Iran–Iraq War - Knowledge

4059: 3754: 5541: 5307:, 30 km (19 mi) inside Iran, along with 2,500 troops and much armour and material, which took four days to transport to Iraq. These losses included more than 570 of the 1,000 remaining Iranian tanks, over 430 armored vehicles, 45 self-propelled artillery, 300 towed artillery pieces, and 320 antiaircraft guns. These figures only included what Iraq could actually put to use; total amount of captured materiel was higher. Since March, the Iraqis claimed to have captured 1,298 tanks, 155 infantry fighting vehicles, 512 heavy artillery pieces, 6,196 mortars, 5,550 recoilless rifles and light guns, 8,050-man-portable rocket launchers, 60,694 rifles, 322 pistols, 454 trucks, and 1,600 light vehicles. The Iraqis withdrew from Dehloran soon after, claiming that they had "no desire to conquer Iranian territory". History professor 5078:. Over the next two months, Iraq launched over 200 al-Husayn missiles at 37 Iranian cities. Saddam also threatened to use chemical weapons in his missiles, which caused 30% of Tehran's population to leave the city. Iran retaliated, launching at least 104 missiles against Iraq in 1988 and shelling Basra. This event was nicknamed the "Scud Duel" in the foreign media. In all, Iraq launched 520 Scuds and al-Husseins against Iran and Iran fired 177 in return. The Iranian attacks were too few in number to deter Iraq from launching their attacks. Iraq also increased their airstrikes against Kharg Island and Iranian oil tankers. With their tankers protected by U.S. warships, they could operate with virtual impunity. In addition, the West supplied Iraq's air force with 4760:). According to Iraqi General Ra'ad al-Hamdani, this was a diversionary attack. The Iranians launched an amphibious assault against the Iraqi island of Umm al-Rassas in the Shatt-Al-Arab river, parallel to Khoramshahr. They then set up a pontoon bridge and continued the attack, eventually capturing the island in a costly success but failing to advance further. The Iranians had 60,000 casualties, while the Iraqis 9,500. The Iraqi commanders exaggerated Iranian losses to Saddam, and it was assumed that the main Iranian attack on Basra had been fully defeated and that it would take the Iranians six months to recover. When the main Iranian attack, Operation Karbala 5, began, many Iraqi troops were on leave. 16767: 17384:

Iraq had more than enough arms from Moscow, Paris, and other capitals to fight Iran, and weapons sales to a country with a history of terrorism and antagonism to Israel would never receive congressional approval. ... In some instances, items that could be used for military purposes did go through. In 1985, for example, the United States approved a $ 200 million sale of 45 Bell helicopters to Iraq, on condition they would be used only for civilian purposes. But administration officials learned later that the Iraqi Army took possession of at least some of the helicopters, painted them in military colors, and used them to ferry VIP delegations and journalists to the war front.

5169:, as well as by conventional explosives. Helicopters landed Iraqi commandos behind Iranian lines on al-Faw while the main Iraqi force made a frontal assault. Within 48 hours, all of the Iranian forces had been killed or cleared from the al-Faw Peninsula. The day was celebrated in Iraq as Faw Liberation Day throughout Saddam's rule. The Iraqis had planned the offensive well. Prior to the attack, the Iraqi soldiers gave themselves poison gas antidotes to shield themselves from the effect of the saturation of gas. The heavy and well executed use of chemical weapons was the decisive factor in the victory. Iraqi losses were relatively light, especially compared to Iran's casualties. 2483: 447: 16771: 3504: 3051: 8882: 5620: 3992: 5696:

conflict. Even if before the outbreak of the conflict there had been some encroachment by Iran on Iraqi territory, such encroachment did not justify Iraq's aggression against Iran—which was followed by Iraq's continuous occupation of Iranian territory during the conflict—in violation of the prohibition of the use of force, which is regarded as one of the rules of jus cogens...On one occasion I had to note with deep regret the experts' conclusion that "chemical weapons ha been used against Iranian civilians in an area adjacent to an urban center lacking any protection against that kind of attack."

2612: 3684: 436: 9056: 15576:: "On June 19, 1988, the NLA launched its offensive entitled Chetel Setareh or “40 Stars” in which twenty-two organized brigades of Mojahedin recaptured the city of Mehran, which the regime had wrested from Iraqi control after the Mojahedin had set up its “provisional government” there. The Mojahedin claimed that absolutely no Iraqi soldiers participated in this operation, and Iraqi Culture and Information Minister, Latif Nusayyif Jasim, later denied that Iraq had deployed air units to help the NLA or had used chemical weapons to drive the Islamic Republic’s troops from Mehran." 4166:, a British insurance market, estimated that the tanker war damaged 546 commercial vessels and killed about 430 civilian sailors. The largest portion of the attacks was directed by Iraq against vessels in Iranian waters, with the Iraqis launching three times as many attacks as the Iranians. But Iranian speedboat attacks on Kuwaiti shipping led Kuwait to formally petition foreign powers on 1 November 1986 to protect its shipping. The Soviet Union agreed to charter tankers starting in 1987, and the United States Navy offered to provide protection for foreign tankers reflagged and 577: 565: 553: 541: 3155: 133: 5473: 8989: 8895: 4405: 5348: 347: 10131:

Iraqi sources claimed that since March, Iraq had captured a total of 1,298 tanks, 155 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 512 heavy artillery weapons, 6,196 mortars, 5,550 recoilless rifles and light guns, 8,050 rocket propelled grenades, 60,694 rifles, 322 pistols, 6,156 telecommunications devices, 501 items of heavy engineering equipment, 454 trucks, 1,600 light vehicles and trailers, 16,863 items of chemical defense gear, and 16,863 caskets... After its recent defeats, Iran was virtually defenseless in the south. It was down to less than 200 tanks."

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the balance of power in the area, it is in our interests to promote a ceasefire in that conflict; though not a cost that will preclude an eventual rapprochement with Iran either if a more moderate regime replaces Khomeini's or if the present rulers wake up to geopolitical reality that the historic threat to Iran's independence has always come from the country with which it shares a border of 1,500 miles : the Soviet Union. A rapprochement with Iran, of course, must await at a minimum Iran's abandonment of hegemonic aspirations in the Gulf.

5969: 4984: 2203: 7257:, "the use of gas on the battlefield by the Iraqis was not a matter of deep strategic concern" to Reagan and his aides, because they "were desperate to make sure that Iraq did not lose". He claimed that the Defense Intelligence Agency "would have never accepted the use of chemical weapons against civilians, but the use against military objectives was seen as inevitable in the Iraqi struggle for survival". The Reagan administration did not stop aiding Iraq after receiving reports of the use of poison gas on Kurdish civilians. 3167:

generals assumed they had succeeded, in reality the Iranian forces remained fully intact. The Iranians had concentrated much of their forces by bringing them directly from the cities and towns throughout Iran via trains, buses, and private cars. The concentration of forces did not resemble a traditional military buildup, and although the Iraqis detected a population buildup near the front, they failed to realize that this was an attacking force. As a result, Saddam's army was unprepared for the Iranian offensives to come.

2499: 2097: 28241: 26915: 26176: 24809: 3593: 5705: 5191: 396: 27474: 27707: 5133:. Iranian airborne commandos landed behind the Iraqi lines and Iranian helicopters hit Iraqi tanks with TOW missiles. The Iraqis were taken by surprise, and Iranian F-5E Tiger fighter jets even damaged the Kirkuk oil refinery. Iraq carried out executions of multiple officers for these failures in March–April 1988, including Colonel Jafar Sadeq. The Iranians used infiltration tactics in the Kurdish mountains, captured the town of Halabja and began to fan out across the province. 385: 2885: 2715: 7302:

Kurds." A 1987 UN report conducted at the behest of both belligerents discovered weapon fragments that established Iraqi responsibility for chemical attacks on Iranian soldiers and civilians, but could not substantiate Iraq's allegations of Iranian chemical weapons use: "Iraqi forces have been affected by mustard gas and a pulmonary element, possibly phosgene. In the absence of conclusive evidence of the weapons used, it could not be determined how the injuries were caused."

26905: 7218:, the United Kingdom, and France. A report stated that Dutch, Australian, Italian, French and both West and East German companies were involved in the export of raw materials to Iraqi chemical weapons factories. Declassified CIA documents show that the United States was providing reconnaissance intelligence to Iraq around 1987–88 which was then used to launch chemical weapon attacks on Iranian troops and that the CIA fully knew that chemical weapons would be deployed and 3261: 173: 4519: 1991: 182: 3469:, Army Chief of Staff General Ali Sayad Shirazi as well as Major General Qasem-Ali Zahirnejad, wanted to accept the ceasefire, as most of Iranian soil had been recaptured. In particular, General Shirazi and Zahirnejad were both opposed to the invasion of Iraq on logistical grounds, and stated they would consider resigning if "unqualified people continued to meddle with the conduct of the war". Of the opposing view was a hardline faction led by the clerics on the 9030: 4901: 4252: 29166: 28675: 28184: 27650: 27417: 26858: 26120: 24753: 24310: 23935: 22756: 20502: 7621:. The Iraqis hit back, claiming the destruction of a SeaCobra on 14 September 1983 (with YaKB machine gun), then three SeaCobras on 5 February 1984 and three more on 25 February 1984 (two with Falanga missiles, one with S-5 rockets). After a lull in helicopter losses, each side lost a gunship on 13 February 1986. Later, a Mi-25 claimed a SeaCobra shot down with YaKB gun on 16 February, and a SeaCobra claimed a Mi-25 shot down with rockets on 18 February. 3219: 363: 3916: 5428:(MEK) decided to launch an attack of its own and wished to advance all the way to Tehran. Saddam and the Iraqi high command decided on a two-pronged offensive across the border into central Iran and Iranian Kurdistan. Shortly after Iran accepted the ceasefire, the MEK army began its offensive, attacking into Ilam province under cover of Iraqi air power. In the north, Iraq also launched an attack into Iraqi Kurdistan, which was blunted by the Iranians. 3246:

airborne commando landings, the Iraqis also placed metal spikes and destroyed cars in areas likely to be used as troop landing zones. Saddam Hussein even visited Khorramshahr in a dramatic gesture, swearing that the city would never be relinquished. However, Khorramshahr's only resupply point was across the Shatt al-Arab, and the Iranian air force began bombing the supply bridges to the city, while their artillery zeroed in on the besieged garrison.

425: 5291: 23945: 22766: 8923: 3927:, which lasted from 24 February to 19 March. On 15 February 1984, the Iranians began launching attacks against the central section of the front, where the Second Iraqi Army Corps was deployed: 250,000 Iraqis faced 250,000 Iranians. The goal of this new major offensive was the capture of Basra-Baghdad Highway, cutting off Basra from Baghdad and setting the stage for an eventual attack upon the city. The Iraqi high command had assumed that the 2773: 8951: 9017: 8908: 142: 4332: 4568:, which would have completely severed Iraq from the Gulf and placed Iranian troops on the border with Kuwait. The offensive failed due to Iranian shortages of armor. By this time, 17,000 Iraqis and 30,000 Iranians were casualties. The First Battle of al-Faw ended in March, but heavy combat operations lasted on the peninsula into 1988, with neither side being able to displace the other. The battle bogged down into a World War I-style 9003: 8937: 7753: 2987: 5094: 5951:(religious endowments) as part of the price of buying Iraqi Shia support. The importance of winning Shia support was such that welfare services in Shia areas were expanded during a time in which the Iraqi regime was pursuing austerity in all other non-military fields. During the first years of the war in the early 1980s, the Iraqi government tried to accommodate the Kurds in order to focus on the war against Iran. In 1983, the 24489: 9043: 27464: 153: 28231: 27697: 26166: 24799: 22815: 7895: 7881: 520: 508: 496: 484: 333: 7238: 6669:

2 billion in 1985, making up 25% of Turkey's overall exports. Turkish construction projects in Iraq totaled $ 2.5 billion between 1974 and 1990. Trading with both countries helped Turkey to offset its ongoing economic crisis, though the benefits decreased as the war neared its end and accordingly disappeared entirely with Iraq's invasion of Kuwait and the resulting Iraq sanctions Turkey imposed in response.

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chemical shells, while the other artillery divisions launched 200–300 chemical shells each, unleashing a chemical cloud over the Iranians, killing or wounding 60% of them, the blow was felt particularly by the Iranian 84th infantry division and 55th paratrooper division. The Iraqi special forces then stopped the remains of the Iranian force. In retaliation for Kurdish collaboration with the Iranians, Iraq launched a

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also abandoned equipment in the battlefield because their technicians were unable to carry out repairs. Iran and Iraq showed little internal coordination on the battlefield, and in many cases units were left to fight on their own. As a result, by the end of 1984, the war was a stalemate. One limited offensive Iran launched (Dawn 7) took place from 18 to 25 October 1984, when they recaptured the Iranian city of

3529:, gearing most of his country towards defending against Iran. By 1988, Iraq was spending 40–75% of its GDP on military equipment. Saddam had also more than doubled the size of the Iraqi army, from 200,000 soldiers (12 divisions and three independent brigades) to 500,000 (23 divisions and nine brigades). Iraq also began launching air raids against Iranian border cities, greatly increasing the practice by 1984. 2222:

badly weakened by losses in experienced personnel. The desertion rate had reached 60%, the officer corps was devastated and its most highly skilled soldiers and aviators had been exiled, imprisoned, or executed. When the invasion occurred, many pilots and officers were released from prison, or had their executions commuted to combat the Iraqis. Throughout the war, Iran never managed to fully recover from this

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villages, and on 10 September announced that its forces had done so in a short, sharp military engagement. ... On 14 September 1980, Iran announced it would no longer abide by the 1975 Algiers Agreement. Given the scene that was set, it was no surprise that on 17 September, five days before the invasion, Iraq declared the accords null and void. ... On 22 September, Iraqi units crossed the frontier.

23965: 3750:, in early February 1983, 50,000 Iranian forces attacked westward from Dezful and were confronted by 55,000 Iraqi forces. The Iranian objective was to cut off the road from Basra to Baghdad in the central sector. The Iraqis carried out 150 air sorties against the Iranians, and even bombed Dezful, Ahvaz, and Khorramshahr in retribution. The Iraqi counterattack was broken up by Iran's 92nd Armoured Division. 4590:, on the foot of the Zagros Mountains, was selected as the first target. On 15–19 May, Iraqi Army's Second Corps, supported by helicopter gunships, attacked and captured the city. Saddam then offered to exchange Mehran for al-Faw. The Iranians rejected the offer. Iraq then continued the attack, attempting to push deeper into Iran. Iraq's attack was quickly warded off by Iranian AH-1 Cobra helicopters with 7738:

military support in the form of air and artillery strikes. If Iraq is seen to be pulled too far into one side's orbit, then the benefits offered to them by the other side will likely be gradually reduced or cut off completely. Another significant factor influencing relations is the shared cultural interests of Iraq and Iran's citizens to freely visit the multitude of holy sites located in each country.

6411: 374: 6743: 3279:, and launched human wave attacks towards the city. Saddam's defensive barricade collapsed; in less than 48 hours of fighting, the city fell and 19,000 Iraqis surrendered to the Iranians. A total of 10,000 Iraqis were killed or wounded in Khorramshahr, while the Iranians suffered 30,000 casualties. During the whole of Operation Beit ol-Moqaddas, 33,000 Iraqi soldiers were captured by the Iranians. 407: 12933:, p. 16: "At the beginning of January of 1983, Rajavi held a highly publicized meeting with then Deputy Prime Minister of Iraq Tarqi Aziz, which culminated in the signing of a peace communique on January 9 of that year. Rajavi, acting as the chairman of the NCR, co-outlined a peace plan with Aziz based on an agreement of mutual recognition of borders as defined by the 1975 Algiers Treaty." 2400: 38: 6824: 5561:

prisoner. Thousands of civilians on both sides died in air raids and ballistic missile attacks. Prisoners taken by both countries began to be released in 1990, though some were not released until more than 10 years after the end of the conflict. Cities on both sides had also been considerably damaged. While revolutionary Iran had been bloodied, Iraq was left with a large military and was a

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minefields and allow the Revolutionary Guards to advance. Combatants came so close to one another that Iranians were able to board Iraqi tanks and throw grenades inside the hulls. By the eighth day, the Iranians had gained 16 km (9.9 mi) inside Iraq and had taken several causeways. Iran's Revolutionary Guards also used the T-55 tanks they had captured in earlier battles.

3092:. Operations were often carried out during the night and deception operations, infiltrations, and maneuvers became more common. The Iranians would also reinforce the infiltrating forces with new units to keep up their momentum. Once a weak point was found, the Iranians would concentrate all of their forces into that area in an attempt to break through with human wave attacks. 162: 4694:. Full-scale war games against hypothetical Iranian positions were carried out in the western Iraqi desert against mock targets. They were repeated over the course of a full year until the forces involved fully memorized their attacks. Iraq built its military massively, eventually possessing the 4th largest in the world, in order to overwhelm the Iranians through sheer size. 3350:

towards other Gulf states, "the threat of Persian fundamentalism was far more feared." They were especially inclined to fear Iranian victory after Ayatollah Khomeini declared monarchies to be illegitimate and an un-Islamic form of government. Khomeini's statement was widely received as a call to overthrow the Gulf monarchies. Journalists John Bulloch and Harvey Morris wrote:

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between the Army and the Revolutionary Guard. However, this came too late and, following the capture of 570 of their operable tanks and the destruction of hundreds more, Iran was believed to have fewer than 200 remaining operable tanks on the southern front, against thousands of Iraqi ones. The only area where the Iranians were not suffering major defeats was in Kurdistan.

19018: 16682: 4389:(both considered to be among Iraq's most skilled commanders), the Iraqis launched air attacks against the Iranian positions and pinned them down. They then launched a pincer attack using mechanized infantry and heavy artillery. Chemical weapons were used, and the Iraqis also flooded Iranian trenches with specially constructed pipes delivering water from the Tigris River. 4703: 6433:, overseeing the transfer of third-party military hardware, and providing operational intelligence on the battlefield. France, which from the 1970s had been one of Iraq's closest allies, was a major supplier of military hardware. The French sold weapons equal to $ 5 billion, which made up well over a quarter of Iraq's total arms stockpile. Citing French magazine 3562:

logistical advantage in their defence: the front was located near the main Iraqi bases and arms depots, allowing their army to be efficiently supplied. By contrast, the front in Iran was a considerable distance away from the main Iranian bases and arms depots, and as such, Iranian troops and supplies had to travel through mountain ranges before arriving at the front.

5040:, destroying two Iranian oil rigs in the Persian Gulf. During November and December, the Iraqi air force launched a bid to destroy all Iranian airbases in Khuzestan and the remaining Iranian air force. Iran managed to shoot down 30 Iraqi fighters with fighter jets, anti-aircraft guns, and missiles, allowing the Iranian air force to survive to the end of the war. 3853:, pursuing a policy of total war, and by 1984, the armies were equal in size. By 1986, Iraq had twice as many soldiers as Iran. By 1988, Iraq had 1 million soldiers, giving it the fourth largest army in the world. Some of its equipment, such as tanks, outnumbered Iran's by at least five to one. Iranian commanders, however, remained more tactically skilled. 3715:, about 200 km (120 mi) southeast of Baghdad, in an attempt to reach the highways connecting northern and southern Iraq. The attack was stalled by 60 km (37 mi) of hilly escarpments, forests, and river torrents blanketing the way to al-Amarah, but the Iraqis could not force the Iranians back. Iran directed artillery on Basra, Al Amarah, and 6293: 4932:. They replenished their manpower by integrating volunteers from other Arab countries into their army. Iraq also became self-sufficient in chemical weapons and some conventional ones and received much equipment from abroad. Foreign support helped Iraq bypass its economic troubles and massive debt to continue the war and increase the size of its military. 4598:

enough to allow the Iranians to also capture territory inside Iraq, and depleted the Iraqi military enough to prevent them from launching a major offensive for the next two years. Iraq's defeats at al-Faw and at Mehran were severe blows to the prestige of the Iraqi regime. Western powers, including the US, became more determined to prevent an Iraqi loss.

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Force could count on direct American support for conducting long-range operations against Iranian infrastructural targets and oil installations deep in the Persian Gulf. U.S. Navy ships tracked and reported movements of Iranian shipping and defences. In the massive Iraqi air strike against Kharg Island, flown on 18 March 1988, the Iraqis destroyed two

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important factor that governs Iraq's current foreign policy is the national government's consistent fragility following the overthrow of Saddam Hussein. Iraq's need for any and all allies that can help bring stability and bring development has allowed Iran to exert significant influence over the new Iraqi state despite lingering memories of the war.

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condemn this continued use of chemical weapons in clear violation of the Geneva Protocol of 1925, which prohibits the use in war of chemical weapons." The United States was the only member who voted against the issuance of this statement. A mission to the region in 1988 found evidence of the use of chemical weapons, and was condemned in

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relations with many of the states that opposed it during the war. Because of Iranian actions, by 1990, Saddam had become more conciliatory, and in a letter to the future fourth President of Iran Rafsanjani, he became more open to the idea of a peace agreement, although he still insisted on full sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab.

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and Iran was unable to launch any major offensives after Karbala-5. As a result, for the first time since 1982, the momentum of the fighting shifted towards the regular army. Since the regular army was conscription based, it made the war even less popular. Many Iranians began to try to escape the conflict. As early as May 1985,

5642:, to negotiate a peace agreement on the terms of the ceasefire. However, peace talks stalled. Iraq, in violation of the UN ceasefire, refused to withdraw its troops from 7,800 square kilometres (3,000 sq mi) of disputed territory at the border area unless the Iranians accepted Iraq's full sovereignty over the 4488:, the United States secretly sold Iran some limited supplies. In Akbar Rafsanjani's postwar interview, he stated that during the period when Iran was succeeding, for a short time the United States supported Iran, then shortly after began helping Iraq again. Iran managed to get some advanced weapons, such as anti-tank 16189:...On one occasion I had to note with deep regret the experts' conclusion that "chemical weapons ha been used against Iranian civilians in an area adjacent to an urban center lacking any protection against that kind of attack" (s/20134, annex). The Council expressed its dismay on the matter and its condemnation in 6070:

20 billion in 1982 to $ 5 billion in 1988. French historian Pierre Razoux argued that this sudden drop in economic industrial potential, in conjunction with the increasing aggression of Iraq, placed Iran in a challenging position that had little leeway other than accepting Iraq's conditions of peace.

5395:, killing 290 passengers and crew. The lack of international sympathy disturbed the Iranian leadership, and they came to the conclusion that the United States was on the verge of waging a full-scale war against them, and that Iraq was on the verge of unleashing its entire chemical arsenal upon their cities. 5161:), a surprise attack against the 15,000 Basij troops on the al-Faw peninsula. The attack was preceded by Iraqi diversionary attacks in northern Iraq, with a massive artillery and air barrage of Iranian front lines. Key areas, such as supply lines, command posts, and ammunition depots, were hit by a storm of 2943:, who was hoping that a victory might shore up his deteriorating political position; instead, the failure hastened his fall. Many of Iran's problems took place because of political infighting between President Banisadr, who supported the regular army, and the hardliners who supported the IRGC. Once he was 4548:, fled or were defeated, and the Iranian forces set up pontoon bridges crossing the Shatt al-Arab, allowing 30,000 soldiers to cross in a short period of time. They drove north along the peninsula almost unopposed, capturing it after only 24 hours of fighting. Afterwards they dug in and set up defenses. 2839:, as the Iranians needed more time to reorganise their forces after the damage inflicted by the purge of 1979–80. During this period, fighting consisted mainly of artillery duels and raids. Iraq had mobilised 21 divisions for the invasion, while Iran countered with only 13 regular army divisions and one 2774: 7229:

On 21 March 1986, the United Nations Security Council made a declaration stating that "members are profoundly concerned by the unanimous conclusion of the specialists that chemical weapons on many occasions have been used by Iraqi forces against Iranian troops, and the members of the Council strongly

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In a declassified 1991 report, the CIA estimated that Iran had suffered more than 50,000 casualties from Iraq's use of several chemical weapons, though current estimates are more than 100,000 as the long-term effects continue to cause casualties. The official CIA estimate did not include the civilian

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was in Iranian territorial waters when it launched the missiles. At the time of the attack, Admiral Crowe claimed that the Iranian plane did not identify itself and sent no response to warning signals he had sent. In 1996, the United States expressed their regret for the event and the civilian deaths

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frigate. The first struck the port side of the ship and failed to explode, though it left burning propellant in its wake; the second struck moments later in approximately the same place and penetrated through to crew quarters, where it exploded, killing 37 crew members and leaving 21 injured. Whether

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and military equipment, and satellite intelligence. While there was direct combat between Iran and the United States, it is not universally agreed that the fighting between the United States and Iran was specifically to benefit Iraq, or for separate issues between the U.S. and Iran. American official

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criticised the war in a telegram to the United Nations, calling it un-Islamic and illegitimate and arguing that Khomeini should have accepted Saddam's truce offer in 1982 instead of attempting to overthrow the Ba'ath. In a public letter to Khomeini sent in May 1988, he added "Since 1986, you have not

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announced that Iran spent $ 19.6 billion in the war. The war furthered the decline of the Iranian economy that had begun with the revolution in 1978–79. Between 1979 and 1981, foreign exchange reserves fell from $ 14.6 billion to $ 1 billion. As a result of the war, living standards dropped

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The economic loss at the time was believed to exceed $ 500 billion for each country ($ 1.2 trillion total). In addition, economic development stalled and oil exports were disrupted. Iraq had accrued more than $ 130 billion of international debt, excluding interest, and was also weighed

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agents. From 1980 to 2012, 218,867 Iranians died due to war injuries and the mean age of combatants was 23 years old. This includes 33,430 civilians, mostly women and children. More than 144,000 Iranian children were orphaned as a consequence of these deaths. Other estimates put Iranian casualties up

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to block the Iranian rear, then used hundreds of tanks with massed conventional and chemical artillery barrages to recapture the island after 8 hours of combat. Saddam appeared live on Iraqi television to "lead" the charge against the Iranians. The majority of the Iranian defenders were killed during

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Though the Iranians advanced to within sight of Dukan and captured around 1,040 km (400 sq mi) and 4,000 Iraqi troops, the offensive failed due to the Iraqi use of chemical warfare. The Iraqis launched the deadliest chemical weapons attacks of the war. The Republican Guard launched 700

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The main Iraqi air effort had shifted to the destruction of Iranian war-fighting capability, primarily Persian Gulf oil fields, tankers, and Kharg Island, and starting in late 1986, the Iraqi Air Force began a comprehensive campaign against Iranian economic infrastructure. By late 1987, the Iraqi Air

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While it was not obvious to foreign observers, the Iranian public had become increasingly war-weary and disillusioned with the fighting, and relatively few volunteers joined the fight in 1987–88. Because the Iranian war effort relied on popular mobilization, their military strength actually declined,

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in early 1987. This battle, known for its extensive casualties and ferocious conditions, was the biggest battle of the war and proved to be the beginning of the end of the Iran–Iraq War. While Iranian forces crossed the border and captured the eastern section of Basra Governorate, the operation ended

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Faced with their recent defeats in al-Faw and Mehran, Iraq appeared to be losing the war. Iraq's generals, angered by Saddam's interference, threatened a full-scale mutiny against the Ba'ath Party unless they were allowed to conduct operations freely. In one of the few times during his career, Saddam

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declaring that the war must be won by March 1987. The Iranians increased recruitment efforts, obtaining 650,000 volunteers. The animosity between the Army and the Revolutionary Guard arose again, with the Army wanting to use more refined, limited military attacks, while the Revolutionary Guard wanted

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Compounding the extensive foreign help to Iraq, Iranian attacks were severely hampered by their shortages of weaponry, particularly heavy weapons as large amounts had been lost during the war. Iran still managed to maintain 1,000 tanks, often by capturing Iraqi ones and additional artillery, but many

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By 1984, Iran's losses were estimated to be 300,000 soldiers, while Iraq's losses were estimated to be 150,000. Foreign analysts agreed that both Iran and Iraq failed to use their modern equipment properly, and both sides failed to carry out modern military assaults that could win the war. Both sides

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Because Iraq had become landlocked during the course of the war, they had to rely on their Arab allies, primarily Kuwait, to transport their oil. Iran attacked tankers carrying Iraqi oil from Kuwait, later attacking tankers from any Persian Gulf state supporting Iraq. Attacks on ships of noncombatant

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Iran supported their attacks with heavy weaponry when possible and with better planning, although the brunt of the battles still fell to the infantry. The Army and Revolutionary Guards worked together better as their tactics improved. Human wave attacks became less frequent, although were still used.

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and manpower, Iran could no longer rely on simple human wave attacks. Iranian offensives became more complex and involved extensive maneuver warfare using primarily light infantry. Iran launched frequent, and sometimes smaller offensives to slowly gain ground and deplete the Iraqis through attrition.

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helicopter gunships to prepare a Soviet-type three-line defence, replete with obstacles such as barbed wire, minefields, fortified positions and bunkers. The Combat Engineer Corps built bridges across water obstacles, laid minefields, erected earthen revetments, dug trenches, built machine gun nests,

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For the most part, Iraq remained on the defensive for the next five years, unable and unwilling to launch any major offensives, while Iran launched more than 70 offensives. Iraq's strategy changed from holding territory in Iran to denying Iran any major gains in Iraq, as well as holding onto disputed

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Riyadh Ibrahim Hussein suggested that Saddam could step down temporarily as a way of easing Iran towards a ceasefire, and then afterwards would come back to power. Saddam, annoyed, asked if anyone else in the Cabinet agreed with the Health Minister's idea. When no one raised their hand in support, he

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The mountainous border between Iran and Iraq made a deep ground invasion almost impossible, and air strikes were used instead. The invasion's first waves were a series of air strikes targeted at Iranian airfields. Iraq also attempted to bomb Tehran, Iran's capital and command centre, into submission.

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over the Persian Gulf. He saw Iran's increased weakness due to revolution, sanctions, and international isolation. Saddam had invested heavily in Iraq's military since his defeat against Iran in 1975, buying large amounts of weaponry from the Soviet Union and France. Between 1973 and 1980 alone, Iraq

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Even if before the outbreak of the conflict there had been some encroachment by Iran on Iraqi territory, such encroachment did not justify Iraq's aggression against Iran—which was followed by Iraq's continuous occupation of Iranian territory during the conflict—in violation of the prohibition of the

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The Deputy Prime Minister of Iraq and the exiled leader of an Iranian leftist group met for four hours today and said afterward that the war between their countries should brought to an end. The conversations between Deputy Prime Minister Tareq Aziz of Iraq and Massoud Rajavi, leader of the People's

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There remains the issue of sovereignty over Shatt al-Arab. ... Granted that this might have been a genuine motive for abrogating the 1975 treaty, and reclaiming title to the whole Shatt, what was the point of the invasion on September 22? Iraq had taken back by unilateral action on September 10

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On 7 September 1980, Iraq accused Iran of shelling Iraqi villages in the territories of Zain al-Qaws and Saif Saad on 4 September 1980. Iraq demanded that the Iranian forces in those territories evacuate and return the villages to Iraq. Tehran gave no reply. Iraqi forces then moved to 'liberate' the

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Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990. Chapter 10: "In fact, Iraq had captured so much equipment that it was able to put on an incredible show on the outskirts of Baghdad. Rather than include all of Iraq's gains, it included the equipment that could either be used immediately or be easily reconditioned.

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The Iran–Iraq War is regarded as being a major trigger for rising sectarianism in the region, as it was viewed by many as a clash between Sunni Muslims (Ba'athist Iraq and other Arab States) and the Shia revolutionaries that had recently taken power in Iran. There remains lingering animosity however

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later acknowledged that Iraq's evidence was "clearly fabricated." However, the report's phrasing—"chemical weapons were again used against Iranian forces by Iraqi forces ... now also Iraqi forces have sustained injuries from chemical warfare"—contributed to an erroneous perception that Iran and

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between 1992 and 1994, conducted a two-year study that included a field investigation in Iraq, and obtained Iraqi government documents in the process. According to Hiltermann, the literature on the Iran–Iraq War reflects allegations of chemical weapons used by Iran, but they are "marred by a lack of

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More than 30 countries provided support to Iraq, Iran, or both; most of the aid went to Iraq. Iran had a complex clandestine procurement network to obtain munitions and critical materials. Iraq had an even larger clandestine purchasing network, involving 10–12 allied countries, to maintain ambiguity

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The value of Iraqi arms imports increased to between $ 12 billion and $ 14 billion during 1984–1987, whereas the value of Iranian arms imports fell from $ 14 billion in 1985 to $ 5.89 billion in 1986 and an estimated $ 6 billion to $ 8 billion in 1987. Iran was constrained by the price of oil during

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In addition to helping trigger the Persian Gulf War, the Iran–Iraq War also contributed to Iraq's defeat in the Persian Gulf War. Iraq's military was accustomed to fighting the slow moving Iranian infantry formations with artillery and static defenses, while using mostly unsophisticated tanks to gun

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amounted to $ 21 billion, 85% of which had originated from the combined inputs of Japan, the USSR, France, Germany, the United States, Italy and the United Kingdom. The largest portion of Iraq's debt, amounting to $ 130 billion, was to its former Arab backers, with $ 67 billion loaned

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That explanations do not appear sufficient or acceptable to the international community is a fact... cannot be justified under the charter of the United Nations, any recognized rules and principles of international law, or any principles of international morality, and entails the responsibility for

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Most historians and analysts consider the war to be a stalemate. Certain analysts believe that Iraq won, on the basis of the successes of their 1988 offensives which thwarted Iran's major territorial ambitions in Iraq and persuaded Iran to accept the ceasefire. Iranian analysts believe that they won

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By 1990, Iran was undergoing military rearmament and reorganization, and purchased $ 10 billion worth of heavy weaponry from the USSR and China, including aircraft, tanks, and missiles. Rafsanjani reversed Iran's self-imposed ban on chemical weapons, and ordered the manufacture and stockpile of

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In response, Iran refused to release 70,000 Iraqi prisoners of war, compared to 40,000 Iranian prisoners of war held by Iraq. They continued to carry out a naval blockade of Iraq, although its effects were mitigated by Iraqi use of ports in friendly neighbouring Arab countries. Iran began to improve

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On 26 July 1988, the MEK started their campaign in central Iran, Operation Forough Javidan (Eternal Light), with the support of the Iraqi army. The Iranians had withdrawn their remaining soldiers to Khuzestan in fear of a new Iraqi invasion attempt, allowing the Mujahedeen to advance rapidly towards

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During the 1988 battles, the Iranians put up little resistance, having been worn out by nearly eight years of war. They lost large amounts of equipment. On 2 July, Iran belatedly set up a joint central command which unified the Revolutionary Guard, Army, and Kurdish rebels, and dispelled the rivalry

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To the shock of the Iranians, rather than breaking off the offensive, the Iraqis kept up their drive, and a new force attacked the Iranian positions around Basra. Following this, the Iraqis launched a sustained drive to clear the Iranians out of all of southern Iraq. One of the most successful Iraqi

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to escort the tankers. The result of Earnest Will would be that, while oil tankers shipping Iraqi/Kuwaiti oil were protected, Iranian tankers and neutral tankers shipping to Iran would be unprotected, resulting in both losses for Iran and the undermining of its trade with foreign countries, damaging

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The Iranian strategy was to penetrate the Iraqi defences and encircle Basra, cutting off the city as well as the Al-Faw peninsula from the rest of Iraq. Iran's plan was for three assaults: a diversionary attack near Basra, the main offensive and another diversionary attack using Iranian tanks in the

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Saddam also recruited volunteers from other Arab countries into the Republican Guard, and received much technical support from foreign nations as well. While Iraqi military power had been depleted in recent battles, through heavy foreign purchases and support, they were able to expand their military

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The tanker war escalated drastically, with attacks nearly doubling in 1986, the majority carried out by Iraq. Iraq got permission from the Saudi government to use its airspace to attack Larak Island, although due to the distance attacks were less frequent there. The escalating tanker war in the Gulf

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The sudden capture of al-Faw shocked the Iraqis, since they had thought it impossible for the Iranians to cross the Shatt al-Arab. On 12 February 1986, the Iraqis began a counter-offensive to retake al-Faw, which failed after a week of heavy fighting. On 24 February 1986, Saddam sent one of his best

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in April 1983 by supporting the Kurds in the north. With Kurdish support, the Iranians attacked on 23 July 1983, capturing the Iraqi town of Haj Omran and maintaining it against an Iraqi poison gas counteroffensive. This operation incited Iraq to later conduct indiscriminate chemical attacks against

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The Iranian generals wanted to launch an all-out attack on Baghdad and seize it while the Iranian army's supplies allowed for such an offensive. This was rejected as being impracticable and the decision was made to capture one area of Iraq after the other, with the hope that this would force Iraq to

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on 27–29 September 1981. The Iranians used a combined force of regular army artillery with small groups of armor, supported by Pasdaran (IRGC) and Basij infantry. On 15 October, after breaking the siege, a large Iranian convoy was ambushed by Iraqi tanks, and during the ensuing tank battle Iran lost

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against the Iraqis. Typically, an Iranian assault would commence with poorly trained Basij who would launch the primary human wave assaults to swamp the weakest portions of the Iraqi lines en masse (on some occasions even bodily clearing minefields). This would be followed up by the more experienced

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On the eve of the revolution in 1978, international experts in military science had assessed that Iran's armed forces were the fifth most powerful in the world. However, by the eve of war with Iraq, the recently formidable Iranian army was in many crucial ways a shell of its former self, having been

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That explanations do not appear sufficient or acceptable to the international community is a fact. Accordingly, the outstanding event under the violations referred to is the attack of 22 September 1980, against Iran, which cannot be justified under the charter of the United Nations, any recognized

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Despite the mortal blow inflicted on the organization, the Iranian regime continued to regard the Mujahidin as a real threat, and therefore continued to persecute its followers and damage their public image. The organizations' ties with Iraq (mainly Rajavi's meeting with Tariq Aziz in January 1983)

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Evidence suggests that these Iraqi chemical casualties were likely the result of "blowback," whereas the evidence that Iraq submitted to the UN—such as two Iranian 130 mm shells that UN specialists found had "no internal chemical-resistant coating" and were "normally used for filling with high

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and Lawrence Potter have called the allegations against Iran "mere assertions" and stated, "No persuasive evidence of the claim that Iran was the primary culprit was ever presented." Policy consultant and author Joseph Tragert stated, "Iran did not retaliate with chemical weapons, probably because

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had been executed, an ex-Iraqi Air Force commander since stated he had not been punished, and was still alive at the time. The attack remains the only successful anti-ship missile strike on an American warship. Due to the extensive political and military cooperation between the Iraqis and Americans

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and, if necessary, released early in the event of oil market disruption; second, the United States needed to reinforce the security of friendly Arab states in the region; and thirdly, an embargo should be placed on sales of military equipment to Iran and Iraq. The plan was approved by the President

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refusal to end the war in 1982, the United States made an outreach to Iraq, beginning with the restoration of diplomatic relations in 1984. The United States wished to both keep Iran away from Soviet influence and protect other Gulf states from any threat of Iranian expansion. As a result, the U.S.

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and Iraq launched chemical attacks on Iranian civilians, killing an unknown number of them and wounding 2,300. Iraq came under international pressure to curtail further offensives. Resolution 598 became effective on 8 August 1988, ending all combat operations between the two countries. By 20 August

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bombs. While many towns and cities had been bombed before, and troops attacked with gas, this was the first time that the Iraqis had attacked a civilian area with poison gas. One quarter of the town's then population of 20,000 was burned and stricken, and 113 were killed immediately, with many more

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Further Iranian attacks were mounted in the Mandali–Baghdad north-central sector in April 1983, but were repelled by Iraqi mechanised and infantry divisions. Casualties were high, and by the end of 1983, an estimated 120,000 Iranians and 60,000 Iraqis had been killed. Iran held the advantage in the

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On 16 July, Iran tried again further north and managed to push the Iraqis back. Only 13 km (8.1 mi) from Basra, the poorly equipped Iranian forces were surrounded on three sides by Iraqis with heavy weaponry. Some were captured, while many were killed. Only a last-minute attack by Iranian

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Sometimes, the Iraqis would launch "probing attacks" into the Iranian lines to provoke them into launching their attacks sooner. While Iranian human wave attacks were successful against the dug-in Iraqi forces in Khuzestan, they had trouble breaking through Iraq's defense in depth lines. Iraq had a

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At this point, Saddam believed that his army was too demoralised and damaged to hold onto Khuzestan and major swathes of Iranian territory, and withdrew his remaining forces, redeploying them in defence along the border. However, his troops continued to occupy some key Iranian border areas of Iran,

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The fighting had battered the Iraqi military: its strength fell from 210,000 to 150,000 troops; over 20,000 Iraqi soldiers were killed and over 30,000 captured; two out of four active armoured divisions and at least three mechanised divisions fell to less than a brigade's strength; and the Iranians

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Iraq's strategic reserves had been depleted, and by now it lacked the power to go on any major offensives until nearly the end of the war. On 7 December, Hussein announced that Iraq was going on the defensive. By the end of 1980, Iraq had destroyed about 500 Western-built Iranian tanks and captured

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Of Iraq's six divisions that invaded by ground, four were sent to Khuzestan, which was located near the border's southern end, to cut off the Shatt al-Arab from the rest of Iran and to establish a territorial security zone. The other two divisions invaded across the northern and central part of the

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but that Iran had never handed over, leading to both Iran and Iraq declaring the treaty null and void, on 14 September and 17 September, respectively. As a result, the only outstanding border dispute between Iran and Iraq at the time of the Iraqi invasion of 22 September was the question of whether

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Some scholars writing prior to the opening of formerly classified Iraqi archives, such as Alistair Finlan, argued that Saddam was drawn into a conflict with Iran due to the border clashes and Iranian meddling in Iraqi domestic affairs. Finlan stated in 2003 that the Iraqi invasion was meant to be a

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Under pressure from the Reagan administration, the began extending short-term loans to cash-starved Iraq for American-made spare parts and consumer goods. Iraq was also keenly interested in more than credits and rice, but the Reagan administration repeatedly told Iraq not even to ask for weapons.

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The sustained importance of this conflict is attributed mostly to the massive human and economic cost resulting from it, along with its ties to the Iranian Revolution. Another significant effect that the war has on Iran's policy is the issue of remaining war reparations. The UN estimates that Iraq

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issued statements that "chemical weapons had been used in the war". UN statements never clarified that only Iraq was using chemical weapons, and according to retrospective authors "the international community remained silent as Iraq used weapons of mass destruction against Iranian as well as Iraqi

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The focus of Iranian pressure at this moment is Iraq. There are few governments in the world less deserving of our support and less capable of using it. Had Iraq won the war, the fear in the Gulf and the threat to our interest would be scarcely less than it is today. Still, given the importance of

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mission took the field, remaining on the Iran–Iraq border until 1991. The majority of Western analysts believe that the war had no winners while some believed that Iraq emerged as the victor of the war, based on Iraq's overwhelming successes between April and July 1988. While the war was now over,

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At this point, elements of the Iranian leadership, led by Rafsanjani (who had initially pushed for the extension of the war), persuaded Khomeini to accept a ceasefire. They stated that in order to win the war, Iran's military budget would have to be increased eightfold and the war would last until

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to begin a new offensive to recapture al-Faw. A new round of heavy fighting took place. Their attempts again ended in failure, costing them many tanks and aircraft. Their 15th mechanised division was almost completely wiped out. The capture of al-Faw and the failure of the Iraqi counter-offensives

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across the rivers and wetlands to allow heavy troops and supplies to cross. Iran also learned to integrate foreign guerrilla units as part of their military operations. On the northern front, Iran began working heavily with the Peshmerga, Kurdish guerrillas. Iranian military advisors organised the

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Iraq had concentrated three armoured divisions, the 3rd, 9th, and 10th, as a counter-attack force to attack any penetrations. They were successful in defeating the Iranian breakthroughs, but suffered heavy losses. The 9th Armoured Division in particular had to be disbanded, and was never reformed.

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Iran also hoped that its attacks would ignite a revolt against Saddam's rule by the Shia and Kurdish population of Iraq, possibly resulting in his downfall. It was successful in doing so with the Kurdish population, but not the Shia. Iran had captured large quantities of Iraqi equipment, enough to

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and proposed an immediate ceasefire and withdrawal from Iranian territory within two weeks. Khomeini responded by saying the war would not end until a new government was installed in Iraq and reparations paid. He proclaimed that Iran would invade Iraq and would not stop until the Ba'ath regime was

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The Iraqis retreated to the Karun River, with only Khorramshahr and a few outlying areas remaining in their possession. Saddam ordered 70,000 troops to be placed around the city of Khorramshahr. The Iraqis created a hastily constructed defence line around the city and outlying areas. To discourage

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On 29 April, Iran launched the offensive. 70,000 Revolutionary Guard and Basij members struck on several axes—Bostan, Susangerd, the west bank of the Karun River, and Ahvaz. The Basij launched human wave attacks, which were followed up by the regular army and Revolutionary Guard support along with

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repeatedly charged at Iraqi positions, oftentimes without the support of armour or air power. The fall of Bostan exacerbated the Iraqis' logistical problems, forcing them to use a roundabout route from Ahvaz to the south to resupply their troops. 6,000 Iranians and over 2,000 Iraqis were killed in

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The human wave attacks, while extremely bloody (tens of thousands of troops died in the process), when used in combination with infiltration and surprise, caused major Iraqi defeats. As the Iraqis would dig in their tanks and infantry into static, entrenched positions, the Iranians would manage to

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The next day, Iraq launched a ground invasion, mounting three simultaneous attacks along a 644 km (400 mi) front. Saddam hoped an attack on Iran would cause such a blow to Iran's prestige that it would lead to the new government's downfall, or at least end Iran's calls for his overthrow.

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After the war concluded, Iraq continued to maintain control over the entire Shatt al-Arab and other Iranian territories it had occupied along the border, covering an area of 9,600 km². It was not until 16 August 1990 that Iraq agreed to return these occupied territories back to Iran and to divide

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Pollack gives the figure as 1,000 for fully operational tanks in April of 1988. Cordesman gives the figure as 1,500+ operational tanks in March 1988 (1,298 were captured by the Iraqis by July 1988, 200 were still in the hands of the Iranians, and an unknown number were destroyed), with an unknown

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Iran has not vocalized the desire for these reparations in recent years, and has even suggested forms of financial aid. This is due most likely to Iran's interest in keeping Iraq politically stable, and imposing these reparation costs would further burden the already impoverished nation. The most

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At his trial in December 2006, Saddam said he would take responsibility "with honour" for any attacks on Iran using conventional or chemical weapons during the war, but that he took issue with the charges that he ordered attacks on Iraqis. A medical analysis of the effects of Iraqi mustard gas is

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prior to four major offensives in early 1988 that relied on U.S. satellite imagery, maps, and other intelligence. ... According to recently declassified CIA documents and interviews with former intelligence officials like Francona, the U.S. had firm evidence of Iraqi chemical attacks beginning in

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Although neither side acquired any weapons from Turkey, both sides enjoyed Turkish civilian trade during the conflict, although the Turkish government remained neutral and refused to support the U.S.-imposed trade embargo on Iran. Turkey's export market jumped from $ 220 million in 1981 to $

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In June 1981, street battles broke out between the Revolutionary Guard and the left-wing Mujaheddin e-Khalq (MEK), continuing for several days and killing hundreds on both sides. In September, more unrest broke out on the streets of Iran as the MEK attempted to seize power. Thousands of left-wing

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Iranian workers had a day's pay deducted from their pay cheques every month to help finance the war, and mass campaigns were launched to encourage the public to donate food, money, and blood. To further help finance the war, the Iranian government banned the import of all non-essential items, and

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Both Iraq and Iran manipulated loss figures to suit their purposes. At the same time, Western analysts accepted improbable estimates. By April 1988, such casualties were estimated at between 150,000 and 340,000 Iraqis dead, and 450,000 to 730,000 Iranians. Shortly after the end of the war, it was

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had no intention of restraining Iraq. The lives of the civilian population of Iran were becoming very disrupted, with a third of the urban population evacuating major cities in fear of the seemingly imminent chemical war. Meanwhile, Iraqi conventional bombs and missiles continuously hit towns and

4997:

The attacks on oil tankers continued. Both Iran and Iraq carried out frequent attacks during the first four months of the year. Iran was effectively waging a naval guerilla war with its IRGC navy speedboats, while Iraq attacked with its aircraft. In 1987, Kuwait asked to reflag its tankers to the

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The Iranians built up their forces on the heights surrounding Mehran. On 30 June, using mountain warfare tactics, they launched their attack, recapturing the city by 3 July. Saddam ordered the Republican Guard to retake the city on 4 July, but their attack was ineffective. Iraqi losses were heavy

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nations in the Persian Gulf sharply increased thereafter, with both nations attacking oil tankers and merchant ships of neutral nations in an effort to deprive their opponent of trade. The Iranian attacks against Saudi shipping led to Saudi F-15s shooting down a pair of F-4 Phantom II fighters on

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Iraq began receiving support from the United States and west European countries as well. Saddam was given diplomatic, monetary, and military support by the United States, including massive loans, political influence, and intelligence on Iranian deployments gathered by American spy satellites. The

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in June 1982 revealed that the Iraqi Air Force had only three squadrons of fighter-bombers capable of mounting operations into Iran. The Iraqi Army Air Corps was in slightly better shape, and could still operate more than 70 helicopters. Despite this, the Iraqis still held 3,000 tanks, while Iran

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The Iraqis, realising that the Iranians were planning to attack, decided to preempt them with Operation al-Fawz al-'Azim (Supreme Success) on 19 March. Using a large number of tanks, helicopters, and fighter jets, they attacked the Iranian buildup around the Roghabiyeh pass. Though Saddam and his

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The human wave has been largely misconstrued both by the popular media in the West and by many scholars. The Iranians did not merely assemble masses of individuals, point them at the enemy, and order a charge. The waves were made up of the 22-man squads mentioned above . Each squad was assigned a

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Ruhollah Khomeini called on Iraqis to overthrow the Ba'ath government, which was received with considerable anger in Baghdad. On 17 July 1979, despite Khomeini's call, Saddam gave a speech praising the Iranian Revolution and called for an Iraqi–Iranian friendship based on non-interference in each

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and expected a decisive victory in the face of a severely weakened Iran, the Iraqi military only made progress for three months, and by December 1980, the Iraqi invasion had stalled. The Iranian military began to gain momentum against the Iraqis and regained all lost territory by June 1982. After

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ended in 1953. A half million lives were lost, perhaps another million were injured, and the economic cost was over a trillion dollars. ... the battle lines at the end of the war were almost exactly where they were at the beginning of hostilities. It was also the only war in modern times in

7737:

Currently, Iraq is between two opposing interests, one with Iran, who can provide a reliable source of power as well as military support to the influential Shia militias and political factions, and the other with the United States, who can offer Iraq significant economic aid packages, along with

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grew as an organization to encompass not just military concerns but also matters of economic, religious, and educational importance. The organization's growth during the war is vital to understanding the organization's role in Iranian society and how it has evolved since its initial formation in

5743:

According to General Hamdani, Iran continued to carry out low-level infiltrations of Iraqi territory, using Iraqi dissidents and anti-government activists rather than Iranian troops, in order to incite revolts. After the fall of Saddam in 2003, Hamdani claimed that Iranian agents infiltrated and

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The Iraqi Air Force, had originally lacked modern equipment and experienced pilots, but after pleas from Iraqi military leaders, Saddam decreased political influence on everyday operations and left the fighting to his combatants. The Soviets began delivering more advanced aircraft and weapons to

4911:

By the end of 1987, Iraq possessed 5,550 tanks, outnumbering the Iranians six to one, and 900 fighter aircraft, outnumbering the Iranians ten to one. After Operation Karbala-5, Iraq only had 100 qualified fighter pilots remaining. Therefore, Iraq began to invest in recruiting foreign pilots from

3349:

The Turkish pipeline had a capacity of only 500,000 barrels per day (79,000 m/d), which was insufficient to pay for the war. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the other Gulf states saved Iraq from bankruptcy by providing it with $ 37–60 billion in loans. Though Iraq had previously been hostile

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that had allowed Iraqi oil to reach tankers on the Mediterranean, reducing the Iraqi budget by $ 5 billion per month. Journalist Patrick Brogan wrote, "It appeared for a while that Iraq would be strangled economically before it was defeated militarily." Syria's closure of the Kirkuk–Baniyas

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Operation Fath ol-Mobin was an Iranian victory; Iraqi forces were driven away from Shush, Dezful and Ahvaz. The Iranian armed forces destroyed 320–400 Iraqi tanks and armored vehicles in a costly success. In just the first day of the battle, the Iranians lost 196 tanks. By this time, most of the

7651:

The war of the cities resumed and peaked in 1988, when Iraq dropped 40 tons of high explosives on Tehran using modified Scud missiles (dubbed "al-Husayn" missiles) over seven weeks, causing panic among civilians and prompting almost 1 million residents of Tehran to temporarily flee their homes.

6115:

At the beginning of the war, Iraq held a clear advantage in armour, while both nations were roughly equal in terms of artillery. The gap only widened as the war went on. Iran started with a stronger air force, but over time, the balance of power reversed in Iraq's favour (as Iraq was constantly

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were restored, and by late 1990-early 1991, the Iraqi military withdrew. The UN peacekeepers withdrew from the border shortly afterward. Most of the prisoners of war were released in 1990, although some remained as late as 2003. Iranian politicians declared it to be the "greatest victory in the

4416:

The failure of the human wave attacks in earlier years had prompted Iran to develop a better working relationship between the Army and the Revolutionary Guard and to mould the Revolutionary Guard units into a more conventional fighting force. To combat Iraq's use of chemical weapons, Iran began

4352:

It is our belief that Saddam wishes to return Islam to blasphemy and polytheism...if America becomes victorious...and grants victory to Saddam, Islam will receive such a blow that it will not be able to raise its head for a long time...The issue is one of Islam versus blasphemy, and not of Iran

7713:

The relationship between Iraq and Iran has warmed immensely since the downfall of Saddam Hussein, out of mostly pragmatic interests, as they share a common enemy in the Islamic State. Significant military assistance has been provided by Iran to Iraq, resulting in Iran holding a large amount of

7694:

During the Fateh offensive in February 1987, I toured the southwest front on the Iranian side and saw scores of boys, aged anywhere from nine to sixteen, who said with staggering and seemingly genuine enthusiasm that they had volunteered to become martyrs. Regular army troops, the paramilitary

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In addition to the open civil conflict with the MEK, the Iranian government was faced with Iraqi-supported rebellions in Iranian Kurdistan, which were gradually put down through a campaign of systematic repression. 1985 also saw student anti-war demonstrations, which were crushed by government

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to aid in the fight against Iraqi forces. The Basij helped bolster the prominence and legitimacy of the IRGC during the war as a vehicle for indoctrination and through its contributions to the defense of Iran. The transformation of the IRGC organized its command structure which allowed for the

4959:

With the stalemate on land, the air/tanker war began to play an increasingly major role in the conflict. The Iranian air force had become very small, with only 20 F-4 Phantoms, 20 F-5 Tigers, and 15 F-14 Tomcats in operation, although Iran managed to restore some damaged planes to service. The

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armored divisions. The Basij attacked the Iraqi lines, forcing the Iraqi infantry to retreat. An Iraqi armored counter-attack surrounded the Basij in a pincer movement. The Iranian tank divisions attacked, breaking the encirclement. The Iranian attack was stopped by mass Iraqi chemical weapons

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service of 20 tankers to move oil from Kharg to Larak Island, escorted by Iranian fighter jets. Once moved to Larak, the oil would be moved to oceangoing tankers, usually neutral. They also rebuilt the oil terminals damaged by Iraqi air raids and moved shipping to Larak Island, while attacking

3600:

Over 100,000 Revolutionary Guards and Basij volunteer forces charged towards the Iraqi lines. The Iraqi troops had entrenched themselves in formidable defenses, and had set up a network of bunkers and artillery positions. The Basij used human waves, and were even used to bodily clear the Iraqi

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all lauded these youths, known as baseeji , for having played the most dangerous role in breaking through Iraqi lines. They had led the way, running over fields of mines to clear the ground for the Iranian ground assault. Wearing white headbands to signify the embracing of death, and shouting

7624:

The last engagement between the two types was on 22 May 1986, when Mi-25s shot down a SeaCobra. The final claim tally was 10 SeaCobras and 6 Mi-25s destroyed. The relatively small numbers and the inevitable disputes over actual kill numbers makes it unclear if one gunship had a real technical

5560:

states: "Estimates of total casualties range from 1,000,000 to twice that number. The number killed on both sides was perhaps 500,000, with Iran suffering the greatest losses." Iraqi casualties are estimated at 105,000–200,000 killed, while about 400,000 had been wounded and some 70,000 taken

5367:

ordered the Iranians to retreat from Haj Omran, Kurdistan on 14 July. The Iranians did not publicly describe this as a retreat, instead calling it a "temporary withdrawal". By July, Iran's army inside Iraq had largely disintegrated. Iraq put up a massive display of captured Iranian weapons in

4357:

This operation was similar to Operation Kheibar, though it invoked more planning. Iran used 100,000 troops, with 60,000 more in reserve. They assessed the marshy terrain, plotted points where they could land tanks, and constructed pontoon bridges across the marshes. The Basij forces were also

3691:

After the failure of the 1982 summer offensives, Iran believed that a major effort along the entire breadth of the front would yield victory. In 1983, the Iranians launched five major assaults along the front. None achieved substantial success, as the Iranians staged more massive "human wave"

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by their light infantry against static Iraqi defenses was often the decisive factor in battle. However, lack of coordination between the Iranian Army and IRGC and shortages of heavy weaponry played a detrimental role, often with most of the infantry not being supported by artillery and armor.

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reported in July 1980 that despite Iran's bellicose rhetoric, "it is clear that, at present, Iran has no power to launch wide offensive operations against Iraq, or to defend on a large scale." Days before the Iraqi invasion and in the midst of rapidly escalating cross-border skirmishes, Iraqi

9107:

aimed at expelling Iranian forces from Iraq which compelled Iran to submit to a ceasefire the same year, and also due to the country becoming the dominant power in the Middle East as a result of the conflict, while Iran also claimed victory for expelling Iraqi forces from Iran following 1982

6494:

initially called for a cease-fire after a week of fighting while Iraq was occupying Iranian territory, and renewed the call on later occasions. However, the UN did not come to Iran's aid to repel the Iraqi invasion, and the Iranians thus interpreted the UN as subtly biased in favour of Iraq.

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some areas. The United States began to escort the reflagged tankers, but one was damaged by a mine while under escort. While being a public-relations victory for Iran, the United States increased its reflagging efforts. While Iran mined the Persian Gulf, their speedboat attacks were reduced,

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with the help of Kurdish fighters, taking the Iraqis by surprise. They came within 16 km (9.9 mi) of the city before being stopped by chemical and army attacks. Iran's army had also reached the Meimak Hills, only 113 km (70 mi) from Baghdad. Iraq managed to contain Iran's

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are buried. Iraq has undoubtedly been an honorable country. All refugees are precious. Anyone who wants to live in exile can choose Iraq freely. We, the Sons of Iraq, have been ambushing foreign aggressors. The enemies who plan to assault Iraq will be disfavoured by God in this world and the

5662:

loomed, Iraq became concerned about the possibility of Iran mending its relations with the west in order to attack Iraq. Iraq had lost its support from the West, and its position in Iran was increasingly untenable. Saddam realized that if Iran attempted to expel the Iraqis from the disputed

5497:

Iraq spent the rest of August and early September clearing the Kurdish resistance. Using 60,000 troops along with helicopter gunships, chemical weapons (poison gas), and mass executions, Iraq hit 15 villages, killing rebels and civilians, and forced tens of thousands of Kurds to relocate to

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anti-ship missiles as well as Soviet-made air-to-surface missiles to enforce their threats. Iraq repeatedly bombed Iran's main oil export facility on Kharg Island, causing increasingly heavy damage. As a first response to these attacks, Iran attacked a Kuwaiti tanker carrying Iraqi oil near

3034:. The Iranian air force would henceforth fight on the defensive, trying to deter the Iraqis rather than engaging them. While throughout 1981–1982 the Iraqi air force would remain weak, within the next few years they would rearm and expand again, and begin to regain the strategic initiative. 7704:, shaheed" (Martyr, martyr) they literally blew their way into heaven. Their numbers were never disclosed. But a walk through the residential suburbs of Iranian cities provided a clue. Window after window, block after block, displayed black-bordered photographs of teenage or preteen youths. 6607:

supported Iran in its war against Iraq through the supply of military equipment including spare parts for fighter jets, missile systems, ammunition and tank engines. Israel's motivations for supporting Iran stemmed from a fear of what would have become if Iraq came out victorious and as an

4713:

Meanwhile, Iran continued to attack as the Iraqis were planning their strike. In 1987 the Iranians renewed a series of major human wave offensives in both northern and southern Iraq. The Iraqis had elaborately fortified Basra with 5 defensive rings, exploiting natural waterways such as the

3354:

The virulent Iranian campaign, which at its peak seemed to be making the overthrow of the Saudi regime a war aim on a par with the defeat of Iraq, did have an effect on the Kingdom , but not the one the Iranians wanted: instead of becoming more conciliatory, the Saudis became tougher, more

1844:

and launched an invasion of Iraq. The subsequent Iranian offensive within Iraqi territory lasted for five years, with Iraq taking back the initiative in mid-1988 and subsequently launching a series of major counter-offensives that ultimately led to the conclusion of the war in a stalemate.

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on his policy towards the home front: a policy of austerity and total war was introduced, with the entire population being mobilised for the war effort. All Iraqis were ordered to donate blood and around 100,000 Iraqi civilians were ordered to clear the reeds in the southern marshes. Mass

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with three army brigades and seven Revolutionary Guard brigades. The Iraqis failed to properly patrol their occupied areas, and the Iranians constructed a 14 km (14,000 m; 8.7 mi) road through the unguarded sand dunes, launching their attack from the Iraqi rear. The town of

6069:

Though Iran was becoming bankrupt, Khomeini interpreted Islam's prohibition of usury to mean they could not borrow against future oil revenues to meet war expenses. As a result, Iran funded the war by the income from oil exports after cash had run out. The revenue from oil dropped from $

6041:

Iranians (many of whom were not associated with the MEK) were shot and hanged by the government. The MEK began an assassination campaign that killed hundreds of regime officials by the fall of 1981. On 28 June 1981, they assassinated the secretary-general of the Islamic Republican Party,

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in Iran that would cause Khomeini's government to collapse and thus ensure Iraqi victory. However, rather than turning against the revolutionary government as experts had predicted, Iran's people (including Iranian Arabs) rallied in support of the country and put up a stiff resistance.

5234:, though he had in actuality occupied that position for months. Rafsanjani ordered a last desperate counter-attack into Iraq, which was launched 13 June 1988. The Iranians infiltrated through the Iraqi trenches and moved 10 km (6.2 mi) into Iraq and managed to strike Saddam's 5894:. More than 300 Iraqi Army officers were executed for their failures on the battlefield. In 1983, a major crackdown was launched on the leadership of the Shia community. Ninety members of the al-Hakim family, an influential family of Shia clerics whose leading members were the émigrés 4303:

On 6 January 1986, the Iraqis launched an offensive attempting to retake Majnoon Island. They were quickly bogged down into a stalemate against 200,000 Iranian infantrymen, reinforced by amphibious divisions. However, they managed to gain a foothold in the southern part of the island.

4668:, despite the fact that Iraq was run by a secular regime. Scenes of Saddam praying and making pilgrimages to shrines became common on state-run television. While Iraqi morale had been low throughout the war, the attack on al-Faw raised patriotic fervor, as the Iraqis feared invasion. 4663:

The government tried to integrate the Shias into the war effort by recruiting many as part of the Ba'ath Party. In an attempt to counterbalance the religious fervor of the Iranians and gain support from the devout masses, the regime also began to promote religion and, on the surface,

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to all maritime traffic, thereby bringing American intervention; the United States had threatened several times to intervene if the Strait of Hormuz were closed. As a result, the Iranians limited their retaliatory attacks to Iraqi shipping, leaving the strait open to general passage.

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Kurds into raiding parties of 12 guerrillas, which would attack Iraqi command posts, troop formations, infrastructure, including roads and supply lines, and government buildings. The oil refineries of Kirkuk became a favourite target, and were often hit by homemade Peshmerga rockets.

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against Iraq, including an oil embargo and severe limitations on the export of dual-use technology. Although the ensuing legislation passed in the U.S. Senate, it faced strong opposition within the House of Representatives and did not become law. In a rare rebuke, Secretary of State

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as foreign countries were largely unwilling to extend credit to Iran, but Iraq financed its continued massive military expansion by taking on vast quantities of debt that allowed it to win a number of victories against Iran near the end of the war but that left the country bankrupt.

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Mujahedeen, an organization that includes a guerrilla wing active in Iran, were described by Mr. Rajavi as the first of their kind. He said the exchange of views had been "an important political turning point on the regional level and for the world in relation to the Iran–Iraq War"

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stopped proclaiming victory, and now you are calling upon population to resist until victory. Is that not an admission of failure on your part?" Khomeini was annoyed by Bazargan's telegram, and issued a lengthy public rebuttal in which he defended the war as both Islamic and just.

5145:, recently taken by the Iranians, killing thousands of civilians. Iran airlifted foreign journalists to the ruined city, and the images of the dead were shown throughout the world, but Western mistrust of Iran and collaboration with Iraq led them to also blame Iran for the attack. 2977:

to Iraq and set up a base on the Iranian border. The Battle of Dezful became a critical battle in Iranian military thinking. Less emphasis was placed on the Army with its conventional tactics, and more emphasis was placed on the Revolutionary Guard with its unconventional tactics.

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By 1987, Iranian morale had begun to crumble, reflected in the failure of government campaigns to recruit "martyrs" for the front. Israeli historian Efraim Karsh points to the decline in morale in 1987–88 as being a major factor in Iran's decision to accept the ceasefire of 1988.

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to stop and inspect any ships thought to be trading with Iraq. They operated with virtual impunity, as Iraqi pilots had little training in hitting naval targets. Some Iranian warships attacked tankers with ship-to-ship missiles, while others used their radars to guide land-based

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Amirjamshidi, Abbass (2003). "Minimal debridement or simple wound closure as the only surgical treatment in war victims with low-velocity penetrating head injuries: indications and management protocol based upon more than 8 years follow-up of 99 cases from Iran–Iraq conflict".

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exemplified the methods by which Iraq would circumvent export controls. Iraq bought at least one British company with operations in the United Kingdom and the United States, and had a complex relationship with France and the Soviet Union, its major suppliers of actual weapons.

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Due to the heavy losses in the last war of the cities, Iraq reduced their use of aerial attacks on Iranian cities. Instead, they launched Scud missiles, which the Iranians could not stop. Since the range of the Scud missile was too short to reach Tehran, they converted them to

2241:(IRGC) had been trained to act only as a militia and struggled to adapt as needed following the Iraqi invasion, initially refusing to fight alongside the regular army, resulting in many defeats. It was not until 1982 that the two groups began carrying out combined operations. 6023:(MEK) which broke with Khomeini in June 1981. While initially dealing with internal threats to the revolution in its first few years, the IRGC focused its attention on external threats at the outbreak of the war in 1980. In January of 1981, the IRGC would take control of the 3828:

5,000 Iranians and 2,500 Iraqis died. Iran gained 110 km (42 sq mi) of its territory back in the north, gained 15 km (5.8 sq mi) of Iraqi land, and captured 1,800 Iraqi prisoners while Iraq abandoned large quantities of valuable weapons and war

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the war because although they did not succeed in overthrowing the Iraqi government, they thwarted Iraq's major territorial ambitions in Iran, and that, two years after the war had ended, Iraq permanently gave up its claim of ownership over the entire Shatt al-Arab as well.

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A resort that became increasingly necessary as the war continued. Though Iran could and did acquire weapons from multiple foreign manufacturers; the pre-revolution arsenal was composed overwhelmingly of US made weaponry, meaning obtaining additional spare parts was not an

4299:

By 1985, Iraqi armed forces were receiving financial support from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Persian Gulf states, and were making substantial arms purchases from the Soviet Union, China, and France. For the first time since early 1980, Saddam launched new offensives.

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In the ensuing Battle of Dezful, the Iranian armoured divisions were nearly wiped out in one of the biggest tank battles of the war. When the Iranian tanks tried to manoeuvre, they became stuck in the mud of the marshes, and many tanks were abandoned. The Iraqis lost 45

6266:, together with many Western and Arab countries, provided military, intelligence, economic, and political support for Iraq. On average, Iraq imported about $ 7 billion in weapons during every year of the war, accounting for fully 12% of global arms sales in the period. 4947:, Iran attacked near the same area, capturing more territory. During Operation Nasr-4, the Iranians surrounded the city of Suleimaniya and, with the help of the Peshmerga, infiltrated over 140 km into Iraq and raided and threatened to capture the oil-rich city of 3552:

to defeat the Iranians. Iraq created multiple static defense lines to bleed the Iranians through sheer size. When faced against large Iranian attack, where human waves would overrun Iraq's forward entrenched infantry defences, the Iraqis would often retreat, but their

3869:

To negate the Iraqi advantage of defense in depth, static positions, and heavy firepower, Iran began to focus on fighting in areas where the Iraqis could not use their heavy weaponry, such as marshes, valleys, and mountains, and frequently using infiltration tactics.

3585:. Iranian strategy dictated that they launch their primary attack on the weakest point of the Iraqi lines. However, the Iraqis were informed of Iran's battle plans and moved all of their forces to the area the Iranians planned to attack. The Iraqis were equipped with 3275:. This part of Operation Beit ol-Moqaddas was spearheaded by the 77th Khorasan division with tanks along with the Revolutionary Guard and Basij. The Iranians hit the Iraqis with destructive air strikes and massive artillery barrages, crossed the Karun River, captured 2651:, Baghdad, and the Kirkuk oil refinery. Iraq was taken by surprise at the strength of the retaliation, which caused the Iraqis heavy losses and economic disruption, but the Iranians took heavy losses as well as losing many aircraft and aircrews to Iraqi air defenses. 6771:

It was determined that a prolonged war in the region would induce much higher oil prices and threaten the fragile world recovery which was just beginning to gain momentum. On 22 May 1984, President Reagan was briefed on the project conclusions in the Oval Office by

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limited operation in order to send a political message to the Iranians to keep out of Iraqi domestic affairs, whereas Kevin M. Woods and Williamson Murray stated in 2014 that the balance of evidence suggests Saddam was seeking "a convenient excuse for war" in 1980.

6534:

agents raided the Atlanta branch of BNL, branch manager Christopher Drogoul was charged with making unauthorised, clandestine, and illegal loans to Iraq—some of which, according to his indictment, were used to purchase arms and weapons technology. According to the

2750:, the Iraqis were repelled. On 14 October, the Iraqis launched a second offensive. The Iranians initiated a controlled withdrawal from the city, street by street. By 24 October, most of the city was captured, and the Iranians evacuated across the Karun River. Some 3692:

attacks. By this time, it was estimated that no more than 70 Iranian fighter aircraft were still operational at any given time. Iran had its own helicopter repair facilities, left over from before the revolution, and often used helicopters for close air support.

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newspaper wrote, "There is not a single school or town that is excluded from the happiness of 'holy defence' of the nation, from drinking the exquisite elixir of martyrdom, or from the sweet death of the martyr, who dies in order to live forever in paradise."

4690:, was expanded as a volunteer army and filled with Iraq's best generals. Loyalty to the state was no longer a primary requisite for joining. After the war, due to Saddam's paranoia, the former duties of the Republican Guard were transferred to a new unit, the 7640:. In retaliation for the Iranian Operation Karbala 5, Iraq attacked 65 cities in 226 sorties over 42 days, bombing civilian neighbourhoods. Eight Iranian cities came under attack from Iraqi missiles. The bombings killed 65 children in an elementary school in 4243:

network heavily to relieve the pressure on the air force. By later in the war, Iraqi air attacks were used only on fewer, more important targets. Starting in 1987, Saddam also ordered several chemical attacks on civilian targets in Iran, such as the town of

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the only strips of territory it still claimed under the treaty. There was no longer any 'territory' as such on the other side to conquer. The Ba'th had already followed the Shah's example of 1971 when he unilaterally took over the three islands in the Gulf.

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show that Iraqi military intelligence was not aware of any large-scale chemical attacks by Iranian forces, although a March 1987 document describes five small-scale chemical attacks perpetrated by the Iranians (four involving mustard gas and one involving

5283:, consisting of one of the largest artillery barrages in history, coupled with chemical weapons. The marshes had been dried by drought, allowing the Iraqis to use tanks to bypass Iranian field fortifications, expelling the Iranians from the border town of 4315:. More Iraqi air attacks were carried out in August, resulting in hundreds of additional civilian casualties. Iraqi attacks against both Iranian and neutral oil tankers in Iranian waters continued, with Iraq carrying out 150 airstrikes using French bought 3557:

would bleed the Iranians and channel them into certain directions, drawing them into traps or pockets. Iraqi air and artillery attacks would then pin the Iranians down, while tanks and mechanised infantry attacks using mobile warfare would push them back.

4837:

Operation Karbala-5 was a severe blow to Iran's military and morale. To foreign observers, it appeared that Iran was continuing to strengthen. By 1988, Iran had become self-sufficient in many areas, such as anti-tank TOW missiles, Scud ballistic missiles

3206:. The Iraqis launched a counter-attack using their 12th Armoured division to break the encirclement and rescue the surrounded divisions. Iraqi tanks came under attack by 95 Iranian F-4 Phantom and F-5 Tiger fighter jets, destroying much of the division. 3140:

was retaken from Iraqi divisions by 7 December. By this time the Iraqi Army was experiencing serious morale problems, compounded by the fact that Operation Tariq al-Quds marked the first use of Iranian "human wave" tactics, where the Revolutionary Guard

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served as Iraqi Minister of Defence throughout the Iran–Iraq War, and was appointed Deputy Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, second only to Saddam Hussein. In this position, he played a crucial role in rebuilding and modernizing the Iraqi military.

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of more than 1,000%, making Iraq the most indebted developing country in the world. The unsustainable economic situation compelled the new Iraqi government to request that a considerable portion of debt incurred during the Iran–Iraq war be written off.

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The leadership acknowledged that the war was a stalemate, and began to plan accordingly. No more "final offensives" were planned. The head of the Supreme Defense Council Akbar Rafsanjani announced during a news conference the end of human wave attacks.

4277:

On 7 February 1984, during the first war of the cities, Saddam ordered his air force to attack eleven Iranian cities; bombardments ceased on 22 February 1984. It was estimated that 1,200 Iranian civilians were killed during the raids in February alone.

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The Iranian regular military, police forces, volunteer Basij, and Revolutionary Guards all conducted their operations separately; thus, the Iraqi invading forces did not face coordinated resistance. However, on 24 September, the Iranian Navy attacked

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Iran's government used human waves to attack enemy troops and even in some cases to clear minefields. Children volunteered as well. Some reports mistakenly have the Basijis marching into battle while marking their expected entry to heaven by wearing

6758:

A key element of U.S. political–military and energy–economic planning occurred in early 1983. The Iran–Iraq war had been going on for three years and there were significant casualties on both sides, reaching hundreds of thousands. Within the Reagan

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were blows to the Ba'ath regime's prestige, and led the Gulf countries to fear that Iran might win the war. Kuwait in particular felt menaced with Iranian troops only 16 km (9.9 mi) away, and increased its support of Iraq accordingly.

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On the Iranian home front, sanctions, declining oil prices, and Iraqi attacks on Iranian oil facilities and shipping took a heavy toll on the economy. While the attacks themselves were not as destructive as some analysts believed, the U.S.-led

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To secure the loyalty of the Shia population, Saddam allowed more Shias into the Ba'ath Party and the government, and improved Shia living standards, which had been lower than those of the Iraqi Sunnis. Saddam had the state pay for restoring

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has claimed 800,000 Iranians were killed in action, four times more than Iranian official figures, whereas Iraqi intelligence privately put the number at 228,000–258,000 as of August 1986. Iraqi losses were also revised downwards over time.

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The Iraqis attacked again on 28 January 1985; they were defeated, and the Iranians retaliated on 11 March 1985 with a major offensive directed against the Baghdad-Basra highway (one of the few major offensives conducted in 1985), codenamed

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1993. On 20 July 1988, Iran accepted Resolution 598, showing its willingness to accept a ceasefire. A statement from Khomeini was read out in a radio address, and he expressed deep displeasure and reluctance about accepting the ceasefire,

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in the Arab world, 2,350 tanks and 340 combat aircraft. Watching the disintegration of the powerful Iranian army that frustrated him in 1974–1975, he saw an opportunity to attack, using the threat of Islamic Revolution as a pretext. Iraqi

4365:

The ferocity of the Iranian offensive broke through the Iraqi lines. The Revolutionary Guard, with the support of tanks and artillery, broke through north of Qurna on 14 March. That same night 3,000 Iranian troops reached and crossed the

5311:

considered this to be Iran's greatest military disaster during the war. Stephen Pelletier, a Journalist, Middle East expert, and author, noted that "Tawakal ala Allah ... resulted in the absolute destruction of Iran's military machine."

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with poison gas, immediately killing and wounding over 2,000 civilians. The fear of an all out chemical attack against Iran's largely unprotected civilian population weighed heavily on the Iranian leadership, and they realized that the

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tanks and helicopters. Under heavy Iranian pressure, the Iraqi forces retreated. By 12 May, Iran had driven out all Iraqi forces from the Susangerd area. The Iranians captured several thousand Iraqi troops and a large number of tanks.

1967:, and deliberate attacks on civilian targets. The discourses on martyrdom formulated in the Iranian Shia Islamic context led to the widespread usage of human wave attacks and thus had a lasting impact on the dynamics of the conflict. 5452:. The MEK expected the Iranian population to rise up and support their advance; the uprising never materialised but they reached 145 km (90 mi) deep into Iran. In response, the Iranian military launched its counter-attack, 4817:

against the Iraqis in Qasr-e Shirin in central Iran to prevent the Iraqis from rapidly transferring units down to defend against the Karbala-5 attack. The attack was carried out by Basij infantry and the Revolutionary Guard's 31st

2093:, who was seen as a common enemy. There were frequent clashes along the Iran–Iraq border throughout 1980, with Iraq publicly complaining of at least 544 incidents and Iran citing at least 797 violations of its border and airspace. 5468:

on 29 July 1988. On 31 July, Iran drove the MEK out of Qasr-e-Shirin and Sarpol Zahab, though MEK claimed to have "voluntarily withdrawn" from the towns. Iran estimated that 4,500 MEK were killed, while 400 Iranian soldiers died.

3711:, launched 6 February 1983, the Iranians shifted focus from the southern to the central and northern sectors. Employing 200,000 "last reserve" Revolutionary Guard troops, Iran attacked along a 40 km (25 mi) stretch near 4964:

Iraq, while the French improved training for flight crews and technical personnel and continually introduced new methods for countering Iranian weapons and tactics. Iranian ground air defense still shot down many Iraqi aircraft.

9552:

Throughout much of the 1980s, the KDPI received aid from the Ba'thi regime of Saddam Hussein, but Ghassemlou broke with Baghdad in 1988 after Iraq used chemical weapons against Kurds in Halabja and then forced Kurdish villagers

6297: 3655:(1–7 October), Iran recovered 150 km (58 sq mi) of disputed territory straddling the international border and reached the outskirts of Mandali before being stopped by Iraqi helicopter and armoured attacks. During 6627:

Syria and Libya, breaking Arab solidarity, supported Iran with arms, rhetoric and diplomacy. However, Libya then distanced itself from Iran from 1987, criticizing Tehran's attitude and restoring diplomatic relations with Iraq.

2517:. The attack failed to cripple the Iranian Air Force: while it damaged some of Iran's airbase infrastructure, it did not destroy a significant number of aircraft. The Iraqi Air Force was only able to strike in depth with a few 2324:). Despite the purge of several key pilots and commanders, as well as the lack of spare parts, the air force showed its power during local uprisings and rebellions. They were also active after the failed U.S. attempt to rescue 3069:, which moved forward to attack specific objectives. As the squads surged forward to execute their missions, that gave the impression of a "human wave attack". Nevertheless, the idea of "human wave attacks" remained virtually 2743:. The Iranians flooded the marsh areas around the city, forcing the Iraqis to traverse through narrow strips of land. Iraqi tanks launched attacks with no infantry support, and many tanks were lost to Iranian anti-tank teams. 3648:. They planned to take the Iraqis by surprise using Basij militiamen, army helicopters, and some armoured forces, then stretch their defences and possibly break through them to open a road to Baghdad for future exploitation. 28197: 5874:

At first, Saddam attempted to ensure that the Iraqi population suffered from the war as little as possible. There was rationing, but civilian projects begun before the war continued. At the same time, the already extensive

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Iran deployed Silkworm missiles to attack ships, but only a few were actually fired. Both the United States and Iran jockeyed for influence in the Gulf. To discourage the United States from escorting tankers, Iran secretly

4160:. The frigate did not detect the missiles with radar, and warning was given by the lookout only moments before they struck. Both missiles hit the ship, and one exploded in crew quarters, killing 37 sailors and wounding 21. 10885:

which chemical weapons were used on a massive scale. ... The Iranians call the war the 'imposed war' because they believe the United States imposed it on them and orchestrated the global 'tilt' toward Iraq in the war.

4134:

speedboats fitted with rocket launchers and heavy machine guns. These speedboats would launch surprise attacks against tankers and cause substantial damage. Iran also used F-4 Phantom II fighters and helicopters to launch

3021:

Despite the successful H-3 airbase attack (in addition to other air attacks), the Iranian Air Force was forced to cancel its successful 180-day air offensive. In addition, they abandoned their attempted control of Iranian

29297: 26132: 24765: 19759: 15372: 9946: 4532:

On the night of 10–11 February 1986, the Iranians launched Operation Dawn 8, in which 30,000 troops in five Army divisions and men from the Revolutionary Guard and Basij advanced in a two-pronged offensive to capture the

4089:

Iraq declared that all ships going to or from Iranian ports in the northern zone of the Persian Gulf were subject to attack. They used F-1 Mirage, Super Etendard, Mig-23, Su-20/22, and Super Frelon helicopters armed with

2726:

On 22 September, a prolonged battle began in the city of Khorramshahr, eventually leaving around 7,000 dead on each side. Reflecting the bloody nature of the struggle, Iranians came to call Khorramshahr "City of Blood".

5173:

later recounted that the recapture of al-Faw marked "the highest point of experience and expertise that the Iraqi Army reached." The Iranians eventually managed to halt the Iraqi drive as they pushed towards Khuzestan.

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to review U.S. options. It was determined that there was a high likelihood that the conflict would spread into Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states, but that the United States had little capability to defend the region.

3047:

Revolutionary Guard infantry, who would breach the weakened Iraqi lines, and followed up by the regular army using mechanized forces, who would maneuver through the breach and attempt to encircle and defeat the enemy.

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on 18 April, the U.S. Navy's largest engagement of surface warships since World War II. Two Iranian oil platforms were destroyed, and five Iranian warships and gunboats were sunk. An American helicopter also crashed.

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He also stated that had the UN accepted this fact earlier, the war would have almost certainly not lasted as long as it did. Iran, encouraged by the announcement, sought reparations from Iraq, but never received any.

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continued their speedboat attacks against oil tankers. The defeats at al-Faw and in the Persian Gulf nudged Iranian leadership towards quitting the war, especially when facing the prospect of fighting the Americans.

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political influence in Iraq's newly elected Shia government. Iraq is also heavily dependent on the more stable and developed Iran for its energy needs, so a stable Iraq is an interest for Iran, foreign policy wise.

5592:

According to the Janbazan Affairs Organization, 398,587 Iranians sustained injuries that required prolonged medical and health care following primary treatment, including 52,195 (13%) injured due to the exposure to

4730:

north to divert Iraqi heavy armor from Basra. For these battles, Iran had re-expanded their military by recruiting many new Basij and Pasdaran volunteers. Iran brought 150,000–200,000 total troops into the battles.

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and Salah al-Qadhi and Colonels Masa and al-Jalil. At least a dozen other high-ranking officers were also executed during this time. This became an increasingly common punishment for those who failed him in battle.

12918:

The organizations' ties with Iraq (mainly Rajavi's meeting with Tariq Aziz in January 1983) were exploited to demonstrate the organizations betrayal due to its willingness to join forces with Iran's enemies on the

6369:, Assistant Secretary of State during the war, testified to Congress in 1984 that the Reagan administration believed a victory for either Iran or Iraq was "neither militarily feasible nor strategically desirable". 5670:

that he had repudiated a decade earlier, and that he would accept Iran's demands and withdraw Iraq's military from the disputed territories. A peace agreement was signed finalizing the terms of the UN resolution,

5501:. Many Kurdish civilians fled to Iran. By 3 September 1988, the anti-Kurd campaign ended, and all resistance had been crushed. 400 Iraqi soldiers and 50,000–100,000 Kurdish civilians and soldiers had been killed. 5959:

of the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), though Saddam later reneged on the agreement. By 1985, the PUK and KDP had joined forces, and Iraqi Kurdistan saw widespread guerrilla warfare up to the end of the war.

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service for almost two weeks. Civilian areas were also hit, resulting in many casualties. Iraq continued to attack oil tankers via air. Iran responded by launching Scud missiles and air attacks at Iraqi targets.

3973:, Mirages and Sukhois). In what was essentially an aerial slaughter, Iraqi jets shot down 49 of the 50 Iranian helicopters. At times, fighting took place in waters over 2 m (6.6 ft) deep. Iraq ran live 26901: 17015:

Indicates that of $ 29,079 million of arms exported to Iraq from 1980 to 1988 the Soviet Union accounted for $ 16,808 million, France $ 4,591 million, and China $ 5,004 million (Info must be

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against border cities from the beginning of the war and sporadic raids on Iran's main cities, this was the first systematic strategic bombing that Iraq carried out during the war. This would become known as the

3794:. While ineffective, it demonstrated both the Iraqi general staff's and Saddam's increasing interest in using chemical weapons. In the end, 17,000 had been killed on both sides, with no gain for either country. 10897: 5984:

argued that the Iranian government saw the outbreak of war as chance to strengthen its position and consolidate the Islamic revolution, noting that government propaganda presented it domestically as a glorious

4960:

Iranian Air Force, despite its once sophisticated equipment, lacked enough equipment and personnel to sustain the war of attrition that had developed, and was unable to lead an outright onslaught against Iraq.

3378:

signed National Security Study Memorandum (NSSM) 4-82—seeking "a review of U.S. policy toward the Middle East"—and in June Reagan signed a National Security Decision Directive (NSDD) co-written by NSC official

2730:

The battle began with Iraqi air raids against key points and mechanised divisions advancing on the city in a crescent-like formation. They were slowed by Iranian air attacks and Revolutionary Guard troops with

2024:) sailed down the Shatt al-Arab, and Iraq—being the militarily weaker state—did nothing. The Iranian abrogation of the 1937 treaty marked the beginning of a period of acute Iraqi–Iranian tension that would see 7546:

describes the Iran–Iraq War as "one of the largest and longest conventional interstate wars" of the twentieth century and "the only war in modern times in which chemical weapons were used on a massive scale."

3312:

including the disputed territories that prompted his invasion, notably the Shatt al-Arab waterway. In response to their failures against the Iranians in Khorramshahr, Saddam ordered the executions of Generals

3109:

After the Iraqi offensive stalled in March 1981, there was little change in the front other than Iran retaking the high ground above Susangerd in May. By late 1981, Iran returned to the offensive and launched

6623:

of Iran's Islamic Revolution, the major ones were Libya, Syria, and China. According to the Stockholm International Peace Institute, China was the largest foreign arms supplier to Iran between 1980 and 1988.

4174:. Neutral tankers shipping to Iran were not protected by Earnest Will, resulting in reduced foreign tanker traffic to Iran, since they risked Iraqi air attack. Iran accused the United States of helping Iraq. 4212:. With the help of the USSR and the west, Iraq's air force had been rebuilt and expanded. Meanwhile, Iran, due to sanctions and lack of spare parts, had heavily curtailed its air force operations. Iraq used 6324:

Iran. The Soviet Union, Iraq's main arms supplier during the war, did not wish for the end of its alliance with Iraq, and was alarmed by Saddam's threats to find new arms suppliers in the West and China if

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According to Iranian government sources, the war cost Iran an estimated 200,000–220,000 killed, or up to 262,000 according to the conservative Western estimates. This includes 123,220 combatants, 60,711

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in Baghdad using fighter aircraft. After three days of fighting, the decimated Iranians were driven back to their original positions again as the Iraqis launched 650 helicopter and 300 aircraft sorties.

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They wanted to drive Iraq into economic failure by wasting money on weapons and war mobilization, and to deplete their smaller population by bleeding them dry, in addition to creating an anti-government

2292:

In addition, the area around the Shatt al-Arab posed no obstacle for the Iraqis, as they possessed river crossing equipment. Iraq correctly deduced that Iran's defences at the crossing points around the

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By September 1980, the revolutionary government had purged some 12,000 officers of all levels from the army. These purges resulted in a drastic decline in the Iranian military's operational capacities.

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despite the pragmatic alliance that has been formed as multiple government declarations from Iran have stated that the war will "affect every issue of internal and foreign policy" for decades to come.

6066:

dramatically, and Iran was described by British journalists John Bulloch and Harvey Morris as "a dour and joyless place" ruled by a harsh regime that "seemed to have nothing to offer but endless war".

4003:, where they layered defensive lines: even if the Iranians broke through the first line, they were usually unable to break through the second due to exhaustion and heavy losses. They largely relied on 2014:

and Iranian ships stopped paying tolls to Iraq when they used the Shatt al-Arab. The Shah argued that the 1937 treaty was unfair to Iran because almost all river borders around the world ran along the

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The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq Conflicts [5 volumes]: The United States in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq Conflicts

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and a test of Iranian national character. The Iranian regime followed a policy of total war from the beginning, and attempted to mobilise the nation as a whole. They established a group known as the

5913:) also led the Kurdistan Democratic Party, similarly executed. From 1983 onwards, a campaign of increasingly brutal repression was started against the Iraqi Kurds, characterised by Israeli historian 5646:

waterway. Foreign powers continued to support Iraq, which wanted to gain at the negotiating table what they failed to achieve on the battlefield, and Iran was portrayed as the one not wanting peace.

1665: 8065: 4679:

in an attempt to crush the Kurdish resistance, who were now allied with Iran. The result was the deaths of several hundred thousand Iraqi Kurds, and the destruction of villages, towns, and cities.

3507:

An admonitory declaration issued from the Iraqi government in order to warn Iranian troops in the Iran–Iraq War. The statement says: "Hey Iranians! No one has been downtrodden in the country where

2916:, and broke through Iraqi lines. However, the Iranian tanks had raced through Iraqi lines with their flanks unprotected and with no infantry support; as a result, they were cut off by Iraqi tanks. 17452: 6519: 2685:, which reduced Iraq's ability to export oil. The Iranian ground forces, primarily consisting of the Revolutionary Guard, retreated to the cities, where they set up defences against the invaders. 1860:. In total, around 500,000 people were killed during the Iran–Iraq War, with Iran bearing the larger share of the casualties, excluding the tens of thousands of civilians killed in the concurrent 26996: 25576: 3640:

After Iran's failure in Operation Ramadan, they carried out only a few smaller attacks. Iran launched two limited offensives aimed at reclaiming the Sumar Hills and isolating the Iraqi pocket at

3073:

with any large-scale infantry frontal assault Iran carried out. Large numbers of troops would be used, aimed at overwhelming the Iraqi lines (usually the weakest portion, typically manned by the

5812:

to private and public sectors to more than $ 500 billion by the end of Saddam's rule. Combined with Iraq's negative economic growth after prolonged international sanctions, this produced a

2788:

Though Khorramshahr was captured, the battle had delayed the Iraqis enough to allow the large-scale deployment of the Iranian military. In November, Saddam ordered his forces to advance towards

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in a mere eleven days. In total, 10,000–11,000 civilians died as a result of the aerial bombardment of Iranian cities with the majority of those deaths occurring in the final year of the war.

5403:

Happy are those who have departed through martyrdom. Happy are those who have lost their lives in this convoy of light. Unhappy am I that I still survive and have drunk the poisoned chalice...

25638: 25129: 6615:, often acting as a third party in arms deals between Iran and the Communist bloc. Support included domestically manufactured arms and Eastern-Bloc weapons, for which the major powers wanted 26162: 24795: 9614: 6028:

organization to match the force of Iran's regular military and its first abroad deployment during the war began the sponsoring of other armed groups in the region through its command of the

3931:

above Basra were natural barriers to attack, and had not reinforced them. The marshes negated Iraqi advantage in armor, and absorbed artillery rounds and bombs. Prior to the attack, Iranian

17863: 14789: 7500: 6385: 27430: 12799: 6730:. American views toward Iraq were not enthusiastically supportive in its conflict with Iran, and activity in assistance was largely to prevent an Iranian victory. This was encapsulated by 4476:

needed repairs to be operational. By this time Iran managed to procure spare parts from various sources, helping them to restore some weapons. They secretly imported some weapons, such as

2119:

as an irrational, existential threat to the Ba'ath government, especially because the Ba'ath party, having a secular nature, discriminated against and posed a threat to the fundamentalist

28548: 27693: 24987: 21258: 15750: 13632: 7211:, 20,000 Iranian soldiers were killed on the spot by nerve gas. As of 2002, 5,000 of the 80,000 survivors continue to seek regular medical treatment, while 1,000 are hospital inpatients. 2020:, and because most of the ships that used the Shatt al-Arab were Iranian. Iraq threatened war over the Iranian move, but on 24 April 1969, an Iranian tanker escorted by Iranian warships ( 19384:(syndicated by New York Times Syndication Sales, 1987, published in book form as "Öl ins Feuer Internationale Waffengeschäfte im Golfkrieg" Orell Füssli Verlag Zürich and Wiesbaden 1988 16630: 5424:"ambush") was the last big military operation of the war. Both Iran and Iraq had accepted Resolution 598, but despite the ceasefire, after seeing Iraqi victories in the previous months, 3383:, which determined: "The United States could not afford to allow Iraq to lose the war to Iran", and that the United States "would do whatever was necessary to prevent Iraq from losing". 27567: 26461: 25464: 17887:

Report of the mission dispatched by the Secretary-General to investigate allegations of the use of chemical weapons in the conflict between the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraq S/17911

8299: 5074:

By 1988, with massive equipment imports and reduced Iranian volunteers, Iraq was ready to launch major offensives against Iran. In February 1988, Saddam began the fifth and most deadly

2746:

By 30 September, the Iraqis had managed to clear the Iranians from the outskirts of the city. The next day, the Iraqis launched infantry and armoured attacks into the city. After heavy

7201:

population contaminated in bordering towns or the children and relatives of veterans, many of whom have developed blood, lung and skin complications, according to the Organization for

5085:, allowing them to attack economic targets while evading anti-aircraft defenses. These attacks began to have a major toll on the Iranian economy and morale and caused many casualties. 3817:. Iran's strategy was to press Kurdish tribes to occupy the Banjuin Valley, which was within 45 km (28 mi) of Suleimaniyah and 140 km (87 mi) from the oilfields of 2156:

military intelligence again reiterated on 14 September that "the enemy deployment organization does not indicate hostile intentions and appears to be taking on a more defensive mode."

15860: 5602:

thought that Iran suffered even more than a million dead. Considering the style of fighting on the ground and the fact that neither side penetrated deeply into the other's territory,

5368:

Baghdad, claiming they captured 1,298 tanks, 5,550 recoilless rifles, and thousands of other weapons. However, Iraq had taken heavy losses as well, and the battles were very costly.

4007:

Hind to "hunt" the Iranian troops in the marshes. At least 20,000 Iranians were killed in the marsh battles. Iran used the marshes as a springboard for future attacks/infiltrations.

26893: 11840:

Fürtig, Henner (2012). "Den Spieß umgedreht: iranische Gegenoffensive im Ersten Golfkrieg" [Turning of the Tables: the Iranian counter-offensive during the first Gulf War].

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and other campaigns against the Iraqis. They were subordinate to the Revolutionary Guards, and they made up most of the manpower that was used in the Revolutionary Guard's attacks.

3632:

The total casualty toll had grown to include 80,000 soldiers and civilians. 400 Iranian tanks and armored vehicles were destroyed or abandoned, while Iraq lost at least 370 tanks.

2115:

other's internal affairs. When Khomeini rejected Saddam's overture by calling for Islamic revolution in Iraq, Saddam was alarmed. Iran's new Islamic administration was regarded in

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landed behind the MEK lines while the Iranian Air Force and helicopters launched an air attack, destroying much of the enemy columns. The Iranians defeated the MEK in the city of

5407:

The news of the end of the war was greeted with celebration in Baghdad, with people dancing in the streets; in Tehran, however, the end of the war was greeted with a somber mood.

5344:

cities, destroying vital civilian and military infrastructure, and increasing the death toll. Iran replied with missile and air attacks, but not sufficiently to deter the Iraqis.

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and building a bridgehead twelve miles into Iran. According to the MEK, Iraqi soldiers did not participate in the operation. Baghdad also said it was not involved in the battle.

4631:

foreign tankers that carried Iraqi oil, as Iran had blocked Iraq's access to the open sea with the capture of al-Faw. By now, they almost always used the armed speedboats of the

4311:

between 12 and 14 March, hitting up to 158 targets in over 30 towns and cities, including Tehran. Iran responded by launching 14 Scud missiles for the first time, purchased from

2665:

missiles; they destroyed numerous armoured vehicles and impeded the Iraqi advance, though not completely halting it. Meanwhile, Iraqi air attacks on Iran were repelled by Iran's

5666:

Shortly after his invasion of Kuwait, Saddam wrote a letter to Rafsanjani stating that Iraq recognised Iranian rights over the eastern half of the Shatt al-Arab, a reversion to

2896:

On 5 January 1981, Iran had reorganised its forces enough to launch a large-scale offensive, Operation Nasr (Victory). The Iranians launched their major armoured offensive from

18794: 13974: 4850:

tactical rockets, and producing spare parts for their weaponry. Iran had improved its air defenses with smuggled surface to air missiles. Iran was even producing UAV's and the

4686:-based Iraqi regular army and the volunteer-based Iraqi Popular Army conducted the bulk of the operations in the war, to little effect. The Republican Guard, formerly an elite 4472:

with the help of East German engineers, cutting up their Scuds into three chunks and attaching them together. Iran responded to these attacks by using their own Scud missiles.

4030:

against Iranian shipping, economic targets, and cities in order to damage Iran's economy and morale. Iraq also wanted to provoke Iran into doing something that would cause the

28710: 24957: 20305: 20298: 5129:. Iran hoped that the capture of these areas would bring more favourable terms to the ceasefire agreement. This infiltration offensive was carried out in conjunction with the 4606:

Through the eyes of international observers, Iran was prevailing in the war by the end of 1986. In the northern front, the Iranians began launching attacks toward the city of

4010:

Four years into the war, the human cost to Iran had been 170,000 combat fatalities and 340,000 wounded. Iraqi combat fatalities were estimated at 80,000 with 150,000 wounded.

3487:

create several tank battalions, Iran once again had 1,000 tanks, and also managed to clandestinely procure spare parts as well, including those pertaining to the F-14 Tomcat.

1658: 429: 15907: 9299: 8018: 7551:

writes that "there has not been anything like it in the long history of Iraqi–Iranian relations, just like there had been nothing like World War I in the history of Europe."

6329:

did not provide him with the weapons he wanted. The Soviet Union hoped to use the threat of reducing arms supplies to Iraq as leverage for forming a Soviet–Iranian alliance.

5837:

guidelines to treat civilians who had suffered blunt or penetrating skull injuries. Iranian physicians' experience in the war informed the medical care of U.S. congresswoman

5804:

mandated Iraq to pay reparations of more than $ 200 billion to victims of the invasion, including Kuwait and the United States. To enforce payment, Iraq was put under a

5182:

and nerve gas, while longer-lasting mustard gas was launched via fighter-bombers and rockets against the Iranian rear, creating a "chemical wall" that blocked reinforcement.

5036:

s mine-laying activities. On 8 October, the U.S. Navy destroyed four Iranian speedboats, and in response to Iranian Silkworm missile attacks on Kuwaiti oil tankers, launched

4396:

marshes while being attacked by helicopters, and the highway was recaptured by the Iraqis. Operation Badr resulted in 10,000–12,000 Iraqi casualties and 15,000 Iranian ones.

2414: 26935: 21248: 17701: 17252: 6763:

concern was growing that the war could spread beyond the boundaries of the two belligerents. A National Security Planning Group meeting was called chaired by Vice President

2635:

Though the Iraqi air invasion surprised the Iranians, the Iranian air force retaliated the day after with a large-scale attack against Iraqi air bases and infrastructure in

6476:(PKK), which prompted a harsh diplomatic intervention by Iran, which planned a new offensive against Iraq at the time and were counting on the support of Kurdish factions. 6296: 4656:

gave in to the demands of his generals. Up to this point, Iraqi strategy was to ride out Iranian attacks. However, the defeat at al-Faw led Saddam to declare the war to be

4500:

and produced those weapons themselves. All of these almost certainly helped increase the effectiveness of Iran, although it did not reduce the human cost of their attacks.

3363:

Iraqis relied heavily on American satellite footage and radar planes to detect Iranian troop movements, and they enabled Iraq to move troops to the site before the battle.

26629: 23197: 17790: 3726:, which Iraqi engineers were unable to replace. After this battle, Iran reduced its use of human wave attacks, though they still remained a key tactic as the war went on. 14820: 6479:

Sudan supported Iraq directly during the war, sending a contingent to fight at the frontlines. The Sudanese unit consisted to a large degree of Ugandan refugees from the

2039:

against Iraq's government. When informed of this plot, Saddam ordered the execution of dozens of his army's officers, and in a sign of reconciliation, expelled from Iraq

28219: 27452: 26717: 25285: 25010: 24039: 19742: 18596: 16077: 7412: 6678: 6515:($ 8 billion). In all, Iraq received $ 35 billion in loans from the West and between $ 30 and $ 40 billion from the Persian Gulf states during the 1980s. 5218: 1872:

1 trillion. There were a number of proxy forces operating for both countries: Iraq and the pro-Iraqi Arab separatist militias in Iran were most notably supported by the

1868:. The end of the conflict resulted in neither reparations nor border changes, and the combined financial losses suffered by both combatants is believed to have exceeded 18083: 16934: 3825:

attack helicopters equipped with chemical weapons and executed 120 sorties against the Iranian force, which stopped them 15 km (9.3 mi) into Iraqi territory.

26154: 24947: 24787: 19702: 13663: 8376: 8013: 7683:" around their necks, although other analysts regard this story as a hoax involving a misinterpretation of the carrying of a prayer book called "The Keys to Paradise"( 6612: 6570: 2954:(MEK) on the streets of Iran's major cities in June 1981 and again in September. In 1983, the MEK started an alliance with Iraq following a meeting between MEK leader 14075: 4618:. In one attack, Tehran's main oil refinery was hit, and in another instance, Iraq damaged Iran's Assadabad satellite dish, disrupting Iranian overseas telephone and 27685: 27615: 27333: 25596: 25253: 20270: 19274: 17947: 16138: 14333: 8060: 1651: 13956: 4870:, head of the IRGC, announced that Iran would focus exclusively on limited attacks and infiltrations, while arming and supporting opposition groups inside of Iraq. 3988:. 1,200 Iranian soldiers were killed in the counter-attack. The Iranians retreated back to the marshes, though they still held onto them along with Majnoon Island. 2268:

Despite neglect by the new regime, at the outset of the conflict, Iran still had at least 1,000 operational tanks and several hundred functional aircraft and could

27211: 26432: 26369: 25479: 25385: 19652: 17514: 7530: 6620: 6287: 5691:

at the time, reported that Iraq's initiation of the war was unjustified, as was its occupation of Iranian territory and use of chemical weapons against civilians:

4935:

While the southern and central fronts were at a stalemate, Iran began to focus on carrying out offensives in northern Iraq with the help of the Peshmerga (Kurdish

3644:

at the international border, both of which were part of the disputed territories still under Iraqi occupation. They then aimed to capture the Iraqi border town of

2796:, and lay sieges to both cities. However, the Iraqi offensive had been badly damaged by Iranian militias and air power. Iran's air force had destroyed Iraq's army 15603: 15461: 9697: 7617:

The Iranians repeated this accomplishment on 24 April 1981, destroying two Mi-25s without incurring losses to themselves. One Mi-25 was also downed by an Iranian

7214:

According to Iraqi documents, assistance in developing chemical weapons was obtained from firms in many countries, including the United States, West Germany, the

5747:

In 2005, the new government of Iraq apologised to Iran for starting the war. The Iraqi government also commemorated the war with various monuments, including the

3872:

Iran began training troops in infiltration, patrolling, night-fighting, marsh warfare, and mountain warfare. They began training thousands of Revolutionary Guard

3628:

the Iranians. Three more similar attacks occurred around the Khorramshahr-Baghdad road area towards the end of the month, but none were significantly successful.

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to carry out major offensives. Iran, confident in its successes, began planning their largest offensives of the war, which they called their "final offensives".

4586:

Immediately after the Iranian capture of al-Faw, Saddam declared a new offensive against Iran, designed to drive deep into the state. The Iranian border city of

4236:

the strategic bombers. Civilian and industrial targets were hit by the raids, and each successful raid inflicted economic damage from regular strategic bombing.

2248:. The Basij were poorly armed and had members as young as 12 and as old as 70. They often acted in conjunction with the Revolutionary Guard, launching so-called 1523: 911: 17035: 14703: 11620: 3999:

The Battle of the Marshes saw an Iraqi defence that had been under continuous strain since 15 February. They were relieved by their use of chemical weapons and

29456: 26955: 24073: 17588: 17220: 15487: 13937: 13355: 12335:

Certainly Saddam believed that the oil-rich areas of Arabistan (Khuzestan) were within his reach, a goal his intelligence services seemed delighted to further.

11604:

Certainly Saddam believed that the oil-rich areas of Arabistan (Khuzestan) were within his reach, a goal his intelligence services seemed delighted to further.

8371: 7730:

owes about $ 149 billion, while Iran contends that, with both the direct and indirect effects taken into account, the cost of the war reaches a trillion.

4386: 3065:

Stephen C. Pelletiere, the idea of Iranian "human wave attacks" was a misconception. Instead, the Iranian tactics consisted of using groups of 22-man infantry

2264:

specific objective. In battle, they would surge forward to accomplish their missions, and thus gave the impression of a human wave pouring against enemy lines.

15346: 29292: 28392: 27460: 26886: 25949: 25606: 20464: 19687: 19660: 9347: 6465: 6405: 6401: 3667:, and 7 planes with few losses. They nearly breached the Iraqi lines but failed to capture Mandali after the Iraqis sent reinforcements, including brand new 16447: 12534: 29324: 28965: 27978: 26014: 24942: 20479: 19732: 19727: 19677: 6397: 5934:'s tomb with white marble imported from Italy. The Baathists also increased their policies of repression against the Shia. The most infamous event was the 18320: 10816: 9792: 4239:

In response, the Iranians deployed their F-4 Phantoms to combat the Iraqis, and eventually they deployed F-14s as well. By 1986, Iran also expanded their

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offensives, despite failing in its later-goal to overthrow the Iraqi government and also despite suffering higher military and economic losses than Iraq.

8642: 6711:, non-U.S. origin weaponry, military intelligence, and special operations training. The U.S. refused to sell arms to Iraq directly due to Iraq's ties to 5887:

demonstrations of loyalty towards Saddam became more common. Saddam also began implementing a policy of discrimination against Iraqis of Iranian origin.

5740:

and missile attacks against Mujahedeen targets inside of Iraq, the largest taking place in 2001, when Iran fired 56 Scud missiles at Mujahedeen targets.

4544:

Meanwhile, an amphibious strike force landed at the foot of the peninsula. The resistance, consisting of several thousand poorly trained soldiers of the

3961:

by landing troops via helicopters onto the islands and severing the communication lines between Amareh and Basra. They then continued the attack towards

1631: 6665:

helicopters, explosives, and ammunition. A research party later discovered that an unexploded chemical Iraqi warhead in Iran was manufactured in Spain.

2272:

equipment to procure spare parts. Continuous sanctions greatly limited Iran from acquiring many additional heavy weapons, including tanks and aircraft.

28703: 25280: 23496: 22417: 21270: 19954: 14252: 12713:

Invading forces would need to be prepared for a deeply embedded and enduring insurgency, due to extreme challenges presented by terrain, and resolve...

6464:, and other methods to hide what it was acquiring. Some transactions may have involved people, shipping, and manufacturing in as many as 10 countries. 4886:

skyrocketed. At the same time, Iraq was experiencing crushing debt and shortages of workers, encouraging its leadership to try to end the war quickly.

2229:

Many junior officers were promoted to generals, resulting in the army being more integrated as a part of the regime by the war's end. Meanwhile, a new

18473: 18052: 12072: 5303:

the quick assault. The final two Tawakal ala Allah operations took place near al-Amarah and Khaneqan. By 12 July, the Iraqis had captured the city of

3084:, the Iranian human wave charges consisted of armed "civilians" who carried most of their necessary equipment themselves into battle and often lacked 30003: 28841: 28273: 27861: 27499: 27494: 27292: 25664: 25119: 24937: 22523: 19947: 16247: 10748: 6889: 5995:, whose members were exempted from conscription and were instead sent into the countryside to work on farms to replace the men serving at the front. 4854:

propeller aircraft for observation. Iran doubled their stocks of artillery, and was self-sufficient in the manufacture of ammunition and small arms.

3841:. Iran's use of artillery against Basra while the battles in the north raged created multiple fronts, which effectively confused and wore down Iraq. 3443: 19143: 17425: 15268: 15057: 14606: 14518: 14424: 13081: 3366:

With Iranian success on the battlefield, the United States increased its support of the Iraqi government, supplying intelligence, economic aid, and

30162: 30093: 27420: 27123: 27020: 26879: 26201: 24839: 24829: 23110: 19882: 18152: 15020: 13996: 9606: 6453:, which had no direct stake in the victory of either side and whose interests in the war were entirely commercial, freely sold arms to both sides. 5217:, and frigates in this battle, which ended only when President Reagan decided that the Iranian navy had been damaged enough. In spite of this, the 5178:

tactics was the "one-two punch" attack using chemical weapons. Using artillery, they would saturate the Iranian front line with rapidly dispersing

4444:

to create "killing fields" in which dozens of Iraqi planes were lost, which was reported in the West as the Iranian Air Force using F-14s as "mini-

3589:

to use against the enemy, which was the first major use of chemical warfare during the conflict, throwing an entire attacking division into chaos.

1848:

The eight years of war-exhaustion, economic devastation, decreased morale, military stalemate, inaction by the international community towards the

1719: 7338:

characterized as "unacceptable to the civilized world." Even after these pronouncements, however, the State Department advised against sanctions.

6278:

Despite its larger population, by 1988 Iran's ground forces numbered only 600,000 whereas the Iraqi army had grown to include 1 million soldiers.

2035:

The relationship between the governments of Iran and Iraq briefly improved in 1978, when Iranian agents in Iraq discovered plans for a pro-Soviet

29817: 29201: 29007: 28863: 28283: 28212: 28020: 27878: 27445: 27354: 27003: 26762: 26466: 21937: 21928: 21672: 21184: 15742: 14727: 12791: 11210: 8388: 8383: 8237: 8232: 7652:

Nevertheless, scholars have noted that this still "ranks as one of the smallest strategic bombing campaigns in history," paling in comparison to

7610:) on several separate occasions. In November 1980, not long after Iraq's initial invasion of Iran, two Iranian SeaCobras engaged two Mi-25s with 18711: 16272: 13640: 4682:

Iraq began to try to perfect its maneuver tactics. The Iraqis began to prioritize the professionalization of their military. Prior to 1986, the

4436:

increased, with weapons being repaired or replaced and new tactical methods being used. For example, the Iranians would loosely integrate their

2696:

near Baghdad. By 1 October, Baghdad had been subjected to eight air attacks. In response, Iraq launched aerial strikes against Iranian targets.

30120:

Prolonged conflicts are listed in the decade when initiated; ongoing conflicts are marked italic, and conflicts with +100,000 killed with bold.

29319: 27552: 26558: 26394: 26374: 26147: 25410: 25390: 25360: 25248: 24849: 24844: 24780: 24435: 21169: 20362: 19154: 17855: 16614: 16190: 14435: 7914: 7602:

against each other. This war also saw the only confirmed air-to-air helicopter battles in history with the Iraqi Mi-25s flying against Iranian

7231: 5955:

agreed to cooperate with Baghdad, but the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) remained opposed. In 1983, Saddam signed an autonomy agreement with

5631: 4541:. The capture of Al Faw and Umm Qasr was a major goal for Iran. Iran began with a feint attack against Basra, which was stopped by the Iraqis. 3935:

on helicopters had landed behind Iraqi lines and destroyed Iraqi artillery. Iran launched two preliminary attacks prior to the main offensive,

3616:, against columns of Iranian mechanised infantry and tanks. These "hunter-killer" teams of helicopters, which had been formed with the help of 2936:

tanks. Reporters counted roughly 150 destroyed or deserted Iranian tanks, and also 40 Iraqi tanks. 141 Iranians were killed during the battle.

1841: 1766: 1754: 18688: 16167: 6661:

From 1980 to 1987, Spain sold €458 million in weapons to Iran and €172 million to Iraq. Weapons sold to Iraq included 4x4 vehicles,

3734:. In 1983, Iran had an estimated population of 43.6 million to Iraq's 14.8 million, and the discrepancy continued to grow throughout the war. 2599:

The Iraqi troops advancing into Iran in 1980 were described by Patrick Brogan as "badly led and lacking in offensive spirit". The first known

29357: 29169: 28831: 28696: 27851: 27678: 27605: 27376: 27323: 27313: 25556: 19579: 19185: 17169:

Indicates that of $ 5,044 million of arms exported to Iran from 1980 to 1988 China count for $ 1,958 million (Info must be entered)

16405: 16099: 15799: 9706: 5921:

was intended to "pacify" Iraqi Kurdistan permanently. By 1983, the Barzanis entered an alliance with Iran in defense against Saddam Hussein.

5589:

accounted for 42,875 Iranian casualties, captured and kept in Iraqi detention centres from 2.5 to more than 15 years after the war was over.

4878:, which protected Iraqi and allied oil tankers, but not Iranian ones, led many neutral countries to stop trading with Iran because of rising 4632: 3695:

Iranian fighter pilots had superior training compared to their Iraqi counterparts, as most had received training from US officers before the

3238:

fighter jets from France); this gave the Iranians air superiority over the battlefield while allowing them to monitor Iraqi troop movements.

15852: 12700: 12043: 4081:

in early 1984. Iraq's aim in attacking Iranian shipping was to provoke the Iranians to retaliate with extreme measures, such as closing the

3675:. The Iranian advance was also impeded by heavy rains. 3,500 Iraqis and an unknown number of Iranians died, with only minor gains for Iran. 3006:

border and away from Iran. However, on 3 April 1981, the Iranian air force used eight F-4 Phantom fighter bombers, four F-14 Tomcats, three

29736: 29127: 29112: 28522: 28502: 28145: 28130: 27572: 26656: 26427: 25674: 25104: 24708: 24100: 21460: 20449: 16336: 15662: 7523: 6099: 5582: 5505: 5330:

Saddam sent a warning to Khomeini in mid-1988, threatening to launch a new and powerful full-scale invasion and attack Iranian cities with

4377:

Saddam responded by launching chemical attacks against the Iranian positions along the highway and by initiating the aforementioned second

2152: 603: 597: 18121: 17477: 11967: 11233: 9321: 6900:

in October 1987, the United States attacked Iranian oil platforms in retaliation for an Iranian attack on the U.S.-flagged Kuwaiti tanker

5720:. Despite renewed and somewhat thawed relations, both sides continued to have low level conflicts. Iraq continued to host and support the 30021: 29210: 28902: 28836: 28507: 28449: 27915: 27856: 27732: 27722: 27118: 26729: 26686: 26526: 26029: 25921: 25220: 25151: 24895: 24451: 24345: 21238: 19632: 17886: 16660: 14854: 14385: 14359: 13745: 12755: 12663: 9498: 9471: 8721: 7482: 5540: 2418: 2381:

On 10 September 1980, Iraq forcibly reclaimed territories in Zain al-Qaws and Saif Saad that it had been promised under the terms of the

1853: 1849: 1606: 1516: 904: 14098: 12262: 12130: 3984:. They had broken out of the marshes and returned to open terrain, where they were confronted by Iraqi artillery, tanks, air power, and 3753: 30222: 29850: 29117: 28787: 28678: 28512: 28205: 28155: 28135: 27807: 27653: 27557: 27438: 26506: 26379: 26024: 26009: 25974: 25944: 25714: 25581: 25422: 24415: 21606: 21122: 20474: 15974: 15728: 15304: 13498: 13170: 7747: 5721: 5476: 5325: 440: 14758: 13889: 13240: 6384:

over their arms purchases and to circumvent "official restrictions". Arab mercenaries and volunteers from Egypt and Jordan formed the

4266:

Iran also launched several retaliatory air raids on Iraq, while primarily shelling border cities such as Basra. Iran also bought some

3030:. The Iranian Air Force could not survive further attrition, and decided to limit their losses, abandoning efforts to control Iranian 30217: 30177: 29002: 28478: 28293: 28288: 28015: 27381: 26861: 26691: 26342: 26140: 26123: 25591: 25375: 25263: 25109: 24773: 24557: 24445: 23114: 19911: 19090:

Lewental, D. Gershon (November 2014). ""Saddam's Qadisiyyah": Religion and history in the service of state ideology in Baʿthi Iraq".

18975:

Lewental, D. Gershon (November 2014). "'Saddam's Qadisiyyah': Religion and history in the service of state ideology in Baʿthi Iraq".

18798: 17100: 13982: 13870: 13709: 13016: 12107: 7568: 7314:

In response to further Iraqi chemical attacks on Kurdish civilians after the August 1988 ceasefire with Iran, United States senators

6566: 6085:

Not all saw the war in negative terms. The Islamic Revolution of Iran was strengthened and radicalised. The Iranian government-owned

2465: 2301:

Rivers were undermanned and that the rivers could be easily crossed. Iraqi intelligence was also informed that the Iranian forces in

1782: 973: 19600: 18354: 14877: 13838: 4484:. In an exception to the United States' support for Iraq, in exchange for Iran using its influence to help free western hostages in 3856:

After the Dawn Operations, Iran attempted to change tactics. In the face of increasing Iraqi defense in depth, as well as increased

3291:

The Iraqi Air Force was also left in poor shape: after losing up to 55 aircraft since early December 1981, they had only 100 intact

2647:

fighter jets attacked targets throughout Iraq, such as oil facilities, dams, petrochemical plants, and oil refineries, and included

30212: 29608: 28187: 27671: 27008: 26960: 26624: 26570: 26565: 25994: 24001: 23486: 17614: 16216: 15915: 14549: 12978: 12901: 9295: 6647: 1909: 1178: 473: 17685: 17162: 17008: 16768:"در گفت و گو با هوشنگ صمدی، فرمانده تکاوران نیروی دریایی مستقر در خرمشهر مطرح شد/ گلایه های ناخدای خونین شهر از کیمیا – دولت بهار" 16184:

rules and principles of international law or any principles of international morality and entails the responsibility for conflict.

14488: 13905: 13447: 13375: 12996:

were exploited to demonstrate the organizations betrayal due to its willingness to join forces with Iran's enemies on the outside.

12607: 9803:

Berridge, W.J. "Civil Uprisings in Modern Sudan: The 'Khartoum Springs' of 1964 and 1985", p. 136. Bloomsbury Academic, 2015

7644:. The Iranians responded with Scud missile attacks on Baghdad and struck a primary school there. These events became known as the 4939:). The Iranians used a combination of semi-guerrilla and infiltration tactics in the Kurdish mountains with the Peshmerga. During 2386:

Iranian ships would fly Iraqi flags and pay Iraq navigation fees for a stretch of the Shatt al-Arab river spanning several miles.

29766: 29069: 28924: 28082: 27937: 27636: 27386: 27349: 27282: 26909: 26825: 26019: 25323: 24405: 21157: 18771: 18416: 18091: 14577: 13305: 7516: 6332:

During the early years of the war, the United States lacked meaningful relations with either Iran or Iraq, the former due to the

4185:, the largest ship ever built, was struck by Iraqi Exocet missiles as it was carrying Iranian crude oil out of the Persian Gulf. 3596:

95,000 Iranian child soldiers were casualties during the Iran–Iraq War, mostly between the ages of 16 and 17, with a few younger.

2056: 29840: 19450: 17916: 16375: 6530:, relied partially on U.S. taxpayer-guaranteed loans to funnel $ 5 billion to Iraq from 1985 to 1989. In August 1989, when 6006:, the Iraqis believed that in addition to the Arab revolts, the Revolutionary Guards would be drawn out of Tehran, leading to a 5830: 3782:. Iran saw an opportunity to sweep away Iraqi forces controlling the roads between the Iranian mountain border towns of Mehran, 3042:

The Iranians suffered from a shortage of heavy weapons, but had a large number of devoted volunteer troops, so they began using

29428: 29100: 28517: 28118: 28098: 25709: 25566: 25295: 25174: 25077: 24869: 24859: 21782: 21633: 21396: 19722: 16431: 14816: 13784: 10779: 10632: 9219: 6727: 6380:

ambiguity towards which side to support was summed up by Henry Kissinger when he remarked, "It's a pity they can't both lose."

5801: 4987: 4862:

took place in 74 cities throughout Iran, which were crushed by the regime, resulting in some protesters being shot and killed.

1921: 1873: 1509: 897: 18592: 17832: 16061: 15269:"The Combination of Iraqi offensives and Western intervention force Iran to accept a cease-fire: September 1987 to March 1989" 7614:

wire-guided antitank missiles. One Mi-25 went down immediately, the other was badly damaged and crashed before reaching base.

5298:

On 25 June, Iraq launched the second Tawakal ala Allah operation against the Iranians on Majnoon Island. Iraqi commandos used

3969:. On that day, a massive array of Iranian helicopters transporting Pasdaran troops were intercepted by Iraqi combat aircraft ( 3801:

in September 1983 was the northern sector in Iranian Kurdistan. Three Iranian regular divisions, the Revolutionary Guard, and

3457:

The decision to invade Iraq was taken after much debate within the Iranian government. One faction, comprising Prime Minister

30192: 30029: 29236: 28987: 28846: 28646: 28278: 28000: 27866: 27562: 27318: 26836: 26577: 26501: 26196: 26051: 25447: 25417: 24740: 24395: 24068: 22802: 22128: 21958: 21903: 21772: 21638: 20536: 19806: 19496: 19469: 19404: 19327: 19260: 19217: 19133: 19080: 18662: 18543: 17740: 17669: 17314: 17144: 16990: 16965: 16926: 16819: 16751: 16721: 16624: 16514: 15891: 15835: 15638: 15555: 15136: 14944: 14918: 14799: 14646: 14304: 14279: 14194: 13683: 13613: 13411: 13339: 12852: 12453: 12234: 11698: 11539: 11157: 10873: 10715: 10677: 10599: 10482: 10317: 10275: 10235: 9674: 9644: 9426: 7653: 7476: 6637: 6429:

The United States pursued policies in favour of Iraq by reopening diplomatic channels, lifting restrictions on the export of

5483:

The last notable combat actions of the war took place on 3 August 1988, in the Persian Gulf when the Iranian navy fired on a

5231: 1704: 451: 29654: 22780: 17058: 16556: 16310: 15151:

Pollack, Kenneth M. (2004). "Iraq". Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

12878: 10165: 10043: 9985: 9396: 9273: 2244:

An additional paramilitary militia was founded in response to the invasion, the "Army of 20 Million", commonly known as the

30197: 28977: 28950: 28719: 27990: 27963: 27758: 27584: 27196: 27135: 26651: 26439: 26272: 25497: 25290: 25099: 24834: 24373: 24178: 23238: 23145: 21290: 21280: 17939: 14071: 9079: 7949: 7929: 7434: 6776:

who had served as the head of the NSC staff that organized the study. The full declassified presentation can be seen here.

1709: 1675: 1476: 119: 19306: 19011:"سرودی حماسی که به تیتراژ "خبر" تبدیل شد/ ما مسلح به "الله اکبر"یم – خبرگزاری مهر | اخبار ایران و جهان | Mehr News Agency" 18741: 18286: 17782: 16126: 15428: 14321: 14137: 13953: 6960:

was in their own waters, and that the passenger jet was turning away and increasing altitude after take-off. U.S. Admiral

3884:

to cross the marshes and rivers in southern Iraq and landed troops on the opposing banks, where they would dig and set up

2305:, which consisted of two divisions prior to the revolution, now only consisted of several ill-equipped and under-strength 30060: 29783: 29275: 29194: 29122: 28897: 28140: 27910: 26940: 26299: 26289: 25238: 25072: 24735: 23140: 22488: 22438: 22164: 21698: 19365: 9075: 7959: 7909: 7865:", the 1979 Iranian Islamic revolutionary military march song performed by IRGC troops in front of Ayatollah Khomeini in 6984: 5025:, a diplomatic disaster for the already isolated Iranians. Iran had previously sought to maintain at least a pretense of 3565:

Iran's military power was weakened once again by large purges in 1982, resulting from another supposedly attempted coup.

3536:, and the ground war entered a new phase. Iraq used newly acquired T-55, T-62 and T-72 tanks, as well as Chinese copies, 2600: 1836: 1714: 1579: 1574: 206: 107: 13046: 10092: 9888: 4718:

and the Jasim River, along with earth barriers. Fish Lake was a massive lake filled with mines, underwater barbed wire,

29724: 29085: 29022: 28349: 28103: 28035: 27489: 26777: 26521: 25999: 25861: 25524: 24952: 24515: 23491: 23407: 23130: 23095: 21713: 21702: 21647: 21595: 21450: 21253: 19707: 18953: 18631: 17765: 16906: 16877: 16848: 16594: 16071: 16033: 15530: 15453: 15407: 15156: 14887: 13533: 13274: 13180: 12988: 12911: 12413: 12373: 12002: 11905: 11880:

While the evidence now available suggests the skirmishes were more a convenient excuse for war, questions still remain.

11873: 11821: 11792: 11763: 11727: 11662: 11597: 11568: 11253: 10440: 10159: 10037: 9780: 9724: 9508: 9481: 8886: 8881: 7675:

Despite the war, Iran and Iraq maintained diplomatic relations and embassies in each other's countries until mid-1987.

6651: 6641: 6585:, it also indirectly supplied some weapons to Iran as part of a complex and illegal programme that became known as the 6305: 4445: 3450:, which was dedicated to overthrowing the Ba'ath party. They recruited POWs, dissidents, exiles, and Shias to join the 2851:, armored manoeuvre by the Iraqis was very costly, and they consequently entrenched their tanks into static positions. 2514: 2317: 2025: 14973: 13116: 12943: 4110:

The air and small-boat attacks did little damage to Persian Gulf state economies, and Iran moved its shipping port to

3620:

advisors, proved very costly for the Iranians. Aerial dogfights occurred between Iraqi MiGs and Iranian F-4 Phantoms.

3370:

equipment and vehicles, as well as normalizing its intergovernmental relations (which had been broken during the 1967

3234:, the Iranians had launched numerous air raids against Iraq air bases, destroying 47 jets (including Iraq's brand new 29934: 29304: 28907: 28809: 28235: 27920: 27829: 27468: 26594: 26191: 25689: 25669: 25632: 25551: 25437: 25432: 25313: 24824: 24600: 24420: 24063: 23535: 22143: 22087: 22067: 21883: 21858: 21754: 21678: 21580: 21210: 21052: 19853: 19433: 19389: 19351: 19054: 18570: 18498: 18269: 18229: 18193: 18035: 18006: 17981: 17828: 17624: 17573: 17551: 17409: 17376: 17027: 15597: 15169: 15004: 14710: 14031: 13819: 12568: 12509: 12328: 12027: 11616: 9919: 9718: 9537: 9448: 9390: 9245: 7632:

In October 1986, Iraqi aircraft began to attack civilian passenger trains and aircraft on Iranian soil, including an

6868:

was inside the Iran–Iraq War zone were shown to be false, and the motives and orders of the pilot remain unanswered.

6015: 5578: 5264: 3470: 2440: 2234: 17: 21977: 15338: 13934: 7286:, with the likely source being captured Iraqi munitions), and there are also reports of Iranian use of tear gas and 30034: 29670: 29577: 29418: 28970: 28955: 28919: 28380: 27983: 27968: 27932: 27364: 27013: 26986: 26609: 26536: 26444: 26170: 25355: 25243: 25209: 25114: 24803: 23623: 23608: 23204: 23192: 22608: 22174: 19697: 19692: 15703: 15587: 15369:"Kaveh Farrokh | Western, Pakistani and Egyptian pilots flying Iraqi Combat Aircraft during the Iran–Iraq War" 12756:"The Evolution of Iranian Warfighting During the Iran–Iraq War: When Dismounted Light Infantry Made the Difference" 9858: 9575: 8768:

The total 100,000+ civilians killed during the war does not include 50,000–200,000 Kurdish civilians killed in the

7954: 7924: 6994: 6688: 6684: 6354: 5387:, were once again attacked with poison gas, resulting in even heavier civilian casualties. On 3 July 1988, the USS 2187:

judge, and shortages of spare parts for Iran's American and British-made equipment had crippled Iran's once-mighty

2163:

On 8 March 1980, Iran announced it was withdrawing its ambassador from Iraq, downgraded its diplomatic ties to the

1798: 1621: 1616: 17656:, Policy and Administrative Approaches, vol. 17, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, p. 210, 10898:"Martyrdom and Masculinity in Warring Iran. The Karbala Paradigm, the Heroic, and the Personal Dimensions of War." 7822: 3026:. They had been seriously weakened by sanctions and pre-war purges and further damaged by a fresh purge after the 2807:

spare parts from other equipment and began searching for parts on the black market. On 28 November, Iran launched

29990: 29105: 28727: 28123: 27727: 27701: 27531: 26681: 26646: 26641: 26546: 26531: 26352: 26332: 26314: 26284: 25959: 25776: 25427: 25370: 25087: 24562: 24469: 24338: 24085: 23481: 23467: 23219: 22869: 22118: 21658: 21494: 21489: 21228: 20855: 19789: 19717: 19682: 19672: 19625: 12526: 10376:

Clodfelter, Micheal, Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991

9571:

The Naqshbandi Order as a Vehicle of Political Protest among the Kurds (With Some Comparative Notes on Indonesia)

8676: 7964: 7298: 6760: 6531: 6491: 5556:

The Iran–Iraq War was the deadliest conventional war ever fought between regular armies of developing countries.

5371:

In July 1988, Iraqi aircraft dropped bombs on the Iranian Kurdish village of Zardan. Dozens of villages, such as

4425:'s, fitted with six RPG-7's to launch attacks. They were primarily used in observation, being used for up to 700 2545:

and one armoured, operated near the southern end and began a siege of the strategically important port cities of

2422: 2130:, in addition to finally achieving his desire of becoming the regional superpower. Saddam's goal was to supplant 1857: 1611: 1569: 389: 17396:

Byrne, Malcolm (2013). "Critical Oral History: A new approach to examining the United States' role in the war".

14968:[Looking at the unrecognised role of (the drones) 'effort' and 'immigrant' in Dawn Operations 5 and 8]. 13363: 7656:, which saw 1.2 million tons of bombs dropped on German cities in 1944 alone, or more recent events such as the 7587:

in June 1981 to disable the reactor, killing a French engineer in the process and causing France to pull out of

4381:, with an air and missile campaign against twenty to thirty Iranian population centres, including Tehran. Under 3977:

through the water, electrocuting numerous Iranian troops and then displaying their corpses on state television.

2361: 29951: 29187: 29095: 29090: 29012: 28410: 28370: 28113: 28108: 28025: 27579: 27171: 27130: 26471: 26456: 26449: 26232: 26206: 25365: 25350: 25094: 24854: 24703: 24476: 23085: 22723: 22548: 22428: 22412: 21898: 21833: 21734: 21683: 21455: 21406: 21391: 21295: 21285: 21265: 21057: 20716: 20454: 20329: 19875: 18815:

Tabatabai, Arianne (Summer 2017). "What the Iran–Iraq War Tells Us about the Future of the Iran Nuclear Deal".

18257: 17652:

Qasemi, Hamid Reza (2016), "Chapter 12: Iran and Its Policy Against Terrorism", in Alexander R. Dawoody (ed.),

15199: 14846: 12405: 11755: 11654: 10802: 9579: 9104: 7984: 7862: 6910: 6426:, France, and China together accounted for over 90% of the value of Iraq's arms imports between 1980 and 1988. 5882:

After the Iranian victories of the spring of 1982 and the Syrian closure of Iraq's main pipeline, Saddam did a

5280: 4943:

in early April, Iran captured territory near Suleimaniya, provoking a severe poison gas counter-attack. During

2950:

The Islamic Republic government in Iran was further distracted by internal fighting between the regime and the

2843:. Of the regular divisions, only seven were deployed to the border. The war bogged down into World War I-style 2589: 2487: 1375: 947: 29806: 29557: 28444: 28432: 24900: 22356: 21127: 21067: 9742:"Jordanian Unit Going To Aid Iraq 6 Hussein Will Join Volunteer Force Fighting Iranians (The Washington Post)" 3833:

in the field. Iraq responded to these losses by firing a series of SCUD-B missiles into the cities of Dezful,

29830: 29471: 29263: 29137: 28461: 28415: 28375: 27308: 27083: 26553: 26364: 25300: 25228: 24905: 22582: 22023: 22006: 21913: 21888: 21744: 21652: 21642: 19923: 19870: 19801: 9087: 8316: 7260:

The United States accused Iran of using chemical weapons as well, though the allegations have been disputed.

6966: 6557:

were among the companies shipping militarily useful technology to Iraq under the eye of the U.S. government.

6450: 6105: 6049:. The government responded with mass executions of suspected MEK members, a practice that lasted until 1985. 5425: 5248: 4026:

Unable to launch successful ground attacks against Iran, Iraq used their now expanded air force to carry out

3265: 3255: 2719: 2709: 2550: 1092: 992: 249: 29693: 29649: 6864:

or not Iraqi leadership authorised the attack is still unknown. Initial claims by the Iraqi government that

5849:

down and shell the infantry and overwhelm the smaller Iranian tank force; in addition to being dependent on

3919:

An Iraqi POW who was shot by Iranian troops after they conquered the Iraqi Majnoon oil field in October 1984

2126:

Saddam's primary interest in war may have also stemmed from his desire to right the supposed "wrong" of the

30187: 30182: 29905: 29811: 29625: 29367: 28745: 28309: 27776: 27113: 26950: 26619: 26541: 25561: 25546: 25204: 24932: 23994: 23231: 22586: 22422: 22138: 21878: 21868: 21616: 21472: 21072: 20009: 19777: 19286: 18442: 18060: 14600:

Formal Investigation into the Circumstances Surrounding the Attack on the USS Stark (FFG 31) on 17 May 1987

12068: 7637: 6719:

for $ 200 million in 1985. Total sales of U.S. dual-use technology to Iraq are estimated at $ 500 million.

6304:

as the American special envoy to the Middle East meets Saddam Hussein in December 1983. Rumsfeld was later

5952: 5684: 5106: 3191: 3111: 2913: 1885: 1821: 1361: 1342: 1330: 1065: 378: 22352: 16239: 16206: 10740: 7625:

superiority over the other. Iraqi Mi-25s also claimed 43 kills against other Iranian helicopters, such as

5825:

The war had its impact on medical science: a surgical intervention for comatose patients with penetrating

4224:

to carry out long-range high-speed raids on Iranian cities, including Tehran. Fighter-bombers such as the

2819:

and dug its troops in around the city, it was unable to blockade the port, which allowed Iran to resupply

2482: 30040: 29620: 29408: 29286: 29270: 28858: 27151: 26347: 26294: 26279: 25831: 25679: 25571: 25258: 24967: 24425: 24410: 24368: 24095: 23780: 23545: 23508: 23440: 23209: 22377: 22371: 22322: 22133: 21963: 21842: 21467: 19158: 15279: 15050: 14599: 14439: 13074: 12792:"Egyptian Field Marshal Abdul-Halim Abu Ghazalah on the Combat Tactics and Strategy of the Iran–Iraq War" 8716: 7446: 7254: 6780: 6473: 6313: 5850: 5655: 5331: 5201:

burns after being hit by 20 U.S. air launched missiles and bombs, killing a third of the crew, April 1988

3334: 2184: 1626: 1564: 14006: 10880:

The Iran–Iraq War was devastating—one of the largest and longest conventional interstate wars since the

5523:

of the war until 11 December 1991, some 11 years after Iraq invaded Iran and 16 months following Iraq's

4882:

and fear of air attack. Iranian oil and non-oil exports fell by 55%, inflation reached 50% by 1987, and

4626:

Iraq continued to attack Kharg Island and the oil tankers and facilities as well. Iran created a tanker

4611:

offensives in the south, but was under serious pressure, as the Iranians were slowly overwhelming them.

3520:

hereafter. Be careful of attacking Iraq and Ali ibn Abi Ṭālib! If you surrender, you might be in peace."

3503: 3386:

In 1982, Reagan removed Iraq from the list of countries "supporting terrorism" and sold weapons such as

3271:

In the early morning hours of 23 May 1982, the Iranians began the drive towards Khorramshahr across the

2580:, and were able to block the traditional Tehran–Baghdad invasion route by securing territory forward of 1916:. While Iran was comparatively isolated to a large degree, it received a significant amount of aid from 30207: 30172: 30167: 30137: 29945: 29910: 29746: 29741: 29719: 29614: 29494: 29466: 29413: 29152: 29049: 28997: 28992: 28885: 28495: 28438: 28170: 28062: 28010: 28005: 27898: 27201: 27181: 27071: 26930: 26481: 26422: 26384: 26257: 26106: 26081: 26056: 25442: 25134: 25124: 24756: 24651: 24430: 24331: 24121: 24029: 23958: 23633: 23613: 23455: 23445: 23435: 23135: 23125: 22904: 22592: 22053: 21918: 21386: 21164: 21062: 20505: 20036: 20030: 19772: 19618: 18623: 18185: 18144: 18027: 16898: 16869: 16840: 16586: 16025: 15522: 15399: 13525: 12365: 12320: 11994: 11930: 11897: 11865: 11813: 11784: 11719: 11589: 11560: 10432: 9322:"'Mohsen, the Japanese' chronicles life of Afghan volunteer fighter in Iran–Iraq war (tehrantimes.com)" 8574: 7400: 7382: 7287: 6722:

U.S. government support for Iraq was not a secret and was frequently discussed in open sessions of the

6523: 5853:

to help secure victories. Therefore, they were rapidly overwhelmed by the high-tech, quick-maneuvering

5603: 4448:". The Iraqi Air Force reacted by increasing the sophistication of its equipment, incorporating modern 4382: 3802: 3664: 3604:

The attacks came to a halt and the Iranians turned to defensive measures. Seeing this, Iraq used their

3421:, and Japan for supplying anything from weapons and munitions to logistical and engineering equipment. 3231: 3050: 2661:

helicopter gunships began attacks on the advancing Iraqi divisions, along with F-4 Phantoms armed with

2321: 2140: 2073:

Tensions between Iraq and Iran were fuelled by Iran's Islamic revolution and its appearance of being a

1888:. During the conflict, Iraq received an abundance of financial, political, and logistical aid from the 1881: 1778: 1589: 1086: 367: 236: 115: 19177: 16280: 14735: 13299:"Tactical Evolution in the Iraqi Army: The Abadan Island And Fish Lake Campaigns of the Iran-Ipaq War" 13146: 11202: 10399:

International Conflict : A Chronological Encyclopedia of Conflicts and Their Management 1945–1995

9980: 7843: 5557: 2584:, Iran. On the northern front, the Iraqis attempted to establish a strong defensive position opposite 29893: 29514: 29508: 29054: 29027: 28960: 28740: 28599: 28583: 28578: 28067: 28040: 27973: 27771: 26247: 25601: 25502: 25400: 24681: 24211: 24207: 24080: 23585: 23430: 23000: 22795: 22696: 22287: 22057: 21838: 21764: 21626: 21601: 21524: 21275: 21174: 21117: 20529: 20130: 20080: 20066: 19064: 18703: 14676: 9091: 8564: 8489: 8167: 8142: 7919: 7579:, though it did not achieve its objective, as France repaired the reactor after the attack. (It took 7242: 7202: 6857: 6712: 5854: 5756: 5372: 5048: 4449: 4245: 3923:

By 1984, the Iranian ground forces were reorganised well enough for the Revolutionary Guard to start

3810: 3778:

the Kurds. The Iranians attempted to further exploit activities in the north on 30 July 1983, during

3708: 3652: 3491: 3027: 2530: 1802: 1127: 1113: 952: 24112: 18391:(2). The Monterey Institute of International Studies, Center for Nonproliferation Studies: 355–371. 7629:. Both sides, especially Iraq, also carried out air and missile attacks against population centres. 4156:

plane. The missiles had been fired at about the time the plane was given a routine radio warning by

3409:

Iran did not have the money to purchase arms to the same extent as Iraq did. They counted on China,

3096:

break through the lines and encircle entire divisions. Merely the fact that the Iranian forces used

2870:

to bring the war to the Iranian civilian population. Iran launched dozens of "human wave assaults".

2191:. Between February and September 1979, Iran's government executed 85 senior generals and forced all 30152: 29964: 29552: 29309: 29280: 29147: 29132: 29064: 29040: 28912: 28880: 28799: 28329: 28165: 28150: 28077: 28053: 27925: 27893: 27819: 27402: 27061: 26636: 26511: 26412: 26309: 26267: 26252: 26242: 26061: 25821: 25704: 25699: 25659: 25621: 25380: 25184: 25060: 24645: 23672: 23643: 23287: 22407: 22197: 22077: 22028: 22000: 21863: 21401: 21315: 21044: 20422: 18678: 16160: 8279: 8207: 8172: 7680: 7422: 6940:

on 3 July 1988, killing all 290 passengers and crew on board. The American government claimed that

6917: 5764: 5206: 5065: 5016: 4691: 4493: 3965:. By 27 February, they had captured the island, but suffered catastrophic helicopter losses to the 2847:

with tanks and modern late-20th century weapons. Due to the power of anti-tank weapons such as the

2736: 2127: 2123:

movement in Iraq, whose clerics were Iran's allies within Iraq and whom Khomeini saw as oppressed.

1552: 1461: 16397: 15791: 12050: 6019:

1979. Domestically, the IRGC dealt with suppressing uprisings by Kurds, Baluchs, Turkmen, and the

3991: 30202: 29888: 29883: 29461: 29331: 29059: 28792: 28619: 28558: 28334: 28268: 28072: 27812: 27631: 27600: 26739: 26722: 26666: 26486: 26417: 25318: 25055: 25040: 24535: 24313: 24090: 23987: 23900: 23648: 23312: 23045: 22638: 22612: 22603: 22473: 22433: 22037: 21973: 21933: 21668: 21519: 21376: 21335: 20593: 20415: 20408: 20355: 20335: 20316: 20023: 20016: 19831: 18090:. Office of The Surgeon General, Department of the Army, United States of America. Archived from 16103: 14709:(Report). OSD/JS FOIA Library. Office of the Secretary of Defense and Joint Staff. Archived from 14605:(Report). JAG Manual Investigations. U.S. Navy Judge Advocate General's Corps. 3 September 1987. 12688: 10865: 9160: 8494: 8321: 8311: 7944: 7855: 7657: 7452: 7350: 7326: 6998: 6990: 6897: 6892:, which passed unanimously on 20 July, under which the U.S. and Iranian forces skirmished during 5992: 5895: 5744:

created numerous militias in Iraq and built an intelligence system operating within the country.

5713: 5634:

in place, and UN peacekeepers monitoring the border, Iran and Iraq sent their representatives to

5340: 5154: 5037: 4895: 4581: 4557: 3581:, it involved over 180,000 troops from both sides, and was one of the largest land battles since 3447: 3180: 3132: 2804: 2747: 2310: 2269: 1981: 1454: 1447: 1394: 1381: 1079: 1072: 64: 17897: 16344: 16161:

Further Report of the Secretary-General on the Implementation of Security Council Resolution 598

15956:

International Conflict: A Chronological Encyclopedia of Conflicts and Their Management 1945–1995

15674: 14670: 6779:

The conclusions were threefold: firstly, oil stocks needed to be increased among members of the

6116:

expanding its military, while Iran was under arms sanctions). Estimates for 1980 and 1987 were:

5619: 4348:, Muhammad's first military victory in Mecca). Ayatollah Khomeini urged Iranians on, declaring: 3849:

Previously, the Iranians had outnumbered the Iraqis on the battlefield, but Iraq expanded their

3187:, they landed behind Iraqi lines, silenced their artillery, and captured an Iraqi headquarters. 2673:

missiles, which downed a dozen of Iraq's Soviet-built fighters in the first two days of battle.

2409:

may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience

30147: 30142: 29985: 29969: 29835: 28821: 28804: 28780: 28624: 28314: 27841: 27824: 27800: 27161: 27108: 26734: 26614: 26476: 26086: 25969: 25626: 25616: 25489: 25139: 25050: 25045: 25030: 24459: 23603: 23462: 23332: 23307: 23177: 22929: 22728: 22367: 22108: 22063: 21787: 21749: 21477: 21233: 20401: 20394: 20178: 19935: 19902: 19892: 19858: 19752: 19092: 18654: 18648: 18113: 16530: 14130:"Giving one's life to the cause of Islam and Iran. Guarding the revolution's Islamic standards" 11925: 9140: 9119: 9083: 8669: 8479: 8264: 7934: 7554: 6893: 6586: 5826: 5805: 5688: 5509: 5029:

regarding its use of mines, but the Navy SEALS captured and photographed extensive evidence of

4999: 4875: 4859: 4723: 4522: 4509: 4461: 4453: 4171: 4104: 4062: 4053: 4049: 3660: 2693: 2689: 2473: 2459: 2382: 2344:

It is widely accepted among scholars that Iraq was seeking to annex, or at least to establish

2068: 2029: 2021: 1999: 1817: 1750: 1440: 1425: 1418: 1224: 997: 964: 937: 569: 313: 266: 72: 48: 29179: 24388: 19551:

Cooper, Tom (July–August 2002). "'Floggers" in Action: Early MiG-23s in Operational Service".

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The Unfinished History of the Iran–Iraq War: Faith, Firepower, and Iran's Revolutionary Guards

15628: 14910: 14904: 14381: 14355: 13749: 13332:

Who are the real chosen people?: The Meaning of Chosenness in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

12766: 12670: 12445: 12439: 10591: 10585: 10531:(6). São Paulo: Faculdade de Higiene e Saúde Pública da Universidade de São Paulo: 1065–1066. 10227: 10221: 6916:

was badly damaged by an Iranian mine, and 10 sailors were wounded. U.S. forces responded with

6715:, but several sales of "dual-use" technology have been documented; notably, Iraq purchased 45 2611: 2167:

level, and demanded that Iraq do the same. The following day, Iraq declared Iran's ambassador

1757:

by both sides. Iraq's primary rationale for the attack against Iran cited the need to prevent

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sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab. This restored the border to the terms established by the

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The Iran–Iraq War was the first conflict in the history of warfare in which both forces used

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For the next eight months, both sides were on a defensive footing, with the exception of the

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Damage to a mosque in Khoramshahr, Iran, the city that was invaded by Iraq in September 1980

5879:

around Saddam reached new heights while the regime tightened its control over the military.

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Saudi Arabia was said to provide Iraq with $ 1 billion per month starting in mid-1982.

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launched surprise air strikes on ten Iranian airfields with the objective of destroying the

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Formal Investigation into the Circumstances Surrounding the Attack of the USS Stark in 1987

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In January 1985, former prime minister and anti-war Islamic Liberation Movement co-founder

5842: 5672: 4944: 4163: 3980:

By 29 February, the Iranians had reached the outskirts of Qurna and were closing in on the

3722:

The Iranians suffered a large number of casualties clearing minefields and breaching Iraqi

3296: 3195: 3183:. On 22 March 1982, Iran launched an attack which took the Iraqi forces by surprise: using 2375: 2329: 2211: 2164: 1869: 1793:, which was not seen as an achievable objective prior to the Islamic Revolution because of 1584: 1557: 1310: 17104: 13859: 13705: 13008: 12099: 6320:

During the war, Iraq was regarded by the West and the Soviet Union as a counterbalance to

5712:

Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Iran and Iraq relations remained balanced between a

4432:

For the rest of 1986, and until the spring of 1988, the Iranian Air Force's efficiency in

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National and International Conflicts, 1945–1995: New Empirical and Theoretical Approaches

18221: 17368: 17181: 15995: 13835: 13668:

Threats and Alliances in the Middle East: Saudi and Syrian Policies in a Turbulent Region

10772:"Lesser Murdering States, Quasi-States, and Groups: Estimates, Sources, and Calculations" 9941: 9746: 9035: 8697: 8559: 8514: 8484: 8269: 7458: 6937: 6708: 6430: 6415: 6373: 6337: 6003: 5899: 5752: 5574: 5545: 5392: 5357: 5347: 5170: 5069: 4991: 4940: 4814: 4808: 4745: 4739: 4553: 4469: 4203:

raids against Iranian cities. While Iraq had launched numerous attacks with aircraft and

4167: 3495:

escorted Riyadh Hussein to the next room, closed the door, and shot him with his pistol.

3458: 3439: 3391: 3367: 3199: 3085: 3081: 3055: 2966: 2940: 2889: 2811:(Pearl), a combined air and sea attack which destroyed 80% of Iraq's navy and all of its 2751: 2616: 2542: 2477: 2325: 2207: 2060: 1490: 1303: 1296: 1289: 1282: 1266: 1252: 1245: 1011: 821: 524: 60: 18538:(Russia's combat helicopters. From Omega to Alligator). Moscow, Yuza & Eksmo, 2010, 17630: 14545: 10519:

Zargar, Moosa; Araghizadeh, Hassan; Soroush, Mohammad Reza; Khaji, Ali (December 2012).

10388:

Chirot, Daniel: Modern Tyrants : the power and prevalence of evil in our age (1994)

7595:

has been cited as causing a substantial delay to Iraqi acquisition of nuclear weapons.)

7334:

condemned Iraq's "unjustified and abhorrent" chemical attacks, which Shultz's assistant

6944:

was in international waters at the time (which was later proven to be untrue), that the

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United Nations Special Commission, "Annex D: Actions by Iraq to Obstruct Disarmament",

17005: 15107: 15099: 15014: 14480: 13913: 13455: 13298: 12615: 11959: 11926:"Saddam Hussein, the United States, and the invasion of Iran: was there a green light?" 9850: 9842: 8690: 8519: 8449: 8434: 8429: 8419: 8405: 8227: 8192: 8162: 8147: 8097: 8087: 8050: 8008: 7866: 7778:("the Imposed War"). The war is known in the Arab world and a few other regions as the 7607: 7394: 7388: 7376: 7323: 7265: 6842: 6818: 6701: 6650:

also sold weapons to both countries for the entire duration of the conflict. Likewise,

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as the only means of exporting oil, along with transporting oil by tanker truck to the

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with barbed wire stretched across fortified defensive lines, manned machine-gun posts,

1829: 1762: 1481: 1432: 1120: 1023: 985: 942: 400: 219: 132: 111: 68: 54: 23717: 18763: 18377: 18350: 16483: 16304:

Iraq's Debt Relief: Procedure and Potential Implications for International Debt Relief

14571: 9208: 6340:

and the latter because of Iraq's alliance with the Soviet Union and hostility towards

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Piazza, James A. (October 1994). "The Democratic Islamic Republic of Iran in Exile".

19213: 19209: 19129: 19113: 19076: 19069: 19050: 18996: 18916: 18889: 18658: 18627: 18539: 18412: 18400: 18328: 18265: 18250: 18225: 18217: 18189: 18031: 18002: 17977: 17912: 17859: 17761: 17736: 17725: 17693: 17665: 17620: 17547: 17405: 17372: 17364: 17310: 17206: 17140: 17134: 16986: 16961: 16902: 16873: 16844: 16815: 16747: 16717: 16620: 16590: 16510: 16487: 16439: 16367: 16211: 16067: 16029: 15987: 15983: 15887: 15831: 15722: 15634: 15593: 15551: 15526: 15403: 15152: 15132: 15111: 15000: 14940: 14914: 14883: 14795: 14642: 14300: 14275: 14190: 14027: 14021: 14001: 13815: 13679: 13609: 13603: 13529: 13407: 13335: 13280: 13270: 13176: 12984: 12907: 12848: 12584:

Georges Malbrunot (16 October 2007). "Majid: 'Saddam is no longer the lion I knew'".

12564: 12505: 12449: 12409: 12398: 12369: 12324: 12230: 12023: 11998: 11963: 11951: 11901: 11869: 11817: 11788: 11759: 11748: 11723: 11694: 11658: 11647: 11593: 11564: 11535: 11249: 11153: 10869: 10721: 10711: 10683: 10673: 10605: 10595: 10558: 10550: 10542: 10488: 10478: 10446: 10436: 10424: 10323: 10313: 10281: 10271: 10241: 10231: 10155: 10033: 9915: 9854: 9834: 9776: 9714: 9667:"Jordan's call for volunteers to fight Iran misfires (The Christian Science Monitor)" 9543: 9533: 9504: 9477: 9422: 9386: 8769: 8662: 8636: 8584: 8529: 8439: 8249: 8137: 8072: 7599: 7584: 7335: 6785: 6751: 6697: 6460:, middlemen, secret ownership of all or part of companies all over the world, forged 6366: 6345: 6239: 6042: 6020: 5968: 5813: 5607: 5570: 5520: 5449: 5235: 5125:, which supplied Iraq with much of its electricity and water, as well as the city of 5110: 5102: 4983: 4883: 4757: 4676: 4359: 4260: 4221: 4200: 4194: 4123: 4027: 3974: 3946: 3924: 3910: 3578: 3451: 3390:

to Iraq via Jordan. France sold Iraq millions of dollars worth of weapons, including

3176: 3043: 2951: 2604: 2249: 2196: 2168: 2100: 2040: 1960: 1758: 1746: 1368: 1349: 1170: 1105: 978: 853: 811: 799: 576: 564: 557: 552: 540: 488: 352: 288: 19447: 18836: 18469: 18443:"Osirak Redux? Assessing Israeli Capabilities to Destroy Iranian Nuclear Facilities" 12833:"Irano–Irakskii konflikt. Istoricheskii ocherk." Niyazmatov. J.A. – M.: Nauka, 1989. 10771: 10624: 10537: 10520: 7269:

specificity as to time and place, and the failure to provide any sort of evidence".

3663:

with the help of their fighter jets and helicopters, destroying 105 Iraqi tanks, 70

2202: 1850:

use of weapons of mass destruction by Iraqi forces on Iranian soldiers and civilians

30013: 29996: 29957: 29632: 29567: 29562: 29534: 29433: 29393: 29017: 28826: 28688: 28604: 28568: 28543: 28030: 27846: 27610: 27547: 27369: 27328: 27098: 27051: 26976: 26843: 26810: 26782: 26661: 26599: 26099: 26076: 26066: 26039: 26034: 25984: 25979: 25891: 25811: 25694: 25529: 25333: 25305: 25067: 24917: 24885: 24663: 24639: 24520: 24378: 24257: 24144: 23787: 23722: 23712: 23386: 23367: 23362: 23357: 23297: 23272: 22652: 22643: 22553: 22543: 22499: 22339: 22327: 22281: 22226: 22043: 21908: 21739: 21708: 21553: 21534: 21243: 20863: 20367: 20263: 20191: 20184: 20172: 20142: 20135: 20115: 20108: 20101: 20094: 19968: 19591: 19523: 19337: 19290: 19236: 19101: 18984: 18912: 18877: 18824: 18457: 18392: 18177: 17824: 17657: 17511:"In 1987, a Secret Iraqi Warplane Struck an American Frigate and Killed 37 Sailors" 17194: 16479: 15091: 14680: 14023:

Iraq and the War of Sanctions: Conventional Threats and Weapons of Mass Destruction

13671: 12360:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "A context of 'bitterness and anger'".

12315:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "A context of 'bitterness and anger'".

11943: 11892:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "A context of 'bitterness and anger'".

11584:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "A context of 'bitterness and anger'".

11555:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "A context of 'bitterness and anger'".

11241: 10812: 10532: 9826: 9151: 8848: 8615: 8569: 8549: 8544: 8454: 8331: 8326: 8244: 8212: 8202: 8092: 7684: 7261: 6961: 6902: 6527: 6446: 6243: 6112:, with most high-ranking officers either having fled the country or been executed. 5945:

Despite the costs of the war, the Iraqi regime made generous contributions to Shia

5876: 5748: 5659: 5594: 5586: 5453: 5415: 5299: 5256: 5205:

The same day as Iraq's attack on al-Faw peninsula, the United States Navy launched

5138: 5118: 4904: 4779: 4707: 4687: 4639:

became an ever-increasing concern to foreign powers, especially the United States.

4627: 4564:

In March 1986, the Iranians tried to follow up their success by attempting to take

4534: 4526: 4513: 4371: 4082: 4000: 3981: 3940: 3936: 3906: 3902: 3798: 3779: 3770: 3731: 3549: 3480: 3435: 3097: 2879: 2836: 2740: 2732: 2628: 2577: 2237:. Created to protect the new regime and serve as a counterbalance to the army, the 2188: 2180: 2078: 1699: 1643: 1401: 1356: 1259: 1237: 1230: 1218: 1190: 1183: 1162: 1155: 1148: 1141: 1004: 793: 500: 230: 14299:. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 568–572. 13334:(2008 hardcover ed.). Woodstock, VT: SkyLight Paths Publishing. p. 143. 9666: 9636: 6503:

Iraq's main financial backers were the oil-rich Persian Gulf states, most notably

3671:

tanks, which possessed armour that could not be pierced from the front by Iranian

2803:

Iran's supplies had not been exhausted, despite sanctions, and the military often

2541:

border to prevent an Iranian counter-attack. Two of the four Iraqi divisions, one

1749:

that lasted from September 1980 to August 1988. Active hostilities began with the

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Radical Responses to Radical Regimes: Evaluating Preemptive Counter-Proliferation

18209: 17825:"Iraqi Scientist Reports on German, Other Help for Iraq Chemical Weapons Program" 17356: 17166: 17064: 17012: 15334: 15126: 13960: 13941: 13893: 13842: 13264: 13153: 12874: 11947: 10904: 10807: 10149: 10027: 9975: 9710: 9529: 9380: 9281: 9131: 8829: 8710: 8647: 8602: 8474: 8400: 8395: 8366: 8351: 8341: 8294: 8254: 8197: 8182: 8152: 8117: 8107: 8102: 7979: 7969: 7851: 7783: 7580: 7564: 7294:

described in a U.S. military textbook and contrasted effects of World War I gas.

7250: 7045: 6764: 6731: 6542: 6537: 6350: 6301: 6247: 6109: 5935: 5910: 5891: 5513: 5489: 5114: 5044: 4722:

and sensors. Behind each waterway and defensive line was radar-guided artillery,

4152:, was struck on 17 May 1987 by two Exocet anti-ship missiles fired from an Iraqi 4136: 3966: 3950: 3834: 3758: 3613: 3574:

withdraw from disputed border territories and begin negotiations to end the war.

3403: 3115: 2816: 2782: 2763: 2670: 2662: 2546: 2510: 2498: 1964: 1865: 1797:'s economic and military superiority as well as its close relationships with the 1050: 1018: 858: 816: 455: 19514:

Nelson, Chad E. (2018). "Revolution and War: Saddam's Decision to Invade Iran".

17136:

The Iran–Contra Connection: Secret Teams and Covert Operations in the Reagan Era

15772: 15548:

The Twilight War: The secret history of America's thirty-year conflict with Iran

9830: 6589:. These secret sales were partly to help secure the release of hostages held in 2096: 30100: 29681: 29664: 29659: 29529: 29483: 28750: 28634: 28563: 28490: 28240: 27781: 27248: 25906: 25901: 25721: 25194: 24675: 24657: 24593: 24552: 24247: 24203: 24151: 24046: 24010: 23865: 23840: 23120: 23050: 22528: 22048: 21873: 21361: 21325: 20988: 20906: 20839: 20665: 20220: 19986: 19553: 19397:

Inside West Nile. Violence, History & Representation on an African Frontier

18903:

Barzegar, Kayhan (Winter 2008). "Iran's Foreign Policy in Post-Invasion Iraq".

18733: 18294: 18082:

Sidell, Frederick R.; Urbanetti, John S.; Smith, William J.; Hurst, Charles G.

17482: 16581:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "1980: The Iraqi invasion begins".

15424: 14129: 13775: 11989:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "1980: The Iraqi invasion begins".

11860:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "1980: The Iraqi invasion begins".

8817: 8631: 8625: 8579: 8534: 8459: 8424: 8361: 8356: 8222: 8177: 8127: 8082: 8030: 7998: 7576: 7572: 7315: 7190: 7024: 6789: 6472:

Turkey took action against the Kurds in 1986, alleging they were attacking the

6271: 6251: 6227: 6074: 5956: 5918: 5858: 5838: 5793: 5562: 5465: 5445: 5441: 4977: 4775: 4769: 4753: 4345: 4316: 4233: 3958: 3885: 3850: 3723: 3554: 3512: 3475: 3380: 3292: 3142: 3120: 2970: 2955: 2929: 2867: 2844: 2648: 2620: 2003: 1956: 1952: 1893: 1861: 1770: 1689: 1596: 1337: 1274: 1038: 545: 19576: 19371: 18396: 17898:"U.S. Diplomatic and Commercial Relationships with Iraq, 1980 – 2 August 1990" 17661: 16549: 16303: 13675: 13639:. Vol. 1 of 3. Central Intelligence Agency. 27 April 2007. Archived from 10554: 10364:

Dictionary of Twentieth Century World History, by Jan Palmowski (Oxford, 1997)

6876:

by 1987, the attack had little effect on relations between the two countries.

5508:

to evacuate Iraqi territory to honor pre-war international borders set by the

3577:

On 13 July 1982, Iran began their attack in southern Iraq, near Basra. Called

3190:

The Revolutionary Guard and regular army followed up by surrounding the Iraqi

3123:

and other armored vehicles and withdrew from the previously gained territory.

2332:. Based on these observations, Iraq's leaders decided to carry out a surprise 30131: 30053: 29751: 28870: 28629: 28538: 28456: 27883: 27277: 27264: 27243: 27233: 27186: 26914: 26696: 26262: 26175: 25876: 25851: 25846: 25801: 25796: 25786: 25781: 25761: 25746: 24808: 24540: 24237: 24217: 23938: 23890: 23880: 23845: 23797: 23774: 23749: 23513: 23342: 23337: 23214: 23015: 22864: 22759: 22663: 22648: 22618: 22563: 22443: 22398: 22347: 22317: 21020: 20914: 20879: 20601: 20484: 19993: 19784: 19562: 19535: 19506: 19479: 19121: 18461: 18404: 17814:

Center for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran. (مرکز مطالعات و تحقیقات جنگ)

17697: 17309:. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press. pp. 40, 49. 17302: 17118:

Seale, Patrick (2 November 1980). "Israel sends spares for US arms to Iran".

16795: 16443: 16432:"Advances in treatment help more people survive severe injuries to the brain" 13806:

Yaphe, Judith (2013). "Changing American Perspectives on the Iran–Iraq war".

13520:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "1983–1984: A war of attrition".

13038: 12293: 11955: 10710:. Abu Dhabi: Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research. p. 29. 10546: 10450: 10327: 10285: 10096: 9880: 9838: 9547: 9382:

Shi'ite Lebanon: Transnational Religion and the Making of National Identities

9348:"Iran's Shia Diplomacy: Religious and Foreign Policy in the Islamic Republic" 8620: 8597: 8539: 8509: 8464: 8346: 8259: 8217: 8187: 8077: 8045: 7974: 7791: 7661: 7626: 7331: 6747: 6693: 6376: 6259: 5981: 5906: 5809: 5729: 5643: 5606:

analysts believe events do not substantiate the high casualties claimed. The

5437: 5363:

With the threat of a new and even more powerful invasion, Commander-in-Chief

5308: 4973: 4867: 4820: 4726:

and helicopters, all capable of firing poison gas or conventional munitions.

4181: 3716: 3645: 3592: 3516: 3430: 3375: 3343: 3313: 2991: 2947:

and the competition ended, the performance of the Iranian military improved.

2624: 2581: 2371: 2294: 2192: 2082: 2011: 1889: 1877: 1813: 1045: 199: 18945: 17331:

Spider's Web: The Secret History of How the White House Illegally Armed Iraq

15991: 15696: 13869:. United States District Court: Southern District Florida. 31 January 1995. 13401: 10725: 10687: 10609: 10492: 10245: 9296:"Memoires of Afghan volunteers in Iran–Iraq war published (tehrantimes.com)" 5704: 5190: 2994:

is considered to be one of the most sophisticated air operations of the war.

2421:

any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against

29450: 29352: 28553: 28425: 27706: 27191: 26805: 26671: 25964: 25896: 25866: 25766: 24723: 24530: 24510: 24251: 24243: 24233: 23764: 23530: 23327: 23035: 23030: 23020: 22854: 22691: 22676: 22628: 22537: 22082: 21948: 21371: 21320: 21028: 21012: 20996: 20938: 19846: 19665: 19425:

Unburied Memories: The Politics of Bodies of Sacred Defense Martyrs in Iran

19201: 18618:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "1987–1988: An end in sight?".

18245: 17028:"Confrontation in the Gulf; French Reportedly Sent Iraq Chemical War Tools" 16893:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "1987–1988: An end in sight?".

16491: 16020:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "1987–1988: An end in sight?".

15517:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "1987–1988: An end in sight?".

15394:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "1987–1988: An end in sight?".

14963: 13849:. George Washington University National Security Archive, 25 February 2003. 12393: 11743: 11642: 10857: 10665: 10562: 10093:"The state of the air combat readiness of Iran ... • corporal_historian_23" 9591: 8469: 8157: 8122: 8025: 8003: 7618: 7548: 7543: 6716: 6550: 6504: 6423: 6372:

Support to Iraq was given via technological aid, intelligence, the sale of

6263: 5914: 5834: 5461: 5268: 5210: 5079: 5008: 4969: 4929: 4925: 4917: 4851: 4683: 4665: 4587: 4538: 4441: 4409: 4367: 4288: 4274:, and launched them against Baghdad. These too inflicted damage upon Iraq. 4117:

The Iranian Navy imposed a naval blockade of Iraq, using its British-built

4111: 4078: 3814: 3617: 3582: 3466: 3399: 3326: 3159: 3137: 3015: 2999: 2884: 2797: 2714: 2666: 2596:

failed to materialise, as most of the ethnic Arabs remained loyal to Iran.

2557: 2336:

against the Iranian air force's infrastructure prior to the main invasion.

2230: 2074: 1897: 1794: 1790: 1774: 512: 18562: 18504: 18378:"Preventive Attacks Against Nuclear Programs and the "Success" at Osiraq"" 17574:"Rules of Engagement for Land Forces: A Matter of Training, Not Lawyering" 15173: 15095: 14253:"The 'Dawn of Victory' campaigns to the 'Final Push': Part Three of Three" 12798:. Ghazalah's Phased Analysis of Combat Operations. Small Wars Foundation. 9637:"Iraq–Iran war becoming Arab-Persian war? (The Christian Science Monitor)" 9444: 5736:

in 1998, cross border raids, and mortar attacks. Iran carried out several

5209:

in retaliation against Iran for damaging a warship with a mine. Iran lost

3790:. Iraq launched airstrikes, and equipped attack helicopters with chemical 3260: 2556:

The two armoured divisions secured the territory bounded by the cities of

1773:

that Iran, a theocratic state with a population predominantly composed of

30114: 29572: 29524: 29519: 29248: 29230: 28609: 27748: 27396: 27287: 27238: 27103: 27088: 26904: 25989: 25916: 25886: 25871: 25836: 24927: 24718: 24525: 24157: 23948: 23910: 23759: 23595: 23520: 23317: 22879: 22769: 22733: 22484: 22169: 22092: 21923: 18828: 18679:"Iran–Iraq War, 30 Years Later: From Foes to Allies with U.S. In Between" 17535: 16983:

An encyclopedic dictionary of conflict and conflict resolution, 1945–1996

14251:

Aboul-Enein, Youssef; Bertrand, Andrew; Corley, Dorothy (23 April 2012).

13836:

Shaking Hands with Saddam Hussein: The U.S. Tilts toward Iraq, 1980–1983

13397: 12790:

Aboul-Enein, Youssef; Bertrand, Andrew; Corley, Dorothy (12 April 2012).

8554: 8112: 8040: 7900: 7886: 7813:

Besides the Iran–Iraq war, the 1990 Iraq–Kuwait conflict, as well as The

7319: 7215: 7207: 7038: 7031: 6949: 6945: 6616: 6581: 6326: 6235: 6231: 6223: 5639: 5162: 5126: 5082: 5052: 4607: 4489: 4433: 4240: 3985: 3672: 3532:

By the end of 1982, Iraq had been resupplied with new Soviet and Chinese

3410: 3371: 3272: 3203: 2640: 2585: 2223: 2179:

In Iran, severe officer purges, including numerous executions ordered by

1990: 1948: 1941: 1929: 1786: 172: 19302: 15103: 14127: 9846: 9814: 6654:; it was not unusual to see Iranian and Iraqi flagged ships anchored at 4900: 4251: 181: 28656: 27221: 27093: 27041: 26768:

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002

26238:

Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991

25911: 25736: 25684: 25452: 24497: 24288: 23025: 22123: 21514: 21036: 21004: 20930: 20898: 20708: 17307:

The New Turkish Republic: Turkey as a Pivotal State in the Muslim World

11921: 10881: 10581: 10360: 10358: 10217: 8055: 7611: 7307: 7223: 6707:, included several billion dollars' worth of economic aid, the sale of 6062: 6029: 5883: 5781: 5777: 5717: 5484: 5433: 5364: 5284: 5122: 4591: 4518: 4291:, which had been occupied by the Iraqis from the beginning of the war. 4177:

During the course of the war, Iran attacked two Soviet merchant ships.

4153: 4043: 4031: 3928: 3915: 3881: 3862: 3641: 3402:

sold Iraq dual-use pesticides and poisons that would be used to create

3276: 3235: 3070: 3011: 3007: 2959: 2933: 2658: 2345: 1913: 1410: 581: 416: 18734:"Iraqi Christians want a stronger state and weaker militias – opinion" 18214:

The Outlaw State: Saddam Hussein's Quest for Power and the Gulf Crisis

17911:

Galbraith, Peter W.; Van Hollen, Christopher Jr. (21 September 1988).

17361:

The Outlaw State: Saddam Hussein's Quest for Power and the Gulf Crisis

14685: 10862:

Becoming Enemies: U.S.–Iran Relations and the Iran–Iraq War, 1979–1988

6655: 5755:, both in Baghdad. The war also helped to create a forerunner for the 5290: 4232:

Fitter were used against smaller or shorter range targets, as well as

2509:

Iraq launched a full-scale invasion of Iran on 22 September 1980. The

1812:, as a result of which Iraq planned to retake the eastern bank of the 26092: 23835: 23807: 23754: 23292: 22984: 22944: 21249:

International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)

20969: 20946: 20740: 20673: 20641: 19767: 19294: 17616:

No Higher Honor: Saving the USS Samuel B. Roberts in the Persian Gulf

17401: 17179:

Terrill, W. Andrew (Spring 2015). "Iran's Strategy for Saving Asad".

15830:(Revised ed.). England: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 152. 13981:. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. Archived from 13811: 13637:

Comprehensive Report of the Special Advisor to the DCI on Iraq's WMD

11939: 10310:

Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia

9912:

Wars of Modern Babylon: A History of the Iraqi Army from 1921 to 2003

9699:

Dancing with Saddam: The Strategic Tango of Jordanian–Iraqi Relations

9607:"Sudanese Brigades Could Provide Key Aid for Iraq; Military Analysis" 7273: 6888:. It criticised Iran's mining of international waters, and sponsored 6850: 6827: 6598: 6546: 6484: 5760: 5737: 5565:, albeit with severe debt, financial problems, and labour shortages. 5335: 5214: 5166: 5130: 4936: 4879: 4719: 4569: 4437: 4422: 4147: 4131: 4127: 4099:

on 13 May 1984, as well as a Saudi tanker in Saudi waters on 16 May.

3962: 3932: 3873: 3774: 3712: 3541: 3526: 3218: 3089: 3062: 2998:

The Iraqi Air Force, badly damaged by the Iranians, was moved to the

2944: 2901: 2644: 2565: 2333: 2306: 2111: 1840:

pushing Iraqi forces back to the pre-war border lines, Iran rejected

686: 412: 212: 24323: 19527: 18881: 18172: 18170: 17856:"Exclusive: CIA Files Prove America Helped Saddam as He Gassed Iran" 17478:"Exclusive: CIA Files Prove America Helped Saddam as He Gassed Iran" 17253:"La guerre du Golfe Le colonel Kadhafi critique la France et l'Iran" 17198: 16835:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "1981–1982: Stalemate".

15195: 12049:(Report). Central Intelligence Agency. 10 March 1980. Archived from 10355: 9569: 6884:

U.S. attention was focused on isolating Iran as well as maintaining

6093: 5552:

was erected to commemorate the fallen Iraqi soldiers during the war.

4907:, Iraqi Defense Minister, meeting with Iraqi soldiers during the war 4331: 4319:

and Mirage F-1 jets as well as Super Frelon helicopters, armed with

2800:

and fuel supplies, and was strangling Iraq through an aerial siege.

1501: 29927: 29867: 27359: 27226: 27216: 26404: 26222: 25130:

Donald Trump's threat for the destruction of Iranian cultural sites

25025: 24488: 24051: 23352: 23182: 23165: 22939: 22934: 22159: 21499: 21381: 20633: 18683: 18327:. McNair Paper. National Defense University Library. Archived from 17257: 17225: 15743:"Iran Reports New Iraqi Gas Raids; And Says Cities May be Hit Next" 14933:

A speech on 4 April 1985 by Ruhollah Khomeini in Persian quoted in

14672:

Better Lucky Than Good: Operation Earnest Will as Gunboat Diplomacy

10625:"Centi-Kilo Murdering States: Estimates, Sources, and Calculations" 8928: 8843: 7814: 7803: 7795: 7752: 7669: 7641: 7633: 7428: 7355: 7283: 7277:

it did not possess any at the time". Documents uncovered after the

6309: 5304: 5093: 5021: 4921: 4839: 4565: 4418: 4393: 4204: 3857: 3838: 3830: 3783: 3586: 3533: 3387: 3031: 3023: 2986: 2518: 2135: 1937: 1856:

all culminated in Iran's acceptance of a ceasefire brokered by the

1824:

increased following the outbreak of hostilities; Saddam disputedly

1601: 1547: 205:

An Iranian soldier in a trench wearing a gas mask to guard against

141: 103: 19144:"Phase Five: New Iranian Efforts at "Final Offensives", 1986–1887" 17063:, James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, archived from 16714:

The Shia revival: How Conflicts Within Islam Will Shape the Future

16187:

use of force, which is regarded as one of the rules of jus cogens.

14425:"Phase Five: New Iranian Efforts at "Final Offensives", 1986–1887" 13284: 5724:, which carried out multiple attacks throughout Iran up until the 5663:

territories in the border area, it was likely they would succeed.

4255:

A map indicating the attacks on civilian areas of Iran, Iraq, and

3498: 2603:

on Iran probably took place during the fighting around Susangerd.

1951:

in terms of the tactics used by both sides, including large-scale

28651: 27391: 25343: 23979: 23812: 23769: 22949: 22894: 22702: 20625: 19587: 19367:

Fanning the Flames: Guns, Greed & Geopolitics in the Gulf War

19047:

World Conflicts: A Comprehensive Guide to World Strife Since 1945

18167: 16814:(3rd print ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 14187:

A Social History of Iranian Cinema The Globalizing Era, 1984–2010

12502:

World Conflicts: A Comprehensive Guide to World Strife Since 1945

10521:"Iranian casualties during the eight years of Iraq–Iran conflict" 9061: 9022: 8956: 8913: 7757: 7237: 6594: 6590: 5973: 5624: 5549: 5493: 5376: 5179: 5158: 5142: 4913: 4485: 4481: 4118: 4096: 3970: 3880:, as southern Iraq is marshy and filled with wetlands. Iran used 3806: 3791: 2840: 2116: 2016: 242: 152: 30117:

and later conflicts (after 1914) of at least 100 fatalities each

25577:

Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act

19610: 19491:. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 18868:

Takeyh, Ray (Summer 2010). "The Iran–Iraq War: A Reassessment".

18456:(4). Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs: 7–33. 16240:"Iran and Iraq remember war that cost more than a million lives" 15973:

Pelletiere, Stephen C.; Johnson, Douglas V. (10 December 1990).

15278:. Center for Strategic and International Studies. Archived from 10741:"Iran and Iraq remember war that cost more than a million lives" 7717: 7363: 6601:. This arms-for-hostages agreement turned into a major scandal. 5334:. Shortly afterwards, Iraqi aircraft bombed the Iranian town of 2366: 889: 30158:

Conflicts involving the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran

29209: 27568:

Attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq, Jordan, and Syria (2023–present)

25465:

Attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq, Jordan, and Syria (2023–present)

23692: 23347: 22508: 21828: 20657: 17884: 17686:"Iran Still Haunted and Influenced By Chemical Weapons Attacks" 17542:

The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East

15853:"Threats And Responses: Briefly Noted; Iran–Iraq Prisoner Deal" 13445: 12664:"The Evolution of Iranian Warfighting during the Iran–Iraq War" 12131:"The Pasdaran: Inside Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps" 11855: 11853: 11842: 9008: 8942: 7701: 7696: 7559: 6846: 6834: 6795: 6662: 6604: 6508: 6442: 6344:. Following Iran's success in repelling the Iraqi invasion and 6341: 6254:

by the Iraqi government against Iranian troops, civilians, and

5939: 5635: 5384: 4948: 4477: 4426: 4421:. They also created and fielded their own homemade drones, the 4374:, which they had failed to achieve in Operations Dawn 5 and 6. 4335:

Iraqi commanders discussing strategies on the battlefront, 1986

4320: 4256: 4225: 4091: 4077:

started when Iraq attacked the oil terminal and oil tankers at

3818: 3762: 3395: 3339: 3300: 3066: 3003: 2897: 2859: 2820: 2789: 2682: 2569: 2491: 2298: 1933: 1901: 223: 24580:

Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist (Velayat-e faqih)

20514: 19015:خبرگزاری مهر | اخبار ایران و جهان | Mehr News Agency 17107:

on 20 June 2015 – via Federation of American Scientists.

16357:

Re-published by Peterson Institute for International Economics

15982:. Fleet Marine Force Reference Publication. Washington, D.C.: 15082:

Rubin, Michael (Spring 2003). "Are Kurds a pariah minority?".

14478: 8750:

Estimates of Iranian casualties during the Iran–Iraq War vary.

7575:

attack on a nuclear reactor to forestall the development of a

6871:

Though American officials claimed that the pilot who attacked

6742: 6608:

opportunity to create business for the Israeli arms industry.

6437:

as the primary source, but also quoting French officials, the

6422:

According to the Stockholm International Peace Institute, the

6410: 4972:

but lost five aircraft to Iranian F-14 Tomcats, including two

1789:. Iraq also wished to replace Iran as the power player in the 29258: 28344: 25328: 23905: 22889: 21366: 18182:

A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja

17056: 14965:نگاهی به نقش ناشناخته "تلاش" و "مهاجر" در کربلای 5 و والفجر 8 13448:"Fire in the Hills: Iranian and Iraqi Battles of Autumn 1982" 12980:

The Axis of Evil: Iran, Hizballah, and the Palestinian Terror

12903:

The Axis of Evil: Iran, Hizballah, and the Palestinian Terror

11808:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "The opponents".

11779:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "The opponents".

11714:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "The opponents".

10831: 10518: 9048: 8994: 8970: 7847: 7794:

also, until it was used to refer to the conflict between the

7665: 7219: 6956:

feared that she was under attack. The Iranians maintain that

6805: 6255: 6024: 5987: 5380: 5230:

Faced with such losses, Khomeini appointed Rafsanjani as the

4847: 4795: 4643: 4619: 4594:

missiles, which destroyed numerous Iraqi tanks and vehicles.

4457: 4312: 4271: 4229: 4217: 4213: 4004: 3605: 3537: 3418: 3414: 3330: 3304: 3288:

had captured over 450 tanks and armoured personnel carriers.

2974: 2863: 2848: 2815:

sites in the southern portion of the country. When Iraq laid

2812: 2793: 2678: 2561: 2526: 2522: 2245: 2210:, who was also commander-in-chief, inspecting a Jeep-mounted 2147: 2131: 1925: 1917: 1905: 1769:

to Iraq. There were also fears among the Iraqi leadership of

459: 26390:

Attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq, Jordan, and Syria (2023–2024)

18853:

Barzegar, Kayhan (2004). "The New Iraqi Challenge to Iran".

18653:(Updated ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 18593:"I Persian Gulf War: Iraqi Invasion of Iran, September 1980" 18022:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "Introduction".

17847: 17133:

Marshall, Jonathan; Scott, Peter Dale; Hunter, Jane (1987).

16799:(International ed.). 19 September 1987. pp. 56–57. 13783:(Master's thesis). Monterey, CA: Naval Postgraduate School. 13348: 12765:. U.S. Army: Foreign Military Studies Office. Archived from 12518: 11850: 8759:

Estimates of Iraqi casualties during the Iran–Iraq War vary.

7563:

nuclear reactor in September 1980 was the first attack on a

6823: 5263:). In four days, the People's Mujahedin of Iran wiped out a 5012:

primarily attacking unflagged tankers shipping in the area.

3865:. They were successful in Kurdistan, but not southern Iraq. 3568: 2681:, Iraq, destroying two oil terminals near the Iraqi port of 2352:, but Saddam Hussein publicly denied this in November 1980. 28230: 27696: 26462:

2003 United States–British–Spanish Draft Resolution on Iraq

26165: 24798: 23100: 23077: 22820: 22814: 21146: 20609: 20545: 13973:

Mearsheimer, John J.; Walt, Stephen M. (12 November 2002).

12300: 11197: 11195: 11193: 11191: 11189: 10340:

Hammond Atlas of the 20th Century (1999), pp. 134–135.

9970: 9968: 9966: 9964: 8899: 8894: 7756:

An Iranian mother mourning her son in a military cemetery.

6704: 6554: 5999:

launched a major effort to rebuild the damaged oil plants.

5947: 5056:

dying and suffering health effects over following decades.

4791: 4787: 4267: 4034:

to be directly involved in the conflict on the Iraqi side.

3949:

began on 24 February with Iranian infantrymen crossing the

3822: 3787: 3687:

The furthest ground gains made by both sides during the war

3668: 3625: 3473:, whose leader was the politically powerful speaker of the 3223: 2925: 2921: 2855: 2120: 1753:

and lasted for nearly eight years, until the acceptance of

1742: 519: 507: 495: 483: 338: 283: 271:(7 years, 10 months, 4 weeks and 1 day) 24948:

Phone conversation between Barack Obama and Hassan Rouhani

16864:

Murray, Williamson; Woods, Kevin M. (2014). "Conclusion".

16199: 14939:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 132–134. 14481:"Persian Gulf War, 1980–1988: The Mother of All Build-Ups" 14128:

Special to The Christian Science Monitor (7 August 1985).

14026:(1st published ed.). Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. 13748:. U.N. Observer & International Report. Archived from 13739: 13737: 13735: 13733: 13731: 13729: 13727: 12608:"Persian Gulf War: Iraqi Invasion of Iran, September 1980" 12441:

The Lessons of Modern War: Volume;– The Iran–Iraq Conflict

11187: 11185: 11183: 11181: 11179: 11177: 11175: 11173: 11171: 11169: 8623:, prominent photographer of the Iran–Iraq War, creator of 5808:, which further strained the Iraqi economy and pushed its 3746:(Dawn) Operations, that eventually numbered to 10. During 3678: 1835:

While the Iraqi leadership had hoped to take advantage of

25254:

United States raid on the Iranian Liaison Office in Erbil

22124:

Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)

18923: 17913:

Chemical Weapons Use in Kurdistan: Iraq's Final Offensive

15968: 15966: 15964: 14432:

The Lessons of Modern War – Volume II: Iran–Iraq War

14250: 13847:

National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 82

13670:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 54–91, 13495:"Viewpoints of the Iranian political and military elites" 12789: 12348:

No Conquest, No Defeat: Iran's National Security Strategy

11900:. pp. 59–61, 63 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 11609: 9445:"Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (Project Muse)" 5931: 5800:, which in turn worsened Iraq's financial situation: the 5786: 4998:

U.S. flag. They did so in March, and the U.S. Navy began

4702: 3508: 3333:, one of the few nations that supported Iran, closed the 3149: 2355: 2146:

By 1980, Iraq possessed 242,000 soldiers, second only to

161: 26370:

December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria

25480:

Iranian interference in the 2024 United States elections

25386:

December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria

17285:

El camino de la libertad: la democracia año a año (1986)

17221:"La Libye 'rééquilibre' sa position au profit de l'Irak" 15481: 15479: 15327: 13075:"Lessons of Modern Warfare: The Iran Iraq War Chapter V" 12820:

Tucker, A.R. (May 1988). "Armored warfare in the Gulf".

9961: 7067: 6522:

scandal revealed that a branch of Italy's largest bank,

6414:

An Iraqi Mil Mi-24 on display at the military museum of

2718:

Resistance of the outnumbered and outgunned Iranians in

24913:

Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations and Consular Rights

18626:. pp. 330–331 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 18563:"Hind in Foreign Service / Hind Upgrades / Mi-28 Havoc" 17619:. Persian Gulf: Naval Institute Press. pp. 61–63. 16901:. pp. 328–330 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 16872:. pp. 350–354 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 16843:. pp. 171–173 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 16589:. pp. 107–109 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 16028:. pp. 300–301 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 15550:. New York: Penguin Press. p. 434 (Photo plates). 15525:. pp. 334–335 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 15402:. pp. 318–320 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 14246: 14244: 14242: 14240: 14238: 14236: 14234: 14232: 14230: 14228: 14226: 13724: 13528:. pp. 252–253 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 13241:"Saddam's Generals: A Perspective of the Iran–Iraq War" 12847:(1st ed.). Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 22. 12785: 12783: 12781: 12779: 11997:. pp. 103–106 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 11868:. pp. 104–106 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 11166: 10941: 10939: 10270:. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. p. 2. 6929:

In the course of escorts by the U.S. Navy, the cruiser

6679:

United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War

5917:

as having "assumed genocidal proportions" by 1988. The

5504:

At the war's conclusion, it took several weeks for the

5294:

Iranian soldiers captured during Iraq's 1988 offensives

4813:

At the same time as Operation Karbala 5, Iran launched

4015: 3525:

territories along the border. Saddam began a policy of

2494:

after Iraqi forces attacked Tehran on 22 September 1980

2085:, the Iraqi government initially seemed to welcome the 2043:, an exiled leader of clerical opposition to the Shah. 2010:

In April 1969, Iran abrogated the 1937 treaty over the

27616:

Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act

27334:

Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act

26956:

Permanent Mission of North Korea to the United Nations

25597:

Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act

18314: 18312: 18287:"Iran: Eyes on the Skies Over Bushehr Nuclear Reactor" 17080: 16523: 15961: 15488:"Officers Say US Aided Iraq in war despite use of gas" 14999:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 217. 14224: 14222: 14220: 14218: 14216: 14214: 14212: 14210: 14208: 14206: 10384: 10382: 7708: 6734:

when he remarked, "It's a pity they both can't lose."

6571:

North Korean support for Iran during the Iran–Iraq War

5654:

them (Iran destroyed them in 1993 after ratifying the

5410: 4697: 1059:

Iranian offensives to free Iranian territory (1981–82)

26936:

United States Special Representatives for North Korea

25950:

Academic relations between Iran and the United States

25607:

United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran

18946:"Iraq War | Summary, Causes, Combatants, & Facts" 18795:"Reflecting on the Iran–Iraq War, Thirty Years Later" 18081: 16555:(Report). Congressional Research Service. p. 2. 16398:"Iraq war reparations to Kuwait could be reduced: UK" 16166:(Report). U.N. Secretary General's. 9 December 1991. 15936:

Hammond Atlas of the 20th Century (1996), pp. 134–135

15886:. Commack, NY: Nova Science Publishers. p. 208. 15476: 14937:

Reinventing Khomeini: The Struggle for Reform in Iran

14840: 14838: 13997:"Navy Theft Ring Linked to Iran Undetected for Years" 13009:"Iran–Iraq War bogs down in rain, conflicting claims" 12924: 12368:. pp. 62–63 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 12323:. pp. 61–62 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 11816:. pp. 79–80 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 11787:. pp. 77–79 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 11722:. pp. 71–73 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 11592:. pp. 61–62 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 11563:. pp. 58–59 (e-book, page numbers approximate). 9165: 7772: 7765: 6700:

during the Iran–Iraq War, in which it fought against

6575:

While the United States directly fought Iran, citing

3742:

From early 1983–1984, Iran launched a series of four

3037: 2171:, and demanded his withdrawal from Iraq by 15 March. 1808:

The Iran–Iraq War followed a long-running history of

28966:

2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran

28718: 27979:

2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran

26015:

Our enemy is here, they are lying that it is America

24943:

Correspondence between Barack Obama and Ali Khamenei

19151:

The Lessons of Modern War – Volume II: Iran–Iraq War

17760:(1st ed.). Chandni Chowk, Delhi: Global Media. 16716:(New ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. p. 140. 15623: 15621: 15276:

The Lessons of Modern War – Volume II: Iran–Iraq War

14013: 13446:

Thomas Cooper and Farzad Bishop (9 September 2003).

12776: 10936: 9419:

The Iran–Iraq War. A Military and Strategic History.

9145: 7876: 7836: 7790:). That name, or simply the 'Gulf War', was used by 7306:

explosives"—did not withstand scrutiny; UN official

6879: 6312:, which saw Saddam ousted from power and ultimately 6288:

International aid to combatants in the Iran–Iraq War

6226:

in terms of the tactics used, including large-scale

5763:

states banded together early in the war to form the

5614: 5097:

An Iranian soldier wearing a gas mask during the war

4763: 4199:

Meanwhile, Iraq's air force also began carrying out

3429:

On 20 June 1982, Saddam announced that he wanted to

2754:

remained, and fighting continued until 10 November.

2006:(left to right) during the Algiers Agreement in 1975 1673: 25160:

Assassination of Paul R. Shaffer and John H. Turner

19462:

The Iran–Iraq War: A Military and Strategic History

19071:

The Gulf War: Its Origins, History and Consequences

18620: