springs. The camshaft may press directly the stem of the valve or may act upon a

1034:

Valve train above a diesel engine cylinder head. This engine uses rocker arms but no pushrods.

10652: 10484: 10360: 10268: 9958: 9851: 9651: 9383: 8817: 8682: 8437: 7971: 7812: 7437: 7397: 5805: 5778:

Emissions of Greenhouse Gases from the Use of Transportation Fuels and Electricity: Main text

5385:

Shay, E.Griffin (January 1993). "Diesel fuel from vegetable oils: Status and opportunities".

5295: 5182: 4037: 3879: 3745: 3657: 3354: 3086: 2994: 2585: 2042: 1946: 1583: 1546: 1518: 1481: 1403: 1378: 780: 405: 7262: 5353: 2863: 10459: 10114: 9810: 9452: 9311: 9275: 7966: 7738: 7581: 5394: 5280: 5052:

drivetrain loss can be quantified by measuring the difference between power measured by an

4972: 3579: 3312: 2836: 2738: 1925:

even firing pattern, the pistons would move in unison and the associated forces would add.

1921: 1917: 1708:(ECU) that also adjust the combustion process to increase efficiency and reduce emissions. 1568: 1466:

for an in-cylinder combustion video in a 2-stroke, optically accessible motorcycle engine.

1420: 1267: 979: 912: 638: 576: 170: 6535: 2058:

were very inefficient. There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the

1728:

to reduce wear, noise and increase efficiency by reducing the power wasting in overcoming

1377:

The main advantage of 2-stroke engines of this type is mechanical simplicity and a higher

8: 10526: 10464: 10431: 10370: 10302: 10167: 10162: 10140: 9714: 9546: 9472: 9447: 9169: 8890: 8702: 8447: 8116: 8014: 7744: 7586: 7487: 7339: 6270: 5861: 5057: 4833:

The figure obtained with this estimation is close to the values found in the literature.

4536: 4467: 3914: 3859: 3824: 3750: 3677: 3627: 3622: 3607: 3264: 3138: 3110: 3078: 1705: 1661: 1590:

or (previously) a generator which uses engine power to create electrical energy storage.

1173: 553: 5697: 5398: 2766: 594:

Reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water

27:

Engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber

10898: 10839: 10800: 10733: 10708: 10703: 10521: 10398: 10192: 10064: 9828: 9699: 9626: 9563: 9417: 9301: 9179: 9151: 8895: 8827: 8331: 8037: 7834: 7443: 6755: 6725: 6692: 6661: 6055: 5240: 5064: 4148: 3909: 3785: 3547: 3329: 3269: 3239: 3188: 3154:, which measures the mass flow rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced. 2755: 2627: 2532: 2252: 2069: 1700: 1688: 1455: 1415: 1193: 1075: 755: 649: 618: 146: 6372: 5664: 5039:

found throughout the system. Dynamic loads occur under acceleration and are caused by

4270:

Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion engines produce

350:, which is rarely used, can be obtained from either fossil fuels or renewable energy. 10728: 10588: 10408: 10317: 10285: 10202: 10155: 10082: 10054: 9823: 9818: 9616: 9326: 9189: 9174: 9161: 9141: 9116: 8960: 7839: 7779: 7730: 7606: 7428: 7274: 7230: 7202: 7183: 7164: 7140:, Ortuno Garcia Jose, "Motor de Carreras Distintas", published 1959-09-01 7127:, Ortuno Garcia Jose, "Un Nuevo Motor de Explosion", published 1957-03-01 7094: 7073: 7054: 7024: 7005: 6984: 6785: 6730: 6712: 6666: 6322: 6004: 5963: 5936: 5840: 5567: 5540: 5513: 5479: 5406: 5365: 5354: 5197: 5162: 5053: 4632: 4584: 3797: 3720: 3713: 3667: 3534: 3324: 3319: 3229: 3162: 3133:

Even when aided with turbochargers and stock efficiency aids, most engines retain an

3014: 2949:

By pushing the vehicle and then engaging the clutch, known as "run-and-bump starting"

2929: 2871: 2859: 2828: 2026: 1978:

for the ideal diesel cycle. The cycle follows the numbers 1–4 in clockwise direction.

1954: 1950: 1615: 1607: 1502: 1428: 1288: 1099: 959: 765: 742: 661: 235: 186: 7159:

Singer, Charles Joseph; Raper, Richard (1978). Charles, Singer; et al. (eds.).

6106:

Takaishi, Tatsuo; Numata, Akira; Nakano, Ryouji; Sakaguchi, Katsuhiko (March 2008).

5719: 3106:), however it still puts an upper bound on the allowable peak cylinder temperature. 1932:

at all because they can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder called an

962:. In engines with more than one cylinder they are usually arranged either in 1 row ( 625:

typically use an ICE which may be a reciprocating engine. Airplanes can instead use

205: 10888: 10672: 10573: 10531: 10499: 10393: 10347: 10307: 10214: 10182: 10150: 10135: 10119: 10094: 9879: 9833: 9131: 9078: 9008: 8905: 8782: 8612: 8131: 8088: 8047: 7996: 7961: 7882: 7869: 7548: 6871: 6720: 6704: 6656: 6446: 6327: 5832: 5402: 5192: 5158: 5020: 4312:

Carbon dioxide emissions from internal combustion engines (particularly ones using

4057: 3954: 3894: 3780: 3733: 3682: 3642: 3617: 3602: 3584: 3559: 3499: 3384: 3334: 3169: 3127: 2936: 2722: 2622:

The main limitations on fuels are that it must be easily transportable through the

2292: 2116:

Jet engines use a number of rows of fan blades to compress air which then enters a

1938: 1908:) especially in forced induction engines; this reduces torque pulsations and makes 1594: 1575: 1560: 1153: 1011: 672:

are used for backup or for providing electrical power to areas not connected to an

669: 622: 587: 474: 449: 445: 364: 8732: 6597: 6292: 2966:

Turbine engines are frequently started by an electric motor or by compressed air.

2754:) creates hydrogen as needed, but has other issues, such as the high price of the 1983:

the cylinder so that combustion occurs at constant pressure, as the piston moves.

416:

ran a prototype internal combustion engine, using controlled dust explosions, the

413: 10536: 10446: 10412: 10297: 10251: 10177: 10104: 10024: 9927: 9869: 9724: 9494: 9422: 9321: 9146: 9136: 9126: 8757: 8242: 7953: 7802: 7759: 7571: 7088: 6999: 6978: 5781:. Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory. pp. 100–. 5285: 4613: 4601: 4478: 4393: 4321: 3842: 3802: 3672: 3637: 3569: 3509: 3437: 3374: 3274: 3119: 3039: 2978: 2797: 2746: 2742: 2653: 2649: 2454: 1975: 1909: 1861: 1849: 1579: 1160:

directly, or to a carburetor when one is present, which is then connected to the

1149: 1047: 1043: 963: 908: 796: 784: 699: 544: 478: 469:

invented the first commercial liquid-fueled internal combustion engine. In 1876,

327: 268: 194: 6646: 5607:"The invention of the internal combustion engine. A spark of italian creativity" 2737:. In many situations the disadvantage of hydrogen, relative to carbon fuels, is 417: 10849: 10583: 10469: 10426: 10420: 10416: 10261: 10246: 10197: 10187: 10099: 9953: 9709: 9680: 9432: 9072: 8862: 8837: 8822: 8727: 8674: 8356: 8108: 8078: 7933: 7700: 7538: 7497: 7482: 7467: 7402: 7392: 7387: 7362: 6504: 6271:"Spark Timing Myths Debunked – Spark Timing Myths Explained: Application Notes" 5235: 5143: 4626: 4552: 4482: 4416: 4388: 4369: 4317: 4302: 4279: 4160: 3964: 3864: 3819: 3812: 3807: 3564: 3259: 3085:, whose efficiency is determined by the difference between the lower and upper 3051: 3035: 3004: 2623: 2563: 2412:

oil), can also be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run on

2302: 2298: 2267: 2209: 2082: 2074: 2059: 1933: 1913: 1868:, which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations such as the 1767: 1653: 1638: 1627: 1619: 1526: 1343: 1299: 1258: 1247: 1198: 1169: 1165: 1138: 803: 792: 711: 687: 548: 499: 466: 458: 198: 83: 7280: 7250: 4824:{\displaystyle 0.838kg/L\cdot {\frac {12}{14}}\cdot {\frac {44}{12}}=2.63kg/L} 1509:

was one of the first motor vehicles to achieve over 100 mpg as a result.

10862: 10834: 10603: 10504: 10290: 10219: 9991: 9739: 9603: 9504: 9482: 9467: 9359: 9341: 9053: 9003: 8900: 8852: 8842: 8592: 8546: 8442: 8381: 8280: 8171: 8164: 7986: 7918: 7913: 7877: 7794: 7734: 7695: 7685: 7622: 7601: 7517: 7472: 7433: 7407: 7377: 6716: 6708: 6482: 5270: 5177: 5172: 5148: 5124: 4964:, causes parasitic loss and could thus be characterized as a parasitic load. 4437:

is hazardous to both plant and animal health, and leads to the production of

4401: 4271: 4143: 3979: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3217: 3103: 2887: 2821: 2805: 2734: 2667:. Gasoline engines are used in most other road vehicles including most cars, 2645: 2616: 2607: 2542: 2498: 2492: 2349: 2340: 2336: 2260: 2221: 2181: 2005: 1942: 1929: 1865: 1673: 1623: 1522: 1447:, whose prime mover has almost the same brake power, uses a 4-stroke engine. 1271: 1251: 1227: 1087: 1055: 1039: 1010:

and is typically flat or concave. Some two-stroke engines use pistons with a

904: 892: 831: 824: 820: 673: 657: 494:

developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine. In 1926,

491: 470: 462: 343: 251: 239: 223: 213: 182: 174: 150: 50: 8807: 7292: 5836: 4600:

The emission standards used by many countries have special requirements for

2319:, where the compressor is directly powered from the engine shaft or, in the 1030: 930: 656:

use the high temperature exhaust to boil and superheat water steam to run a

204:

The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by

54:

Diagram of a cylinder as found in an overhead cam 4-stroke gasoline engine:

10624: 10598: 10578: 10402: 10365: 10329: 9965: 9912: 9788: 9744: 9729: 9658: 9517: 9477: 8802: 8797: 8707: 8551: 8526: 8376: 7897: 7892: 7859: 7764: 7754: 7690: 7674: 7507: 7502: 7477: 7423: 7382: 6734: 5290: 5255: 5071: 5013: 5001: 4505: 4380: 4376: 4012: 3974: 3959: 3790: 3755: 3700: 3419: 3279: 3082: 3073:(since the release of chemical energy in combustion has the same effect as 3062: 3008: 2815: 2811: 2680: 2577: 2405: 2397: 2320: 2316: 2063: 2055: 1966: 1806: 1564: 1474: 1407: 1130: 1063: 1059: 991: 967: 939: 875:, a gas turbine optimized for producing mechanical torque instead of thrust 808: 679: 535: 503: 335: 264: 242:. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: 208:

around 1860, and the first modern internal combustion engine, known as the

201:

which is used to propel, move or power whatever the engine is attached to.

193:). This force moves the component over a distance. This process transforms 108: 102: 95: 6670: 3081:. The thermal efficiency of a theoretical cycle cannot exceed that of the 3066:

and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.

2161: 2009:

performance. In 1906, the concept was incorporated in a car built by EHV (

1652:. The step-up transformer uses energy stored in a capacitance to generate 441:

patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially.

153:

flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-

10561: 10556: 10241: 10236: 10207: 10172: 10145: 9675: 9522: 9442: 9427: 9406: 9354: 9296: 9291: 9108: 9048: 9033: 8988: 8920: 8857: 8812: 8717: 8602: 8587: 8582: 8577: 8465: 8371: 8275: 8159: 7976: 7928: 7887: 7844: 7774: 6894:"Heavy-Duty Vehicle Diesel Engine Efficiency Evaluation and Energy Audit" 5260: 5219: 5209: 5187: 4976: 4471: 4313: 3934: 3632: 3612: 3249: 3070: 3058: 3043: 2942:

Two-wheeled vehicles may have their engines started in one of four ways:

2867: 2832: 2573: 2460: 2389: 2373: 2365: 2361: 2271: 2156: 2031: 1857: 1725: 1649: 1593:

The battery supplies electrical power for starting when the engine has a

1444: 1440: 1352: 1156:

attached to the corresponding ports. The intake manifold connects to the

1091: 1019: 1015: 848: 730:

There are several possible ways to classify internal combustion engines.

682:(usually 2‐stroke gasoline/petrol engines) are a common power source for 429: 409: 393: 385: 319: 311: 307: 243: 231: 209: 178: 154: 130: 3145: 3057:

Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are

1393: 583: 380:

contributed to the development of internal combustion engines. In 1791,

10738: 10355: 9670: 9663: 9646: 9631: 9462: 9437: 8950: 8935: 8930: 8697: 8536: 8518: 8429: 8391: 8366: 8247: 8207: 8186: 8181: 8083: 7991: 7923: 7849: 7789: 7720: 7512: 7308: 7265:– Cut-away images and a good overview of the internal combustion engine 5413: 5245: 5103: 5009: 4988: 4961: 3984: 3740: 3244: 3115: 3097:

have a thermal operating limit, and there is significant research into

3031: 2668: 2660: 2648:

are generally heavier, noisier, and more powerful at lower speeds than

2639: 2604: 2569: 2551: 2528: 2332: 2280: 2276: 2247: 2103: 2038: 1992: 1825: 1517:

Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by

1506: 1486: 1436: 1337: 1331:

Diagram of a crankcase scavenged valveless 2-stroke engine in operation

1161: 1157: 1126: 1103: 1079: 1067: 872: 759: 719: 703: 695: 665: 634: 630: 626: 611: 603: 599: 558: 519: 486: 389: 247: 227: 190: 134: 89: 59: 6891: 6863: 5657: 2339:, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject 1637:

The necessary high voltage, typically 10,000 volts, is supplied by an

572: 10667: 10619: 10593: 10541: 10375: 10337: 10087: 10077: 9749: 9611: 9586: 9487: 9098: 9038: 8978: 8945: 8847: 8832: 8792: 8787: 8767: 8747: 8692: 8660: 8655: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8630: 8625: 8620: 8531: 8508: 8404: 8361: 8202: 7943: 7938: 7725: 7705: 6572:"Ingersoll Rand Engine Starting – Turbine, Vane and Gas Air Starters" 6519:

After assembling, the air-flask shall be charged to 450 lbs. pressure

5265: 5224: 4531:, carbon monoxide and other pollutants are frequently controlled via 4498: 4052: 4007: 3969: 3919: 3854: 3760: 3224: 3196: 2915: 2904: 2726: 2696: 2557: 2439: 2401: 2369: 2348:

is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidizers (see

2174: 2117: 2108: 1945:

diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to serve three banks of

1798: 1406:, which may also use ports for exhaust. The blower is usually of the 1218:(TDC) of a piston is the position where it is nearest to the valves; 1113: 943: 866: 691: 683: 530: 482: 373: 331: 7253:– in-cylinder combustion in an optically accessible, 2-stroke engine 4209: 1327: 10312: 10256: 9917: 9766: 9734: 9336: 9331: 9306: 9043: 8772: 8762: 8752: 8737: 8712: 8556: 8541: 8503: 8475: 8419: 8409: 8346: 8225: 8221: 8093: 7824: 7749: 7715: 6875: 6218: 5099: 5095: 5036: 5005: 4980: 4412: 3424: 3047: 2935:

As diesel engines have become larger and their mechanisms heavier,

2925: 2684: 2664: 2600: 2488: 2450: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2377: 2121: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1853: 1817: 1811: 1729: 1365:: all the lubricating oil is eventually burned along with the fuel. 1181: 1142: 1095: 1071: 975: 971: 947: 886: 860: 854: 652:

with a typical electrical output in the range of some 100 MW.

421: 377: 347: 315: 299: 165:

to some component of the engine. The force is typically applied to

158: 142: 71: 65: 7256: 5792: 5790: 5788: 1724:

Surfaces in contact and relative motion to other surfaces require

1505:

system. DKW licensed this design for all their motorcycles. Their

1443:

class of locomotives are an example of such. The comparable class

425: 10273: 9776: 9754: 9641: 9636: 8983: 8973: 8940: 8915: 8910: 8777: 8742: 8561: 8457: 8399: 8351: 8252: 8136: 7277:– Animation of the components and built-up of a 4-cylinder engine 6081:"New Benchmarks for Steam Turbine Efficiency – Power Engineering" 5118: 5040: 5032: 4397: 4365: 4361: 3204: 3098: 2908: 2786: 2688: 2657: 2581: 2538: 2476: 2466: 2409: 2393: 2385: 2170: 1971: 1622:

which allowed higher compression ratios, which was progressively

1551: 1222:(BDC) is the opposite position where it is furthest from them. A 1177: 1107: 951: 922: 707: 595: 454: 323: 291: 255: 6970:

Combustion Engine and Operations, Automobile Technology Handbook

6475:"Air-cooled 7HA and 9HA designs rated at over 61% CC efficiency" 6133: 4535:

which returns some of the exhaust back into the engine intake.

3137:

efficiency of about 18–20%. However, the latest technologies in

3038:

than the original compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higher

2226: 2073:

combustion and exhaust occur. A split-cycle engine is really an

1760:

Timing chain or gears. Toothed belts do not require lubrication.

10677: 10657: 10551: 10226: 9719: 9375: 8993: 8063: 8042: 7819: 7769: 7303: 7283:– Animation of the internal moving parts of a 4-cylinder engine 6621:"Mercedes AMG F1 engine achieves 50 percent thermal efficiency" 5785: 5031:

drag, and in seal/bearing drag, churning of lubricant and gear

5028: 5016:

over a supercharger is the lower parasitic loss of the former.

4508:, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone, are regulated as 4384: 4306: 4275: 4062: 4042: 3949: 3939: 3647: 2952:

By kicking downward on a single pedal, known as "kick starting"

2793: 2676: 2631: 2591: 1002: 955: 880: 401: 280: 166: 77: 6517:– via San Francisco Maritime National Park Association. 5586: 5200:– information about how to check an internal combustion engine 2404:(a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield 1202:

Diagram showing the operation of a 4-stroke SI engine. Labels:

938:

The base of a reciprocating internal combustion engine is the

481:, patented the compressed charge, four-cycle engine. In 1879, 400:

built the first American internal combustion engine. In 1807,

10687: 10629: 9970: 9902: 9800: 9692: 8867: 8722: 8291: 7090:

The Science and Technology of Materials in Automotive Engines

6105: 5079: 4438: 4072: 4017: 3409: 3094: 3090: 2672: 2014: 1928:

Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a

1797:, lubrication is accomplished in a closed-loop which carries 715: 523: 465:

patented the first atmospheric gas engine. In 1872, American

453:

France, Belgium and Piedmont between 1857 and 1859. In 1860,

303: 162: 31: 9555: 6690: 2180:

A gas turbine is a rotary machine similar in principle to a

1180:. The final section in the path of the exhaust gases is the 1086:. Most SI engines have a single spark plug per cylinder but 869:, through an unducted propeller, usually with variable pitch 10662: 9783: 9771: 9687: 8217: 6782:

The Diesel Engine, in series: commercial vehicle technology

6219:"The Early History of the Bosch Magneto Company in America" 6171:"DKW RT 125/2H, 1954 > Models > History > AUDI AG" 4294: 4047: 3294: 3289: 3254: 3161:(TSFC), which is the mass of propellant needed to generate 3074: 2796:, as well as some compressed air, was used in the Japanese 2700: 2635: 2505: 1664:

became standard on gasoline engines sold in cold climates.

1634:

is still being compressed progressively more as rpm rises.

1432: 1122: 607: 339: 295: 138: 5356:

Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine

4646:

As a good approximation the chemical formula of diesel is

4474:, which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays. 2725:

in traditional internal combustion engines. Alternatively

1887: 889:, a variant of the ramjet that uses supersonic combustion. 461:

produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864,

41:"Internal combustion" redirects here. For other uses, see 9027: 8597: 8485: 8322: 7664: 6049:"CFX aids design of world's most efficient steam turbine" 5478:. Germany: Society of Automotive Engineers. p. 371. 4316:

such as gasoline and diesel) contribute to human-induced

2974:

Engine types vary greatly in a number of different ways:

6864:"Measurements of Power Losses in Automobile Drive Train" 6193:"Laser sparks revolution in internal combustion engines" 1748:

Valve gear (The following elements may not be present):

7161:

A History of Technology: The Internal Combustion Engine

6754:. Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications. Archived from 5682: 1614:

igniting due to the rise in temperature that resulted.

1141:

is connected to offset sections of the crankshaft (the

6947:"Reduce Parasitic Drag – Pump Up The Power – Dr. Dyno" 6318:"Gasifier Aids Motor Starting Under Arctic Conditions" 2781:

output or to allow operation under water or in space.

498:

launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the

30:"ICEV" redirects here. For the form of water ice, see 6901:

Center for Alternative Fuels, Engines & Emissions

5888: 5886: 5884: 5882: 5439: 4844: 4757: 3146:

Measures of fuel efficiency and propellant efficiency

2305:. An engine without forced induction is considered a 6334: 6108:"Approach to High Efficiency Diesel and Gas Engines" 6017: 5509:

Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology

5324:"History of Technology: Internal Combustion engines" 5114: 2352:), as well as by the compression and other factors. 2212:

electrical plants are rated at over 61% efficiency.

2077:

on one side with a combustion chamber on the other.

7182:. London: The Institution of Mechanical Engineers. 6807:"Turbochargers vs. Superchargers: Which Is Better?" 6083:. Pepei.pennnet.com. 24 August 2010. Archived from 6029: 5959:

Internal Combustion Engines: Applied Thermosciences

4336:emissions as carbon-based fuel combustion produces 3042:). This available energy is manifested as a higher 2511:Gasoline can be made from carbon (coal) using the 2195:of the work drives the compressor: the rest (about 2169:A gas turbine compresses air and uses it to turn a 1606:chamber is described by a ratio. Early engines had 1586:. The battery's charged state is maintained by an 1054:) for intake and exhaust and the associated intake 934:

Piston, piston ring, gudgeon pin and connecting rod

543:, "mover") is any machine that produces mechanical 222:usually refers to an engine in which combustion is 5910: 5898: 5879: 5043:of rotating components and/or increased friction. 4940: 4823: 1720:Diagram of an engine using pressurized lubrication 946:(due to its good wear resistance and low cost) or 334:are used in compression ignition (CI) engines and 7218:The Middle Ages of the Internal Combustion Engine 4746:Diesel has a density of 0.838 kg per litre. 2969: 2124:engine can operate at as high as 48% efficiency. 396:, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, 234:piston engines, along with variants, such as the 10860: 7023:(4th ed.). Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. 6369:"5-Stroke Concept Engine Design and Development" 2323:, from a turbine powered by the engine exhaust. 6862:Ko, Yoshiyuki; Hosoi, Kenzo (1 February 1984). 6467: 5829:Entropy Analysis in Thermal Engineering Systems 4680:The reaction of diesel combustion is given by: 2818:fuels to increase power and control combustion. 2517:Diesel fuel can be made from carbon using the 1667: 7652: 6422:. US: NASA Glenn Research Center. 12 June 2014 5154:Component parts of internal combustion engines 4278:fuel. The main derivatives of the process are 2034:Otto cycle with an injection of air or water. 1070:in the case of spark ignition engines and the 533:—a sense that persists in expressions such as 9571: 9391: 8307: 7638: 7324: 5774: 5560:Jaffe, Robert L.; Taylor, Washington (2018). 4324:can reduce, but not eliminate, the amount of 4180: 2127:There are six sections to a turbofan engine: 1314:While a 4-stroke engine uses the piston as a 1121:The crankcase is sealed at the bottom with a 795:, along with other vehicles manufactured for 7302:Aircraft Engine Historical Society (AEHS) – 6980:Automobile Mechanical and Electrical Systems 6550:"Cadillac's Electric Self Starter Turns 100" 6506:The Whitehead Torpedo, notes on handling etc 6115:Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Technical Review 5532: 2360:The most common modern fuels are made up of 1239:. The air or air-fuel mixture is called the 1137:is used rather than several smaller caps. A 1042:is attached to the engine block by numerous 161:gases produced by combustion applies direct 7158: 7070:Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines 6000:Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines 5955: 5932:Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines 5768: 5559: 5347: 5345: 4638: 4274:emissions, due to incomplete combustion of 4238:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3122:reduce overall system efficiency. Vehicle 3069:Internal combustion engines are considered 2717:Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle 1848:Common cylinder configurations include the 1413:CI engines that use a blower typically use 275:combustion engines include air, hot water, 9578: 9564: 9398: 9384: 8314: 8300: 7645: 7631: 7331: 7317: 7215: 7001:Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals 2E 6804: 6618: 6434: 5956:Kirkpatrick, Allan T. (23 November 2020). 5421:"The Pyréolophore: a new engine principle" 4568:(water vapour, also a greenhouse gas) and 4187: 4173: 3203: 3179: 2804:carry pure oxygen. Rockets very often use 2331:All internal combustion engines depend on 2301:to increase the pressure, temperature and 1270:due to the leftover pressure—in excess of 444:In 1854, in the UK, the Italian inventors 7041:The High-Speed Internal Combustion Engine 6724: 6660: 5505: 5471: 5351: 4596:Non-road engine § Emission standards 4539:are used to convert exhaust chemicals to 4258:Learn how and when to remove this message 2785:Compressed air has been commonly used in 1957:engines and marine auxiliary generators. 1843: 1532: 1450:An example of this type of engine is the 1274:, the gauge pressure on the exhaust port. 360:History of the internal combustion engine 8718:Cabriolet / Convertible / Drophead coupe 7711:Crankcase ventilation system (PCV valve) 7338: 7271:– Research at The University of Michigan 7177: 7086: 6944: 6838:"Drivetrain Power Loss – The 15% 'Rule'" 6784:. Berlin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer. 6141:"Two Stroke Spark Ignition (S.I) Engine" 5916: 5342: 2914: 2891: 2765: 2630:, and that the fuel releases sufficient 2246: 2225: 2160: 2107: 2041:and "piston charger" engines operate as 1970: 1886: 1715: 1582:using the electrical energy stored in a 1550: 1536: 1392: 1326: 1197: 1112: 1078:. SI (spark ignition) engines can use a 1029: 929: 921: 898: 842: 582: 571: 363: 49: 10719:Pollutant release and transfer register 9064:Homogeneous charge compression ignition 7493:Homogeneous charge compression ignition 7224: 7201:. US: Society of Automotive Engineers. 6997: 6861: 6779: 6399:Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change 6249:Automobile in American Life and Society 5892: 5536:The Steam-Engine and Other Heat-Engines 5230:Homogeneous charge compression ignition 4504:In the United States, nitrogen oxides, 4477:Carbon fuels containing sulfur produce 3034:products—hot gases—have more available 2919:Electric starter as used in automobiles 1691:in automobiles and light trucks employ 1082:or fuel injection as port injection or 14: 10861: 7220:. US: Society of Automotive Engineers. 7196: 7018: 6976: 6835: 6352: 6340: 6035: 5904: 5826: 5759: 5063:For example, in a dynamometer test by 2326: 2205:) is available as useful work output. 2092: 1912:with more than 3 cylinders statically 1322: 1187: 1106:, again, either directly or through a 974:); 3 or 4 rows are occasionally used ( 9559: 9379: 8295: 7626: 7312: 7163:. Clarendon Press. pp. 157–176. 7067: 6945:Holdener, Richard (1 November 2006). 6916: 6912: 6910: 6903:– via West Virginia University. 6887: 6885: 6831: 6829: 6827: 6805:Witzenburg, Gary (12 December 2018). 6023: 5996: 5928: 5318: 5316: 4396:(CO). Further chemicals released are 2903:Hand-cranking a boat diesel motor in 2642:to make practical use of the engine. 1999: 1916:in its primary forces. However, some 1891:Some popular cylinder configurations: 1626:from the 1970s onward, partly due to 1574:Larger engines typically power their 1282: 978:) in contemporary engines, and other 368:Brayton walking beam engine from 1872 10809: 10050:Electromagnetic radiation and health 6395:"Aviation and the Global Atmosphere" 5997:Stone, Richard (16 September 2017). 5929:Stone, Richard (16 September 2017). 5720:"World Wide Words: Engine and Motor" 5384: 4236:adding citations to reliable sources 4203: 3025: 2020: 1469: 641:. Wankel engines are fitted to many 424:. This engine powered a boat on the 10825: 10817: 9908:Radium and radon in the environment 7298:Unusual Internal-Combustion Engines 7287:Next generation engine technologies 7053:. New Delhi, India: Kataria Books. 6697:International Journal of Toxicology 6648:Diesel and Gasoline Engine Exhausts 6619:Szymkowski, Sean (1 October 2017). 6552:(Press release). US: General Motors 6455:from the original on 13 August 2016 6371:. Ilmor Engineering. Archived from 5475:The World History of the Automobile 5139:Aluminum internal combustion engine 4589: 4372:powered by batteries are examples. 3415:Radium and radon in the environment 2286: 2011:Eisenhuth Horseless Vehicle Company 1463: 1388: 428:river in France. In the same year, 24: 9536:Timeline of heat engine technology 7227:Development of Piston Aero Engines 7152: 7021:Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology 6907: 6882: 6824: 5313: 4607: 2955:By an electric starter, as in cars 2870:. In some engines, especially for 2853:Internal combustion engine cooling 2315:Forced induction is achieved by a 926:Bare cylinder block of a V8 engine 25: 10910: 8728:Coupé de Ville / Sedanca de Ville 7244: 6251:. University of Michigan-Dearborn 5744: 4950: 2723:replace conventional fossil fuels 2242: 1098:and springs—or in some engines—a 982:are possible and have been used. 725: 388:. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a 10843: 10833: 10824: 10816: 10808: 10796: 10795: 9405: 6598:"Improving IC Engine Efficiency" 6574:. Ingersoll Rand. Archived from 5859: 5798:"Two Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine" 5506:Day, Lance; McNeil, Ian (2002). 5117: 4208: 4199: 4154: 4142: 3159:thrust specific fuel consumption 3021:for jet engines and gas turbines 2989:thrust specific fuel consumption 2215: 1850:straight or inline configuration 958:. The engine block contains the 733: 529:, "ability") meant any piece of 420:, which was granted a patent by 306:. ICEs are typically powered by 149:that is an integral part of the 34:. For the high speed train, see 9622:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 7813:Overhead valve (pushrod) layout 6961: 6938: 6917:Smith, Jeff (1 November 2003). 6870:. Vol. 1. p. 840054. 6855: 6798: 6773: 6741: 6684: 6639: 6612: 6590: 6564: 6542: 6524: 6497: 6412: 6387: 6361: 6346: 6310: 6285: 6263: 6237: 6211: 6185: 6163: 6099: 6073: 6041: 5990: 5976: 5949: 5922: 5853: 5820: 5753: 5738: 5712: 5631: 5599: 5580: 5425:Nicéphore Niépce's House Museum 5074:equipped with a modified 357ci 3235:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 3152:brake specific fuel consumption 2985:brake specific fuel consumption 2656:over gasoline engines), ships, 2435:Presently, fuels used include: 2150: 2048: 1960: 621:, or sometimes Wankel engines. 567: 9365:Template:EC car classification 8321: 6836:Pratte, David (9 March 2020). 6509:. US: Bureau of Ordnance. 1890 6293:"Electronic Ignition Overview" 5690:"Who invented the automobile?" 5566:. Cambridge University Press. 5553: 5539:. Cambridge University Press. 5526: 5499: 5465: 5378: 5352:Pulkrabek, Willard W. (1997). 5046: 4104:Least polluted cities by PM2.5 2970:Measures of engine performance 2770:One-cylinder gasoline engine, 1711: 1355:for the following conditions: 1266:, the combustion gases expand 996:honing to obtain a cross hatch 13: 1: 10110:Electrical resistance heating 9585: 7259:– explains a variety of types 7216:Hardenberg, Horst O. (1999). 5747:Technology Today and Tomorrow 5306: 5107:design to be more efficient. 4612:Significant contributions to 3575:Electrical resistance heating 2983:fuel/propellant consumption ( 2771: 2525:Biofuels and vegetable oils: 2097: 2054:imitating the principle of a 1986: 1856:, and the wider but smoother 1736:Between pistons and cylinders 1397:Diagram of uniflow scavenging 1347:to the fuel in small ratios. 1172:of an ICE may also include a 942:, which is typically made of 857:, through a propelling nozzle 98:. red: exhaust, blue: intake. 9762:Persistent organic pollutant 6749:"2013 Global Sourcing Guide" 6330:. January 1953. p. 149. 5407:10.1016/0961-9534(93)90080-N 5168:Deglazing (engine mechanics) 5088: 3285:Persistent organic pollutant 3209:Air pollution from a factory 3030:Once ignited and burnt, the 2946:By pedaling, as on a bicycle 2876:liquid rocket engine cooling 2872:turbine engine blade cooling 2814:is added to some racing and 2761: 2752:direct borohydride fuel cell 2424:, as well as from so-called 2364:and are derived mostly from 1668:Compression ignition process 1646:Capacitor discharge ignition 1624:abandoned for automotive use 917: 509: 226:, such as the more familiar 7: 10772:Least polluted cities by PM 7398:Stirling (pseudo/adiabatic) 7072:(2nd ed.). Macmillan. 7051:Internal Combustion Engines 7019:Nunney, Malcolm J. (2007). 5134:Adiabatic flame temperature 5110: 4967: 4320:. Increasing the engine's 3050:that can be converted into 2881: 2710: 2255:around the eccentric shaft. 2013:); and in the 21st century 1858:flat or boxer configuration 1695:(or other pre-heating: see 1512: 776:Compression-ignition engine 654:Combined cycle power plants 261:external combustion engines 107:gray structure – 10: 10915: 10869:Internal combustion engine 10714:Pollution haven hypothesis 10637:Brain health and pollution 9875:Ecological light pollution 9705:Internal combustion engine 9054:Gasoline / petrol 8818:Roadster / Spider / Spyder 7654:Internal combustion engine 6868:SAE Technical Paper Series 6245:"Hand Cranking the Engine" 5300:Variable compression ratio 5204:External combustion engine 5098:lubrication system over a 4996:differentials and axles). 4624: 4593: 4582: 4464:volatile organic compounds 3174:effective exhaust velocity 2885: 2850: 2846: 2758:that is the raw material. 2721:Hydrogen could eventually 2714: 2619:" outside North America). 2545:using solid wood as a fuel 2307:naturally aspirated engine 2290: 2258: 2219: 2154: 2101: 1964: 1671: 1544: 1316:positive displacement pump 1286: 1191: 902: 818: 561:operated by electricity.) 459:Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir 357: 353: 219:internal combustion engine 119:internal combustion engine 40: 29: 10793: 10747: 10696: 10645: 10612: 10517:Nonpoint source pollution 10445: 10437:War and environmental law 10384: 10346: 10328: 10128: 10063: 10000: 9926: 9895: 9860: 9844: 9809: 9796:Volatile organic compound 9602: 9593: 9544: 9531: 9513: 9413: 9350: 9274: 9194:(engine / drive) 9188: 9160: 9107: 8959: 8881: 8673: 8611: 8570: 8517: 8484: 8456: 8428: 8390: 8339: 8330: 8271: 8235: 8195: 8150: 8122:Diesel particulate filter 8107: 8074:Idle air control actuator 8056: 8023: 8015:Engine control unit (ECU) 8005: 7952: 7906: 7868: 7788: 7673: 7660: 7557: 7531: 7456: 7416: 7357: 7346: 7004:. McGraw-Hill Education. 6780:Hilgers, Michael (2020). 6442:"How a Gas Turbine Works" 5962:. John Wiley & Sons. 5533:Alfred Ewing, J. (2013). 5447:"The Pyreolophore engine" 5360:. Prentice Hall. p. 5251:Magnesium injection cycle 5215:Gasoline direct injection 4620: 4533:exhaust gas recirculation 3830:War and environmental law 3450:Health effects from noise 3300:Volatile organic compound 2430:magnesium injection cycle 1779:splash lubrication system 1523:compression ignition (CI) 1425:electric power generation 1148:The cylinder head has an 823:-cylindered engines, see 814: 502:became the world's first 212:, was created in 1876 by 9976:Marine mammals and sonar 9887:Radio spectrum pollution 8833:Sedan delivery/Panel van 8187:Viscous fan (fan clutch) 8099:Throttle position sensor 7808:Overhead camshaft layout 7197:Suzuki, Takashi (1997). 6709:10.1177/1091581813519686 6600:. Courses.washington.edu 6353:Suzuki, Takashi (1997). 5762:Extreme Machines on Land 5472:Eckermann, Erik (2001). 5276:Pistonless rotary engine 4639:Carbon dioxide formation 4518:hazardous air pollutants 4406:hazardous air pollutants 3455:Marine mammals and sonar 2372:). Fossil fuels include 2355: 1567:or hand crank. Prior to 1555:Points and coil ignition 1362:total-loss oiling system 1302:for the expansion apply. 837:Pistonless rotary engine 643:unmanned aerial vehicles 610:and to a lesser extent, 539:. A "motor" (from Latin 10874:19th-century inventions 10822:WikiProject Environment 10780:Most polluted countries 10724:Polluter pays principle 10455:Agricultural wastewater 9094:Liquified petroleum gas 8906:Driverless (autonomous) 7726:Core plug (freeze plug) 7068:Stone, Richard (1992). 7038:Ricardo, Harry (1931). 6919:"Drivetrain Power Loss" 5837:10.1016/C2018-0-04777-5 5827:Haseli, Yousef (2020). 5694:The Library of Congress 5669:Encyclopedia Britannica 5328:Encyclopædia Britannica 4510:criteria air pollutants 4387:to achieve the perfect 3930:Freshwater salinization 3850:Agricultural wastewater 3180:Air and noise pollution 2693:liquefied petroleum gas 2566:(replaces petrodiesel). 2560:(replaces petrodiesel). 2519:Fischer–Tropsch process 2513:Fischer–Tropsch process 2471:liquified petroleum gas 2384:, and the rarer use of 1953:, and is still used in 1452:Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C 1294:the cycle consists of: 984:Single-cylinder engines 819:For rotating-crankcase 434:François Isaac de Rivaz 408:(who went on to invent 10840:Environment portal 10073:Agricultural pollution 8999:Compressed natural gas 8926:Personal rapid transit 7269:Walter E. Lay Auto Lab 7225:Gunston, Bill (1999). 7199:The Romance of Engines 7178:Setright, LJK (1975). 6534:. NASA. Archived from 6357:. SAE. pp. 87–94. 6355:The Romance of Engines 6273:. Innovate Motorsports 5775:M. A. DeLuchi (1991). 5760:Armentrout, Patricia. 4942: 4825: 4415:in the air to produce 4149:Environment portal 3087:operating temperatures 3019:overall pressure ratio 3000:thrust to weight ratio 2920: 2912: 2777: 2705:tractor vaporizing oil 2483:Compressed natural gas 2256: 2231: 2166: 2113: 2043:opposed-piston engines 1979: 1947:double-ended cylinders 1900: 1844:Cylinder configuration 1721: 1678:For ignition, diesel, 1556: 1542: 1533:Spark ignition process 1404:opposed piston engines 1398: 1332: 1211: 1118: 1035: 935: 927: 738:By number of strokes: 591: 580: 514:At one time, the word 369: 238:piston engine and the 114: 64:E – exhaust 10495:Industrial wastewater 10361:Clutter (advertising) 10269:Municipal solid waste 10115:Soil guideline values 9959:Sustainable transport 9852:Information pollution 9652:Open burning of waste 9478:Steam (reciprocating) 9265:Dual motor-four-wheel 8863:Town (Coupé de Ville) 7289:retrieved May 9, 2009 7087:Yamagata, H. (2005). 6532:"Re-Creating History" 5387:Biomass and Bioenergy 5296:Variable displacement 4943: 4826: 3890:Industrial wastewater 3658:Municipal solid waste 3580:Soil guideline values 3007:(for shaft engines), 2995:power-to-weight ratio 2918: 2902: 2769: 2586:Flexible-fuel vehicle 2270:terms it follows the 2250: 2229: 2164: 2111: 1974: 1918:engine configurations 1890: 1884:have also been used. 1719: 1588:automotive alternator 1554: 1547:Spark-ignition engine 1540: 1503:Schnurle Reverse Flow 1396: 1379:power-to-weight ratio 1330: 1201: 1116: 1100:desmodromic mechanism 1033: 980:engine configurations 933: 925: 899:Reciprocating engines 843:Continuous combustion 781:Spark-ignition engine 771:By type of ignition: 586: 575: 367: 183:rotor (Wankel engine) 53: 10767:Most polluted cities 10460:Biological pollution 10371:Overhead power lines 9276:Engine configuration 7967:Compression ignition 7582:Regenerative cooling 7460:combustion / thermal 7359:Without phase change 7350:combustion / thermal 7340:Thermodynamic cycles 7293:How Car Engines Work 7263:Intro to Car Engines 7180:Some unusual engines 6998:Heywood, J. (2018). 6968:Anyebe, E.A (2009). 6761:on 25 September 2013 6578:on 13 September 2016 6087:on 18 September 2009 5281:Reciprocating engine 4842: 4755: 4537:Catalytic converters 4232:improve this section 4099:Most polluted cities 3751:Overhead power lines 3111:thermodynamic limits 3079:thermodynamic cycles 3061:(often by opening a 3017:for piston engines, 2837:Messerschmitt Me 163 2554:(replaces gasoline). 1866:radial configuration 1706:engine control units 1699:) that pre-heat the 1662:engine block heaters 1569:Charles F. Kettering 1421:marine diesel engine 913:Reciprocating engine 863:, through a duct-fan 639:auxiliary power unit 577:Reciprocating engine 485:patented a reliable 240:Wankel rotary engine 103:cooling water jacket 70:I – inlet 10830:WikiProject Ecology 10527:Ocean acidification 10432:Unexploded ordnance 10303:Post-consumer waste 10163:Foam food container 10141:Biodegradable waste 9715:Global distillation 9547:Thermodynamic cycle 9458:Pistonless (Rotary) 9448:Photo-Carnot engine 9282:internal combustion 9084:Internal combustion 8891:All-terrain vehicle 8813:Retractable hardtop 8117:Catalytic converter 6977:Denton, T. (2011). 6538:on 1 December 2007. 6061:on 16 November 2010 5399:1993BmBe....4..227S 5076:small-block Ford V8 5058:chassis dynamometer 5023:, the transmission 4468:stratospheric ozone 3915:Ocean acidification 3825:Unexploded ordnance 3746:Advertising clutter 3678:Post-consumer waste 3623:Foam food container 3608:Biodegradable waste 3265:Global distillation 3139:Formula One engines 2987:for shaft engines, 2346:temperature reached 2327:Fuels and oxidizers 2165:Turbine power plant 2112:Turbofan jet engine 2093:Combustion turbines 2070:Split-cycle engines 1852:, the more compact 1519:spark ignition (SI) 1323:Crankcase scavenged 1188:Four-stroke engines 1174:catalytic converter 783:(commonly found as 650:combustion turbines 633:can instead employ 619:combustion turbines 473:began working with 145:(usually air) in a 43:Internal Combustion 18:Internal combustion 10850:Ecology portal 10734:Waste minimisation 10709:Industrial ecology 10704:Cleaner production 10522:Nutrient pollution 10399:Herbicidal warfare 10193:Construction waste 9829:Introduced species 9700:Indoor air quality 9627:Chlorofluorocarbon 8243:Knocking / pinging 7835:Combustion chamber 6924:Car Craft Magazine 6225:. 19 December 2014 5986:. 27 October 2009. 5726:. 27 December 1998 5700:on 1 February 2021 5453:. 9 September 2019 5427:. 17 February 2021 5241:Indirect injection 5054:engine dynamometer 4938: 4821: 4633:stop-start systems 4497:) contributing to 4348:. Since removing 4299:particulate matter 4161:Ecology portal 3786:Herbicidal warfare 3330:Introduced species 3270:Indoor air quality 3240:Chlorofluorocarbon 2921: 2913: 2778: 2756:sodium borohydride 2628:combustion chamber 2541:, from an onboard 2445:Petroleum spirit ( 2303:density of the air 2257: 2253:orbital revolution 2232: 2167: 2114: 2000:Five-stroke engine 1980: 1951:locomotive engines 1901: 1795:lubrication system 1722: 1701:combustion chamber 1689:indirect injection 1608:compression ratios 1557: 1543: 1456:thermal efficiency 1429:locomotive engines 1416:uniflow scavenging 1399: 1333: 1283:Two-stroke engines 1220:bottom dead center 1212: 1194:Four-stroke engine 1119: 1076:indirect injection 1036: 1024:ventilation system 1018:. Each piston has 936: 928: 756:Four-stroke engine 662:stationary engines 592: 581: 422:Napoleon Bonaparte 370: 310:-based fuels like 147:combustion chamber 115: 10884:Combustion engine 10856: 10855: 10729:Pollution control 10409:Nuclear holocaust 10318:Thermal treatment 10286:Plastic pollution 10203:Mercury poisoning 10156:Battery recycling 10055:Radioactive waste 9824:Genetic pollution 9819:Biological hazard 9617:Air quality index 9553: 9552: 9373: 9372: 8669: 8668: 8438:Compact executive 8289: 8288: 8258:Stratified charge 8025:Electrical system 8007:Engine management 7840:Compression ratio 7780:Starter ring gear 7679:rotating assembly 7620: 7619: 7597:Vapor-compression 7523:Staged combustion 7452: 7451: 7417:With phase change 7236:978-1-85260-619-0 7208:978-1-56091-911-7 7189:978-0-85298-208-2 7170:978-0-19-858155-0 7100:978-1-84569-085-4 7079:978-0-333-55083-0 7060:978-93-5014-214-1 7030:978-0-7506-8037-0 7011:978-1-260-11611-3 6990:978-1-136-27038-3 6842:SuperStreetOnline 6791:978-3-662-60856-2 6479:Gas Turbine World 6323:Popular Mechanics 6010:978-1-137-02829-7 5969:978-1-119-45450-2 5942:978-1-137-02829-7 5846:978-0-12-819168-2 5808:on 23 August 2016 5573:978-1-107-01665-1 5563:Physics of Energy 5546:978-1-107-61563-2 5519:978-1-134-65020-0 5485:978-0-7680-0800-5 5451:Paléo-Energétique 5371:978-0-13-570854-5 5198:Engine test stand 5163:two-stroke engine 4979:, valve springs, 4916: 4896: 4799: 4786: 4585:Air suction valve 4293:, water and some 4268: 4267: 4260: 4197: 4196: 4132: 4131: 3798:Nuclear holocaust 3721:Urban heat island 3535:Radioactive waste 3320:Biological hazard 3230:Air quality index 3026:Energy efficiency 3015:compression ratio 2979:energy efficiency 2930:Charles Kettering 2900: 2829:Hydrogen peroxide 2027:six-stroke engine 2021:Six-stroke engine 1955:marine propulsion 1864:can also adopt a 1616:Charles Kettering 1584:lead–acid battery 1529:have been built. 1470:Historical design 1289:Two-stroke engine 1135:main bearing deck 766:Six-stroke engine 743:Two-stroke engine 670:diesel generators 547:. Traditionally, 277:pressurized water 16:(Redirected from 10906: 10848: 10847: 10846: 10838: 10837: 10828: 10827: 10820: 10819: 10812: 10811: 10799: 10798: 10673:Legacy pollution 10532:Oil exploitation 10394:Chemical warfare 10308:Waste management 10215:Industrial waste 10183:Biomedical waste 10151:Electronic waste 10136:Advertising mail 10120:Phytoremediation 10095:Land degradation 9880:Overillumination 9834:Invasive species 9580: 9573: 9566: 9557: 9556: 9400: 9393: 9386: 9377: 9376: 9285: 9244:Front-four-wheel 9195: 9058:direct injection 8969:Alternative fuel 8783:Multi-stop truck 8337: 8336: 8316: 8309: 8302: 8293: 8292: 8132:Exhaust manifold 7997:Spark plug wires 7883:Boost controller 7870:Forced induction 7647: 7640: 7633: 7624: 7623: 7592:Vapor absorption 7355: 7354: 7333: 7326: 7319: 7310: 7309: 7257:Animated Engines 7251:Combustion video 7240: 7221: 7212: 7193: 7174: 7146: 7145: 7141: 7133: 7132: 7128: 7120: 7119: 7115: 7104: 7083: 7064: 7045: 7034: 7015: 6994: 6973: 6955: 6954: 6942: 6936: 6935: 6933: 6931: 6914: 6905: 6904: 6898: 6889: 6880: 6879: 6859: 6853: 6852: 6850: 6848: 6833: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6817: 6802: 6796: 6795: 6777: 6771: 6770: 6768: 6766: 6760: 6753: 6745: 6739: 6738: 6728: 6688: 6682: 6681: 6679: 6677: 6664: 6643: 6637: 6636: 6634: 6632: 6616: 6610: 6609: 6607: 6605: 6594: 6588: 6587: 6585: 6583: 6568: 6562: 6561: 6559: 6557: 6546: 6540: 6539: 6528: 6522: 6521: 6516: 6514: 6501: 6495: 6494: 6492: 6490: 6481:. Archived from 6471: 6465: 6464: 6462: 6460: 6449:Power Generation 6447:General Electric 6438: 6432: 6431: 6429: 6427: 6416: 6410: 6409: 6407: 6405: 6391: 6385: 6384: 6382: 6380: 6375:on 13 March 2017 6365: 6359: 6358: 6350: 6344: 6338: 6332: 6331: 6328:Hearst Magazines 6314: 6308: 6307: 6305: 6303: 6289: 6283: 6282: 6280: 6278: 6267: 6261: 6260: 6258: 6256: 6241: 6235: 6234: 6232: 6230: 6215: 6209: 6208: 6206: 6204: 6189: 6183: 6182: 6180: 6178: 6167: 6161: 6160: 6158: 6156: 6151:on 9 August 2016 6147:. Archived from 6137: 6131: 6130: 6128: 6126: 6112: 6103: 6097: 6096: 6094: 6092: 6077: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6066: 6060: 6054:. Archived from 6053: 6045: 6039: 6033: 6027: 6021: 6015: 6014: 5994: 5988: 5987: 5980: 5974: 5973: 5953: 5947: 5946: 5926: 5920: 5914: 5908: 5902: 5896: 5890: 5877: 5876: 5874: 5872: 5857: 5851: 5850: 5824: 5818: 5817: 5815: 5813: 5804:. Archived from 5794: 5783: 5782: 5772: 5766: 5765: 5757: 5751: 5750: 5742: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5724:World Wide Words 5716: 5710: 5709: 5707: 5705: 5696:. Archived from 5686: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5675: 5665:"Étienne Lenoir" 5661: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5650: 5641:. Archived from 5635: 5629: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5618: 5612:. Archived from 5611: 5603: 5597: 5596: 5595: 5591: 5584: 5578: 5577: 5557: 5551: 5550: 5530: 5524: 5523: 5503: 5497: 5496: 5494: 5492: 5469: 5463: 5462: 5460: 5458: 5443: 5437: 5436: 5434: 5432: 5417: 5411: 5410: 5382: 5376: 5375: 5359: 5349: 5340: 5339: 5337: 5335: 5330:. Britannica.com 5320: 5193:Electric vehicle 5183:Direct injection 5159:Crude oil engine 5127: 5122: 5121: 5021:torque converter 4947: 4945: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4917: 4909: 4904: 4897: 4895: 4878: 4867: 4858: 4830: 4828: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4800: 4792: 4787: 4779: 4771: 4740: 4738: 4737: 4727: 4726: 4725: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4703: 4702: 4701: 4693: 4692: 4676: 4675: 4671: 4666: 4665: 4664: 4656: 4655: 4602:non-road engines 4590:Non-road engines 4579: 4578: 4577: 4567: 4565: 4564: 4550: 4549: 4548: 4530: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4479:sulfur monoxides 4461: 4452: 4451: 4450: 4436: 4427: 4359: 4358: 4357: 4347: 4346: 4345: 4335: 4334: 4333: 4292: 4291: 4290: 4263: 4256: 4252: 4249: 4243: 4212: 4204: 4189: 4182: 4175: 4159: 4158: 4157: 4147: 4146: 4078: 4077: 3781:Chemical warfare 3683:Waste management 3643:Industrial waste 3618:Electronic waste 3603:Advertising mail 3585:Phytoremediation 3560:Land degradation 3500:Depleted uranium 3385:Overillumination 3335:Invasive species 3207: 3184: 3183: 3170:specific impulse 3128:miles per gallon 2991:for jet engines) 2901: 2839:rocket fighter). 2776: 2773: 2650:gasoline engines 2293:Forced induction 2287:Forced induction 2204: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2193: 2189: 1939:Junkers Jumo 205 1862:Aircraft engines 1742:Big end bearings 1580:ignition systems 1389:Blower scavenged 1237:direct injection 1154:exhaust manifold 1084:direct injection 785:gasoline engines 700:pressure washers 623:Powered aircraft 590:for backup power 588:Diesel generator 475:Gottlieb Daimler 450:Felice Matteucci 446:Eugenio Barsanti 406:Nicéphore Niépce 269:Stirling engines 21: 10914: 10913: 10909: 10908: 10907: 10905: 10904: 10903: 10859: 10858: 10857: 10852: 10844: 10842: 10832: 10789: 10775: 10743: 10692: 10641: 10608: 10547:Pharmaceuticals 10537:Oil exploration 10441: 10413:Nuclear fallout 10380: 10342: 10324: 10298:Packaging waste 10252:Deep sea mining 10178:Hazardous waste 10124: 10105:Open defecation 10059: 10025:Nuclear fallout 10020:Nuclear fission 9996: 9922: 9891: 9862:Electromagnetic 9856: 9840: 9805: 9725:Ozone depletion 9598: 9589: 9584: 9554: 9549: 9540: 9527: 9509: 9409: 9404: 9374: 9369: 9346: 9317:Single-cylinder 9279: 9278: 9270: 9258:Rear-four-wheel 9209:Front mid-front 9193: 9192: 9184: 9162:Engine position 9156: 9103: 9089:Liquid nitrogen 8955: 8883: 8877: 8665: 8607: 8566: 8513: 8499:Crossover (CUV) 8480: 8452: 8424: 8386: 8326: 8320: 8290: 8285: 8267: 8263:Top dead centre 8231: 8191: 8146: 8103: 8052: 8026: 8019: 8008: 8001: 7948: 7902: 7864: 7820:Tappet / lifter 7803:Flathead layout 7793: 7784: 7678: 7669: 7656: 7651: 7621: 7616: 7553: 7527: 7459: 7448: 7438:Organic Rankine 7412: 7366: 7363:hot air engines 7360: 7349: 7342: 7337: 7247: 7237: 7209: 7190: 7171: 7155: 7153:Further reading 7143: 7136: 7130: 7123: 7117: 7110: 7101: 7080: 7061: 7048: 7037: 7031: 7012: 6991: 6967: 6964: 6959: 6958: 6943: 6939: 6929: 6927: 6915: 6908: 6896: 6890: 6883: 6860: 6856: 6846: 6844: 6834: 6825: 6815: 6813: 6803: 6799: 6792: 6778: 6774: 6764: 6762: 6758: 6751: 6747: 6746: 6742: 6689: 6685: 6675: 6673: 6645: 6644: 6640: 6630: 6628: 6625:Motor Authority 6617: 6613: 6603: 6601: 6596: 6595: 6591: 6581: 6579: 6570: 6569: 6565: 6555: 6553: 6548: 6547: 6543: 6530: 6529: 6525: 6512: 6510: 6503: 6502: 6498: 6488: 6486: 6485:on 20 July 2016 6473: 6472: 6468: 6458: 6456: 6440: 6439: 6435: 6425: 6423: 6418: 6417: 6413: 6403: 6401: 6393: 6392: 6388: 6378: 6376: 6367: 6366: 6362: 6351: 6347: 6339: 6335: 6316: 6315: 6311: 6301: 6299: 6291: 6290: 6286: 6276: 6274: 6269: 6268: 6264: 6254: 6252: 6243: 6242: 6238: 6228: 6226: 6217: 6216: 6212: 6202: 6200: 6199:. 20 April 2011 6191: 6190: 6186: 6176: 6174: 6169: 6168: 6164: 6154: 6152: 6145:First Hand Info 6139: 6138: 6134: 6124: 6122: 6110: 6104: 6100: 6090: 6088: 6079: 6078: 6074: 6064: 6062: 6058: 6051: 6047: 6046: 6042: 6034: 6030: 6026:, pp. 1–2. 6022: 6018: 6011: 5995: 5991: 5982: 5981: 5977: 5970: 5954: 5950: 5943: 5927: 5923: 5915: 5911: 5903: 5899: 5891: 5880: 5870: 5868: 5858: 5854: 5847: 5825: 5821: 5811: 5809: 5802:First Hand Info 5796: 5795: 5786: 5773: 5769: 5758: 5754: 5743: 5739: 5729: 5727: 5718: 5717: 5713: 5703: 5701: 5688: 5687: 5683: 5673: 5671: 5663: 5662: 5658: 5648: 5646: 5645:on 14 June 2020 5637: 5636: 5632: 5622: 5620: 5619:on 20 June 2019 5616: 5609: 5605: 5604: 5600: 5593: 5585: 5581: 5574: 5558: 5554: 5547: 5531: 5527: 5520: 5504: 5500: 5490: 5488: 5486: 5470: 5466: 5456: 5454: 5445: 5444: 5440: 5430: 5428: 5419: 5418: 5414: 5383: 5379: 5372: 5350: 5343: 5333: 5331: 5322: 5321: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5123: 5116: 5113: 5091: 5049: 4970: 4953: 4930: 4908: 4879: 4868: 4866: 4865: 4854: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4813: 4791: 4778: 4767: 4756: 4753: 4752: 4736: 4733: 4732: 4731: 4729: 4724: 4721: 4720: 4719: 4717: 4712: 4709: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4691: 4688: 4687: 4686: 4684: 4673: 4669: 4668: 4663: 4660: 4659: 4658: 4654: 4651: 4650: 4649: 4647: 4641: 4629: 4623: 4614:noise pollution 4610: 4608:Noise pollution 4598: 4592: 4587: 4576: 4573: 4572: 4571: 4569: 4563: 4560: 4559: 4558: 4556: 4547: 4544: 4543: 4542: 4540: 4529: 4523: 4493: 4490: 4489: 4488: 4486: 4460: 4454: 4449: 4446: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4435: 4429: 4426: 4420: 4417:nitrogen oxides 4394:carbon monoxide 4370:electric motors 4356: 4353: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4344: 4341: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4332: 4329: 4328: 4327: 4325: 4322:fuel efficiency 4303:nitrogen oxides 4289: 4286: 4285: 4284: 4282: 4264: 4253: 4247: 4244: 4229: 4213: 4202: 4193: 4155: 4153: 4141: 4134: 4133: 4033: 4025: 4024: 3998: 3990: 3989: 3925:Pharmaceuticals 3905:Nonpoint source 3845: 3835: 3834: 3803:Nuclear fallout 3776: 3766: 3765: 3736: 3726: 3725: 3716: 3706: 3705: 3696: 3688: 3687: 3673:Packaging waste 3638:Hazardous waste 3598: 3590: 3589: 3550: 3540: 3539: 3510:Nuclear fallout 3505:Nuclear fission 3485: 3475: 3474: 3440: 3430: 3429: 3405: 3397: 3396: 3370: 3368:Electromagnetic 3360: 3359: 3350: 3342: 3341: 3315: 3305: 3304: 3275:Ozone depletion 3220: 3210: 3182: 3148: 3126:is measured in 3120:wind resistance 3040:chemical energy 3028: 2972: 2892: 2890: 2884: 2855: 2849: 2798:Type 93 torpedo 2774: 2764: 2747:specific energy 2743:Liquid hydrogen 2719: 2713: 2654:fuel efficiency 2634:in the form of 2358: 2329: 2295: 2289: 2263: 2245: 2224: 2218: 2201: 2197: 2196: 2191: 2187: 2186: 2159: 2153: 2106: 2100: 2095: 2051: 2023: 2002: 1989: 1969: 1963: 1898: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1854:V configuration 1846: 1714: 1697:Cummins ISB#6BT 1676: 1670: 1576:starting motors 1549: 1535: 1515: 1472: 1391: 1325: 1291: 1285: 1216:top dead center 1209: 1207: 1206:2 ‐ Compression 1205: 1203: 1196: 1190: 1150:intake manifold 964:straight engine 920: 915: 909:Gasoline engine 901: 845: 828: 817: 797:fuel efficiency 793:hybrid vehicles 736: 728: 712:outboard motors 688:string trimmers 570: 554:electric engine 549:electric motors 512: 479:Wilhelm Maybach 362: 356: 328:Renewable fuels 195:chemical energy 141:occurs with an 113: 46: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10912: 10902: 10901: 10896: 10894:Piston engines 10891: 10886: 10881: 10876: 10871: 10854: 10853: 10794: 10791: 10790: 10788: 10787: 10782: 10777: 10773: 10769: 10764: 10762:Law by country 10759: 10753: 10751: 10745: 10744: 10742: 10741: 10736: 10731: 10726: 10721: 10716: 10711: 10706: 10700: 10698: 10694: 10693: 10691: 10690: 10685: 10680: 10675: 10670: 10665: 10660: 10655: 10649: 10647: 10643: 10642: 10640: 10639: 10634: 10633: 10632: 10627: 10616: 10614: 10610: 10609: 10607: 10606: 10601: 10596: 10591: 10586: 10584:Surface runoff 10581: 10576: 10571: 10566: 10565: 10564: 10559: 10549: 10544: 10539: 10534: 10529: 10524: 10519: 10514: 10509: 10508: 10507: 10497: 10492: 10487: 10482: 10477: 10472: 10470:Eutrophication 10467: 10462: 10457: 10451: 10449: 10443: 10442: 10440: 10439: 10434: 10429: 10427:Scorched earth 10424: 10421:nuclear winter 10417:nuclear famine 10406: 10396: 10390: 10388: 10382: 10381: 10379: 10378: 10373: 10368: 10363: 10358: 10352: 10350: 10344: 10343: 10341: 10340: 10334: 10332: 10326: 10325: 10323: 10322: 10321: 10320: 10315: 10305: 10300: 10295: 10294: 10293: 10283: 10278: 10277: 10276: 10266: 10265: 10264: 10262:Uranium mining 10259: 10254: 10249: 10247:Surface mining 10244: 10239: 10229: 10224: 10223: 10222: 10212: 10211: 10210: 10205: 10200: 10198:Lead poisoning 10195: 10190: 10188:Chemical waste 10185: 10175: 10170: 10165: 10160: 10159: 10158: 10148: 10143: 10138: 10132: 10130: 10126: 10125: 10123: 10122: 10117: 10112: 10107: 10102: 10100:Bioremediation 10097: 10092: 10091: 10090: 10085: 10080: 10069: 10067: 10061: 10060: 10058: 10057: 10052: 10047: 10042: 10037: 10032: 10027: 10022: 10017: 10015:Bioremediation 10012: 10006: 10004: 9998: 9997: 9995: 9994: 9989: 9986: 9983: 9980: 9979: 9978: 9968: 9963: 9962: 9961: 9956: 9951: 9946: 9941: 9936:Transportation 9932: 9930: 9924: 9923: 9921: 9920: 9915: 9910: 9905: 9899: 9897: 9893: 9892: 9890: 9889: 9884: 9883: 9882: 9877: 9866: 9864: 9858: 9857: 9855: 9854: 9848: 9846: 9842: 9841: 9839: 9838: 9837: 9836: 9826: 9821: 9815: 9813: 9807: 9806: 9804: 9803: 9798: 9793: 9792: 9791: 9781: 9780: 9779: 9769: 9764: 9759: 9758: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9742: 9737: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9710:Global dimming 9707: 9702: 9697: 9696: 9695: 9685: 9684: 9683: 9681:Diesel exhaust 9673: 9668: 9667: 9666: 9656: 9655: 9654: 9649: 9644: 9639: 9629: 9624: 9619: 9614: 9608: 9606: 9600: 9599: 9594: 9591: 9590: 9583: 9582: 9575: 9568: 9560: 9551: 9550: 9545: 9542: 9541: 9539: 9538: 9532: 9529: 9528: 9526: 9525: 9520: 9514: 9511: 9510: 9508: 9507: 9502: 9500:Thermoacoustic 9497: 9492: 9491: 9490: 9480: 9475: 9470: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9414: 9411: 9410: 9403: 9402: 9395: 9388: 9380: 9371: 9370: 9368: 9367: 9362: 9357: 9351: 9348: 9347: 9345: 9344: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9324: 9319: 9314: 9309: 9304: 9299: 9294: 9288: 9286: 9272: 9271: 9269: 9268: 9261: 9254: 9251:Mid-four-wheel 9247: 9240: 9233: 9226: 9219: 9212: 9205: 9198: 9196: 9186: 9185: 9183: 9182: 9177: 9172: 9166: 9164: 9158: 9157: 9155: 9154: 9149: 9144: 9139: 9134: 9129: 9124: 9119: 9113: 9111: 9105: 9104: 9102: 9101: 9096: 9091: 9086: 9081: 9076: 9066: 9061: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9021: 9015: 9006: 9001: 8996: 8991: 8986: 8981: 8976: 8971: 8965: 8963: 8957: 8956: 8954: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8887: 8885: 8879: 8878: 8876: 8875: 8870: 8865: 8860: 8855: 8850: 8845: 8840: 8838:Shooting brake 8835: 8830: 8828:Saloon / Sedan 8825: 8820: 8815: 8810: 8805: 8800: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8740: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8705: 8700: 8695: 8690: 8685: 8679: 8677: 8671: 8670: 8667: 8666: 8664: 8663: 8658: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8623: 8617: 8615: 8609: 8608: 8606: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8574: 8572: 8568: 8567: 8565: 8564: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8544: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8523: 8521: 8515: 8514: 8512: 8511: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8490: 8488: 8482: 8481: 8479: 8478: 8473: 8468: 8462: 8460: 8454: 8453: 8451: 8450: 8445: 8440: 8434: 8432: 8426: 8425: 8423: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8407: 8402: 8396: 8394: 8388: 8387: 8385: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8369: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8349: 8343: 8341: 8334: 8332:Classification 8328: 8327: 8319: 8318: 8311: 8304: 8296: 8287: 8286: 8284: 8283: 8278: 8272: 8269: 8268: 8266: 8265: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8245: 8239: 8237: 8233: 8232: 8230: 8229: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8199: 8197: 8193: 8192: 8190: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8168: 8167: 8162: 8156: 8154: 8152:Cooling system 8148: 8147: 8145: 8144: 8139: 8134: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8113: 8111: 8109:Exhaust system 8105: 8104: 8102: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8079:Inlet manifold 8076: 8071: 8066: 8060: 8058: 8054: 8053: 8051: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8021: 8020: 8018: 8017: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8003: 8002: 8000: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7958: 7956: 7950: 7949: 7947: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7934:Fuel injection 7931: 7926: 7921: 7916: 7910: 7908: 7904: 7903: 7901: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7885: 7880: 7874: 7872: 7866: 7865: 7863: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7816: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7799: 7797: 7786: 7785: 7783: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7752: 7747: 7742: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7701:Connecting rod 7698: 7693: 7688: 7682: 7680: 7671: 7670: 7661: 7658: 7657: 7650: 7649: 7642: 7635: 7627: 7618: 7617: 7615: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7563: 7561: 7555: 7554: 7552: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7535: 7533: 7529: 7528: 7526: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7464: 7462: 7454: 7453: 7450: 7449: 7447: 7446: 7441: 7431: 7426: 7420: 7418: 7414: 7413: 7411: 7410: 7405: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7369: 7367: 7358: 7352: 7344: 7343: 7336: 7335: 7328: 7321: 7313: 7307: 7306: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7284: 7278: 7272: 7266: 7260: 7254: 7246: 7245:External links 7243: 7242: 7241: 7235: 7222: 7213: 7207: 7194: 7188: 7175: 7169: 7154: 7151: 7150: 7149: 7148: 7147: 7134: 7121: 7105: 7099: 7084: 7078: 7065: 7059: 7046: 7035: 7029: 7016: 7010: 6995: 6989: 6974: 6972:. Vol. 2. 6963: 6960: 6957: 6956: 6937: 6906: 6881: 6876:10.4271/840054 6854: 6823: 6811:Car and Driver 6797: 6790: 6772: 6740: 6683: 6638: 6611: 6589: 6563: 6541: 6523: 6496: 6466: 6433: 6411: 6386: 6360: 6345: 6333: 6309: 6284: 6262: 6236: 6210: 6184: 6162: 6132: 6098: 6072: 6040: 6028: 6016: 6009: 6003:. Bloomsbury. 5989: 5975: 5968: 5948: 5941: 5935:. Bloomsbury. 5921: 5909: 5897: 5878: 5852: 5845: 5819: 5784: 5767: 5752: 5749:. p. 344. 5745:James, Fales. 5737: 5711: 5681: 5656: 5630: 5598: 5579: 5572: 5552: 5545: 5525: 5518: 5498: 5484: 5464: 5438: 5412: 5393:(4): 227–242. 5377: 5370: 5341: 5311: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5302: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5236:Hybrid vehicle 5233: 5227: 5222: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5201: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5144:Air-fuel ratio 5141: 5136: 5130: 5129: 5128: 5112: 5109: 5090: 5087: 5048: 5045: 4969: 4966: 4957:parasitic loss 4952: 4951:Parasitic loss 4949: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4926: 4923: 4920: 4915: 4912: 4907: 4903: 4900: 4894: 4891: 4888: 4885: 4882: 4877: 4874: 4871: 4864: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4850: 4847: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4809: 4806: 4803: 4798: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4782: 4777: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4763: 4760: 4734: 4722: 4710: 4698: 4689: 4661: 4652: 4640: 4637: 4627:Idle reduction 4625:Main article: 4622: 4619: 4609: 4606: 4594:Main article: 4591: 4588: 4574: 4561: 4553:greenhouse gas 4545: 4525: 4491: 4483:sulfur dioxide 4456: 4447: 4431: 4422: 4404:that are also 4389:stoichiometric 4354: 4342: 4330: 4318:climate change 4287: 4280:carbon dioxide 4266: 4265: 4216: 4214: 4207: 4201: 4198: 4195: 4194: 4192: 4191: 4184: 4177: 4169: 4166: 4165: 4164: 4163: 4151: 4136: 4135: 4130: 4129: 4128: 4127: 4119: 4118: 4114: 4113: 4112: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4094:Law by country 4091: 4083: 4082: 4076: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4034: 4031: 4030: 4027: 4026: 4023: 4022: 4021: 4020: 4015: 4005: 3999: 3996: 3995: 3992: 3991: 3988: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3965:Surface runoff 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3865:Eutrophication 3862: 3857: 3852: 3846: 3841: 3840: 3837: 3836: 3833: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3820:Scorched earth 3817: 3816: 3815: 3813:Nuclear winter 3810: 3808:Nuclear famine 3805: 3795: 3794: 3793: 3783: 3777: 3772: 3771: 3768: 3767: 3764: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3748: 3743: 3737: 3732: 3731: 3728: 3727: 3724: 3723: 3717: 3712: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3704: 3703: 3697: 3694: 3693: 3690: 3689: 3686: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3599: 3596: 3595: 3592: 3591: 3588: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3565:Bioremediation 3562: 3557: 3551: 3546: 3545: 3542: 3541: 3538: 3537: 3532: 3527: 3522: 3517: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3495:Bioremediation 3492: 3486: 3481: 3480: 3477: 3476: 3473: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3452: 3447: 3445:Transportation 3441: 3436: 3435: 3432: 3431: 3428: 3427: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3406: 3403: 3402: 3399: 3398: 3395: 3394: 3392:Radio spectrum 3389: 3388: 3387: 3382: 3371: 3366: 3365: 3362: 3361: 3358: 3357: 3351: 3348: 3347: 3344: 3343: 3340: 3339: 3338: 3337: 3327: 3322: 3316: 3311: 3310: 3307: 3306: 3303: 3302: 3297: 3292: 3287: 3282: 3277: 3272: 3267: 3262: 3260:Global dimming 3257: 3252: 3247: 3242: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3221: 3216: 3215: 3212: 3211: 3208: 3200: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3181: 3178: 3147: 3144: 3052:kinetic energy 3036:thermal energy 3027: 3024: 3023: 3022: 3012: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2981: 2971: 2968: 2957: 2956: 2953: 2950: 2947: 2886:Main article: 2883: 2880: 2851:Main article: 2848: 2845: 2844: 2843: 2840: 2826: 2819: 2809: 2790: 2763: 2760: 2715:Main article: 2712: 2709: 2646:Diesel engines 2617:petrol engines 2612: 2611: 2608:rocket engines 2598: 2597: 2596: 2595: 2594: 2589: 2567: 2564:Dimethyl Ether 2561: 2555: 2546: 2536: 2533:vegetable oils 2523: 2522: 2521: 2515: 2503: 2502: 2501: 2496: 2486: 2480: 2474: 2464: 2458: 2447:North American 2357: 2354: 2328: 2325: 2299:gas compressor 2291:Main article: 2288: 2285: 2279:, the earlier 2259:Main article: 2244: 2243:Wankel engines 2241: 2220:Main article: 2217: 2214: 2210:combined cycle 2155:Main article: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2102:Main article: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2091: 2083:Scuderi Engine 2075:air compressor 2050: 2047: 2022: 2019: 2001: 1998: 1988: 1985: 1965:Main article: 1962: 1959: 1934:opposed piston 1910:inline engines 1845: 1842: 1768:two-stroke oil 1764: 1763: 1762: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1746: 1743: 1740: 1739:Small bearings 1737: 1713: 1710: 1672:Main article: 1669: 1666: 1654:electric spark 1639:induction coil 1628:lead poisoning 1595:starting motor 1565:recoil starter 1545:Main article: 1534: 1531: 1527:laser ignition 1514: 1511: 1471: 1468: 1464:external links 1435:or 6,000 1390: 1387: 1375: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1344:two-stroke oil 1324: 1321: 1312: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1300:thermodynamics 1287:Main article: 1284: 1281: 1280: 1279: 1275: 1259:kinetic energy 1255: 1244: 1192:Main article: 1189: 1186: 1170:exhaust system 1166:exhaust system 1139:connecting rod 1012:deflector head 919: 916: 900: 897: 896: 895: 890: 884: 878: 877: 876: 870: 864: 858: 844: 841: 840: 839: 834: 816: 813: 812: 811: 806: 804:Atkinson cycle 789: 788: 778: 769: 768: 763: 753: 752: 751: 748: 735: 732: 727: 726:Classification 724: 569: 566: 511: 508: 500:Heinkel He 178 496:Robert Goddard 467:George Brayton 384:developed the 358:Main article: 355: 352: 252:rocket engines 206:Étienne Lenoir 199:kinetic energy 175:turbine blades 112: 111: 105: 101:W – 99: 94:V – 92: 88:S – 86: 84:connecting rod 82:R – 80: 76:P – 74: 68: 62: 58:C – 55: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10911: 10900: 10897: 10895: 10892: 10890: 10887: 10885: 10882: 10880: 10879:Air pollution 10877: 10875: 10872: 10870: 10867: 10866: 10864: 10851: 10841: 10836: 10831: 10823: 10815: 10806: 10802: 10792: 10786: 10783: 10781: 10778: 10776: 10770: 10768: 10765: 10763: 10760: 10758: 10755: 10754: 10752: 10750: 10746: 10740: 10737: 10735: 10732: 10730: 10727: 10725: 10722: 10720: 10717: 10715: 10712: 10710: 10707: 10705: 10702: 10701: 10699: 10695: 10689: 10686: 10684: 10681: 10679: 10676: 10674: 10671: 10669: 10666: 10664: 10661: 10659: 10656: 10654: 10651: 10650: 10648: 10644: 10638: 10635: 10631: 10628: 10626: 10623: 10622: 10621: 10618: 10617: 10615: 10611: 10605: 10604:Water quality 10602: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10590: 10587: 10585: 10582: 10580: 10577: 10575: 10572: 10570: 10567: 10563: 10560: 10558: 10555: 10554: 10553: 10550: 10548: 10545: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10535: 10533: 10530: 10528: 10525: 10523: 10520: 10518: 10515: 10513: 10510: 10506: 10503: 10502: 10501: 10498: 10496: 10493: 10491: 10488: 10486: 10483: 10481: 10478: 10476: 10473: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10452: 10450: 10448: 10444: 10438: 10435: 10433: 10430: 10428: 10425: 10422: 10418: 10414: 10410: 10407: 10404: 10400: 10397: 10395: 10392: 10391: 10389: 10387: 10383: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10366:Traffic signs 10364: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10354: 10353: 10351: 10349: 10345: 10339: 10336: 10335: 10333: 10331: 10327: 10319: 10316: 10314: 10311: 10310: 10309: 10306: 10304: 10301: 10299: 10296: 10292: 10291:Microplastics 10289: 10288: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10281:Nanomaterials 10279: 10275: 10272: 10271: 10270: 10267: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10234: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10221: 10220:Lead smelting 10218: 10217: 10216: 10213: 10209: 10206: 10204: 10201: 10199: 10196: 10194: 10191: 10189: 10186: 10184: 10181: 10180: 10179: 10176: 10174: 10171: 10169: 10166: 10164: 10161: 10157: 10154: 10153: 10152: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10139: 10137: 10134: 10133: 10131: 10127: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10098: 10096: 10093: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10079: 10076: 10075: 10074: 10071: 10070: 10068: 10066: 10062: 10056: 10053: 10051: 10048: 10046: 10043: 10041: 10040:Radioactivity 10038: 10036: 10033: 10031: 10028: 10026: 10023: 10021: 10018: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10007: 10005: 10003: 9999: 9993: 9992:Noise control 9990: 9987: 9984: 9981: 9977: 9974: 9973: 9972: 9969: 9967: 9964: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9952: 9950: 9947: 9945: 9942: 9939: 9938: 9937: 9934: 9933: 9931: 9929: 9925: 9919: 9916: 9914: 9911: 9909: 9906: 9904: 9901: 9900: 9898: 9894: 9888: 9885: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9873: 9872: 9871: 9868: 9867: 9865: 9863: 9859: 9853: 9850: 9849: 9847: 9843: 9835: 9832: 9831: 9830: 9827: 9825: 9822: 9820: 9817: 9816: 9814: 9812: 9808: 9802: 9799: 9797: 9794: 9790: 9787: 9786: 9785: 9782: 9778: 9775: 9774: 9773: 9770: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9740:Metal working 9738: 9736: 9733: 9732: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9694: 9691: 9690: 9689: 9686: 9682: 9679: 9678: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9665: 9662: 9661: 9660: 9657: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9634: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9609: 9607: 9605: 9601: 9597: 9592: 9588: 9581: 9576: 9574: 9569: 9567: 9562: 9561: 9558: 9548: 9543: 9537: 9534: 9533: 9530: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9515: 9512: 9506: 9505:Manson engine 9503: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9489: 9486: 9485: 9484: 9483:Steam turbine 9481: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9418:Carnot engine 9416: 9415: 9412: 9408: 9401: 9396: 9394: 9389: 9387: 9382: 9381: 9378: 9366: 9363: 9361: 9358: 9356: 9353: 9352: 9349: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9325: 9323: 9320: 9318: 9315: 9313: 9312:Reciprocating 9310: 9308: 9305: 9303: 9300: 9298: 9295: 9293: 9290: 9289: 9287: 9283: 9277: 9273: 9266: 9262: 9259: 9255: 9252: 9248: 9245: 9241: 9238: 9234: 9231: 9230:Rear mid-rear 9227: 9224: 9220: 9217: 9213: 9210: 9206: 9203: 9200: 9199: 9197: 9191: 9187: 9181: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9167: 9165: 9163: 9159: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9143: 9140: 9138: 9135: 9133: 9130: 9128: 9125: 9123: 9120: 9118: 9115: 9114: 9112: 9110: 9106: 9100: 9097: 9095: 9092: 9090: 9087: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9074: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9059: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9029: 9025: 9022: 9019: 9016: 9014: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8975: 8972: 8970: 8967: 8966: 8964: 8962: 8958: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8927: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8888: 8886: 8880: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8851: 8849: 8846: 8844: 8843:Station wagon 8841: 8839: 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8733:Coupé utility 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8680: 8678: 8676: 8672: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8618: 8616: 8614: 8610: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8596: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8575: 8573: 8569: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8547:Sport compact 8545: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8524: 8522: 8520: 8516: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8491: 8489: 8487: 8483: 8477: 8474: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8463: 8461: 8459: 8458:Minivan / MPV 8455: 8449: 8446: 8444: 8441: 8439: 8436: 8435: 8433: 8431: 8427: 8421: 8418: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8401: 8398: 8397: 8395: 8393: 8389: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8344: 8342: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8329: 8324: 8317: 8312: 8310: 8305: 8303: 8298: 8297: 8294: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8273: 8270: 8264: 8261: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8244: 8241: 8240: 8238: 8234: 8227: 8223: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8200: 8198: 8194: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8169: 8166: 8165:Water cooling 8163: 8161: 8158: 8157: 8155: 8153: 8149: 8143: 8142:Oxygen sensor 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8114: 8112: 8110: 8106: 8100: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8061: 8059: 8057:Intake system 8055: 8049: 8048:Starter motor 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8030: 8028: 8022: 8016: 8013: 8012: 8010: 8004: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7987:Ignition coil 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7959: 7957: 7955: 7951: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7919:Petrol engine 7917: 7915: 7914:Diesel engine 7912: 7911: 7909: 7905: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7878:Blowoff valve 7876: 7875: 7873: 7871: 7867: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7817: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7800: 7798: 7796: 7795:Cylinder head 7791: 7787: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7740: 7736: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7686:Balance shaft 7684: 7683: 7681: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7666: 7659: 7655: 7648: 7643: 7641: 7636: 7634: 7629: 7628: 7625: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7587:Transcritical 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7567:Hampson–Linde 7565: 7564: 7562: 7560: 7559:Refrigeration 7556: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7530: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7488:Gas-generator 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7473:Brayton/Joule 7471: 7469: 7466: 7465: 7463: 7461: 7455: 7445: 7442: 7439: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7421: 7419: 7415: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7378:Brayton/Joule 7376: 7374: 7371: 7370: 7368: 7364: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7345: 7341: 7334: 7329: 7327: 7322: 7320: 7315: 7314: 7311: 7305: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7288: 7285: 7282: 7279: 7276: 7273: 7270: 7267: 7264: 7261: 7258: 7255: 7252: 7249: 7248: 7238: 7232: 7228: 7223: 7219: 7214: 7210: 7204: 7200: 7195: 7191: 7185: 7181: 7176: 7172: 7166: 7162: 7157: 7156: 7139: 7135: 7126: 7122: 7113: 7109: 7108: 7106: 7102: 7096: 7092: 7091: 7085: 7081: 7075: 7071: 7066: 7062: 7056: 7052: 7049:Singal, R.K. 7047: 7043: 7042: 7036: 7032: 7026: 7022: 7017: 7013: 7007: 7003: 7002: 6996: 6992: 6986: 6982: 6981: 6975: 6971: 6966: 6965: 6952: 6948: 6941: 6926: 6925: 6920: 6913: 6911: 6902: 6895: 6888: 6886: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6858: 6843: 6839: 6832: 6830: 6828: 6812: 6808: 6801: 6793: 6787: 6783: 6776: 6757: 6750: 6744: 6736: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6687: 6672: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6649: 6642: 6626: 6622: 6615: 6599: 6593: 6577: 6573: 6567: 6551: 6545: 6537: 6533: 6527: 6520: 6508: 6507: 6500: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6470: 6454: 6450: 6448: 6443: 6437: 6421: 6415: 6400: 6396: 6390: 6374: 6370: 6364: 6356: 6349: 6343:, p. 15. 6342: 6337: 6329: 6325: 6324: 6319: 6313: 6298: 6294: 6288: 6272: 6266: 6250: 6246: 6240: 6224: 6223:The Old Motor 6220: 6214: 6198: 6194: 6188: 6172: 6166: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6136: 6120: 6116: 6109: 6102: 6086: 6082: 6076: 6057: 6050: 6044: 6037: 6032: 6025: 6020: 6012: 6006: 6002: 6001: 5993: 5985: 5979: 5971: 5965: 5961: 5960: 5952: 5944: 5938: 5934: 5933: 5925: 5918: 5917:Yamagata 2005 5913: 5907:, p. 109 5906: 5901: 5894: 5889: 5887: 5885: 5883: 5867: 5863: 5860:Hall, Nancy. 5856: 5848: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5823: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5793: 5791: 5789: 5780: 5779: 5771: 5763: 5756: 5748: 5741: 5725: 5721: 5715: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5685: 5670: 5666: 5660: 5644: 5640: 5639:"The patents" 5634: 5615: 5608: 5602: 5589: 5583: 5575: 5569: 5565: 5564: 5556: 5548: 5542: 5538: 5537: 5529: 5521: 5515: 5512:. Routledge. 5511: 5510: 5502: 5487: 5481: 5477: 5476: 5468: 5452: 5448: 5442: 5426: 5422: 5416: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5381: 5373: 5367: 5363: 5358: 5357: 5348: 5346: 5329: 5325: 5319: 5317: 5312: 5301: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5271:Piston engine 5269: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5221: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5211: 5208: 5205: 5202: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5178:Dieselisation 5176: 5174: 5173:Diesel engine 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5131: 5126: 5125:Energy portal 5120: 5115: 5108: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5067: 5061: 5059: 5055: 5044: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5022: 5017: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4997: 4994: 4993:differentials 4990: 4986: 4985:transmissions 4982: 4978: 4975:, oil pumps, 4974: 4965: 4963: 4958: 4948: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4924: 4921: 4918: 4913: 4910: 4905: 4901: 4898: 4892: 4889: 4886: 4883: 4880: 4875: 4872: 4869: 4862: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4848: 4845: 4837: 4834: 4831: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4807: 4804: 4801: 4796: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4780: 4775: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4761: 4758: 4750: 4747: 4744: 4741: 4681: 4678: 4644: 4636: 4634: 4628: 4618: 4615: 4605: 4603: 4597: 4586: 4581: 4554: 4538: 4534: 4528: 4521: 4519: 4515: 4514:Clean Air Act 4511: 4507: 4502: 4500: 4484: 4480: 4475: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4459: 4440: 4434: 4425: 4418: 4414: 4409: 4407: 4403: 4402:1,3-butadiene 4399: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4373: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4310: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4297:—also called 4296: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4272:air pollution 4262: 4259: 4251: 4248:November 2022 4241: 4237: 4233: 4227: 4226: 4222: 4217:This section 4215: 4211: 4206: 4205: 4200:Air pollution 4190: 4185: 4183: 4178: 4176: 4171: 4170: 4168: 4167: 4162: 4152: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4139: 4138: 4137: 4126: 4123: 4122: 4121: 4120: 4116: 4115: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4086: 4085: 4084: 4080: 4079: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4035: 4029: 4028: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4010: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 4000: 3994: 3993: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3980:Water quality 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3847: 3844: 3839: 3838: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3800: 3799: 3796: 3792: 3789: 3788: 3787: 3784: 3782: 3779: 3778: 3775: 3770: 3769: 3762: 3759: 3757: 3756:Traffic signs 3754: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3742: 3739: 3738: 3735: 3730: 3729: 3722: 3719: 3718: 3715: 3710: 3709: 3702: 3699: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3684: 3681: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3663:Nanomaterials 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3600: 3594: 3593: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3552: 3549: 3544: 3543: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3528: 3526: 3525:Radioactivity 3523: 3521: 3518: 3516: 3513: 3511: 3508: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3487: 3484: 3479: 3478: 3471: 3470:Soundproofing 3468: 3466: 3465:Noise control 3463: 3461: 3460:Noise barrier 3458: 3456: 3453: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3442: 3439: 3434: 3433: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3393: 3390: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3378: 3377: 3376: 3373: 3372: 3369: 3364: 3363: 3356: 3353: 3352: 3346: 3345: 3336: 3333: 3332: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3318: 3317: 3314: 3309: 3308: 3301: 3298: 3296: 3293: 3291: 3288: 3286: 3283: 3281: 3278: 3276: 3273: 3271: 3268: 3266: 3263: 3261: 3258: 3256: 3253: 3251: 3248: 3246: 3243: 3241: 3238: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3226: 3223: 3222: 3219: 3214: 3213: 3206: 3202: 3201: 3198: 3195: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3185: 3177: 3175: 3171: 3166: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3153: 3143: 3140: 3136: 3131: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3112: 3107: 3105: 3104:octane rating 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3067: 3064: 3060: 3055: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3020: 3016: 3013: 3011:(jet engines) 3010: 3006: 3005:torque curves 3003: 3001: 2998: 2996: 2993: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2980: 2977: 2976: 2975: 2967: 2964: 2960: 2954: 2951: 2948: 2945: 2944: 2943: 2940: 2938: 2933: 2931: 2927: 2917: 2910: 2906: 2889: 2888:Starter motor 2879: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2854: 2841: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2827: 2823: 2822:Nitrous oxide 2820: 2817: 2813: 2810: 2807: 2806:liquid oxygen 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2788: 2784: 2783: 2782: 2768: 2759: 2757: 2753: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2735:energy crisis 2730: 2728: 2724: 2718: 2708: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2620: 2618: 2609: 2606: 2602: 2599: 2593: 2590: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2568: 2565: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2549: 2547: 2544: 2543:wood gasifier 2540: 2537: 2534: 2530: 2527: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2499:Residual fuel 2497: 2494: 2493:aviation fuel 2490: 2487: 2484: 2481: 2478: 2475: 2472: 2468: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2457:term: petrol) 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2437: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2406:triglycerides 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2382:petroleum gas 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2353: 2351: 2350:stoichiometry 2347: 2342: 2341:nitrous oxide 2338: 2337:chemical fuel 2334: 2324: 2322: 2318: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2294: 2284: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2269: 2268:thermodynamic 2262: 2261:Wankel engine 2254: 2249: 2240: 2236: 2230:Brayton cycle 2228: 2223: 2222:Brayton cycle 2216:Brayton cycle 2213: 2211: 2206: 2183: 2182:steam turbine 2178: 2176: 2172: 2163: 2158: 2145: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2129: 2128: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2110: 2105: 2090: 2087: 2084: 2078: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2065: 2064:Miller cycles 2061: 2057: 2046: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2033: 2028: 2018: 2016: 2012: 2007: 2006:Nicolaus Otto 1997: 1994: 1984: 1977: 1973: 1968: 1958: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1943:Napier Deltic 1940: 1935: 1931: 1930:cylinder head 1926: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1889: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1820: 1819: 1814: 1813: 1808: 1807:ball bearings 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1789:(also called 1788: 1783: 1780: 1775: 1774:is required. 1773: 1769: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1750: 1749: 1747: 1745:Main bearings 1744: 1741: 1738: 1735: 1734: 1733: 1731: 1727: 1718: 1709: 1707: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1675: 1674:Diesel engine 1665: 1663: 1657: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1640: 1635: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1620:lead additive 1617: 1611: 1609: 1603: 1599: 1596: 1591: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1553: 1548: 1541:Bosch magneto 1539: 1530: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1488: 1483: 1478: 1476: 1467: 1465: 1460: 1457: 1453: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1417: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1395: 1386: 1382: 1380: 1371: 1367: 1364: 1363: 1358: 1357: 1356: 1354: 1353:exhaust gases 1350: 1346: 1345: 1339: 1329: 1320: 1317: 1310:charge apply. 1308: 1304: 1301: 1297: 1296: 1295: 1290: 1276: 1273: 1272:back pressure 1269: 1265: 1260: 1256: 1253: 1252:ideal gas law 1249: 1245: 1242: 1238: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1204:1 ‐ Induction 1200: 1195: 1185: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1131:main bearings 1128: 1124: 1115: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1064:sleeve valves 1061: 1060:rotary valves 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1040:cylinder head 1032: 1028: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1004: 999: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 966:) or 2 rows ( 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 932: 924: 914: 910: 906: 905:Diesel engine 894: 893:Rocket engine 891: 888: 885: 882: 879: 874: 871: 868: 865: 862: 859: 856: 853: 852: 850: 847: 846: 838: 835: 833: 832:Wankel engine 830: 829: 826: 825:Rotary engine 822: 810: 807: 805: 802: 801: 800: 798: 794: 786: 782: 779: 777: 774: 773: 772: 767: 764: 761: 757: 754: 749: 746: 745: 744: 741: 740: 739: 734:Reciprocating 731: 723: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 680:Small engines 677: 675: 674:electric grid 671: 667: 663: 659: 658:steam turbine 655: 651: 646: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 615: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 589: 585: 578: 574: 565: 562: 560: 556: 555: 550: 546: 542: 538: 537: 532: 528: 525: 521: 517: 507: 505: 501: 497: 493: 492:Rudolf Diesel 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 471:Nicolaus Otto 468: 464: 463:Nicolaus Otto 460: 456: 451: 447: 442: 440: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 414:Claude Niépce 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 366: 361: 351: 349: 345: 344:Rudolf Diesel 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 288: 286: 285:liquid sodium 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 220: 215: 214:Nicolaus Otto 211: 207: 202: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 171:piston engine 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 151:working fluid 148: 144: 140: 136: 133:in which the 132: 128: 124: 120: 110: 106: 104: 100: 97: 93: 91: 87: 85: 81: 79: 75: 73: 69: 67: 63: 61: 57: 56: 52: 48: 44: 37: 33: 19: 10683:Point source 10625:Heavy metals 10599:Urban runoff 10579:Sulfur water 10557:Septic tanks 10403:Agent Orange 10257:Mining waste 10083:Manure waste 9913:Volcanic ash 9789:Black carbon 9745:Oil refining 9730:Particulates 9704: 9659:Construction 9518:Beale number 9473:Split-single 9407:Heat engines 9281: 9152:Twelve-wheel 9109:Drive wheels 9083: 8882:Specialized 8803:Pickup truck 8708:Cabrio coach 8552:Sports sedan 8527:Grand tourer 8172:Electric fan 7972:Coil-on-plug 7898:Turbocharger 7893:Supercharger 7765:Main bearing 7755:Firing order 7745:Displacement 7691:Block heater 7675:Engine block 7663:Part of the 7662: 7653: 7457: 7444:Regenerative 7373:Bell Coleman 7226: 7217: 7198: 7179: 7160: 7089: 7069: 7050: 7040: 7020: 7000: 6979: 6969: 6962:Bibliography 6950: 6940: 6928:. Retrieved 6922: 6900: 6867: 6857: 6845:. Retrieved 6841: 6814:. Retrieved 6810: 6800: 6781: 6775: 6763:. Retrieved 6756:the original 6743: 6700: 6696: 6686: 6674:. Retrieved 6652: 6647: 6641: 6629:. Retrieved 6624: 6614: 6602:. Retrieved 6592: 6580:. Retrieved 6576:the original 6566: 6554:. Retrieved 6544: 6536:the original 6526: 6518: 6511:. Retrieved 6505: 6499: 6487:. Retrieved 6483:the original 6478: 6469: 6457:. Retrieved 6445: 6436: 6424:. Retrieved 6414: 6402:. Retrieved 6398: 6389: 6377:. Retrieved 6373:the original 6363: 6354: 6348: 6336: 6321: 6312: 6300:. Retrieved 6296: 6287: 6275:. Retrieved 6265: 6253:. Retrieved 6248: 6239: 6227:. Retrieved 6222: 6213: 6201:. Retrieved 6196: 6187: 6175:. Retrieved 6165: 6153:. Retrieved 6149:the original 6144: 6135: 6123:. Retrieved 6118: 6114: 6101: 6089:. Retrieved 6085:the original 6075: 6063:. 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