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Each room had a door for a researcher or caretaker to enter by, and in the ceiling of each room was a glass window. The activity in each room could be observed through these windows. Each room was divided into quarters by 2-foot-high (0.61 m; 24 in; 61 cm) partitions. V-shaped ramps connected pens I and II, II and III, and III and IV. Pens I and IV were not connected. Mounted on the wall in the corner of each quarter was an artificial burrow, which could be accessed via a spiral staircase. In two of the quarters the "burrows" were 3 feet (0.91 m; 36 in; 91 cm) from the floor, and in the other two the "burrows" were 6 feet (1.8 m; 72 in; 180 cm) from the floor. Each quarter also contained a drinking station and a feeding station. These variations in environment led to differences in behavior patterns and ultimately to the concept of "
389:. In March 1947, he began a 28-month study of a colony of Norway rats in a 10,000-square-foot (930 m) outdoor pen. Even though five females over this time-span could theoretically produce 5,000 healthy progeny for this size pen, Calhoun found that the population never exceeded 200 individuals, and stabilized at 150. Moreover, the rats were not randomly scattered throughout the pen area, but had organized themselves into twelve or thirteen local colonies of a dozen rats each. He noted that twelve rats is the maximum number that can live harmoniously in a natural group, beyond which stress and psychological effects function as group break-up forces.
492:), was created. In July 1968, four pairs of mice were introduced into the habitat. The habitat was a 9-foot (2.7 m; 110 in; 270 cm) square metal pen with 4.5-foot-high (1.4 m; 54 in; 140 cm) sides. Each side had four groups of four vertical, wire mesh "tunnels". The "tunnels" gave access to nesting boxes, food hoppers, and water dispensers. There was no shortage of food or water or nesting material. There were no predators. The only adversity was the limit on space.
498:
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569:"Our success in being human has so far derived from our honoring deviance more than tradition. Template changing always has gained a slight, though often tenuous, lead over template obeying. Now we must search diligently for those creative deviants from which, alone, will come the conceptualization of an evolutionary designing process. This can assure us an open-ended future toward whose realization we can participate."
467:
541:). His study has been cited by writers such as Bill Perkins as a warning of the dangers of living in an "increasingly crowded and impersonal world". Others took different lessons; medical historian Edmund Ramsden has hypothesized that the mouse society fell from excessive social interaction, rather than density
516:
and in normal social behavior. Among the aberrations in behavior were the following: expulsion of young before weaning was complete, wounding of young, increase in homosexual behavior, inability of dominant males to maintain the defense of their territory and females, aggressive behavior of females,
520:
After day 600, the social breakdown continued and the population declined toward extinction. During this period females ceased to reproduce. Their male counterparts withdrew completely, never engaging in courtship or fighting and only engaging in tasks that were essential to their health. They ate,
434:
The research area was divided into three parts. In the center section a box-like room was built. There was a hallway all the way around this box and stairs that led to the top of it. This box was divided into 4 rooms, or habitats, 10 by 14 by 9 feet (3.0 m × 4.3 m × 2.7 m).
507:
Initially, the population grew rapidly, doubling every 55 days. The population reached 620 by day 315, after which the population growth dropped markedly, doubling only every 145 days. The last surviving birth was on day 600, bringing the total population to a mere 2200 mice, even though the
524:
The conclusions drawn from this experiment were that when all available space is taken and all social roles filled, competition and the stresses experienced by the individuals will result in a total breakdown in complex social behaviors, ultimately resulting in the demise of the population.
431:. The area is now a suburban center but the barn still stands, renovated for suburban usage. In the days of Calhoun's occupancy there was a small, cluttered office area at the top of the stairs. The rodent odor was overpowering, and it took some time before one could breathe normally.
602:"At the experiments' end, the only animals still alive had survived at an immense psychological cost: asexual and utterly withdrawn, they clustered in a vacant huddled mass In the words of one of Calhoun's collaborators, rodent "utopia" had descended into 'hell'."
521:
drank, slept, and groomed themselves – all solitary pursuits. Sleek, healthy coats and an absence of scars characterized these males. They were dubbed "the beautiful ones". Breeding never resumed and behavior patterns were permanently changed.
564:
formed an informal group, the Space Cadets, which met to discuss the social uses of space. The members of this group came from as diverse professions as architecture, city planning, physics, and psychiatry. In
Calhoun's own words:
551:
stated "Instead of a population problem, one could argue that (the mouse universe) had a fair distribution problem." This assertion remains highly questionable given the over-abundance of basic resources in the den.
528:
Calhoun saw the fate of the population of mice as a metaphor for the potential fate of man. He characterized the social breakdown as a "second death", with reference to the "second death" mentioned in the
274:, the third child of James Calhoun and Fern Madole Calhoun. Their first child died in infancy. Calhoun had three siblings: an older sister, Polly; and two younger brothers, Billy and Dan. His father was a
400:, Calhoun continued studying the Norway rat colony until 1951. While in Bar Harbor, his first daughter, Cat Calhoun, was born. The family lived in the guesthouse on the Luquer estate.
484:. The facility that was built on this property housed several research projects, including those headed by Calhoun. It was here that his most famous experiment, the
427:
Calhoun pursued his experiments in behavior, using domesticated Norway rats, at his lab on the second floor of a huge barn on the Casey farm in the country outside
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character, has acknowledged
Calhoun's work as an influence. Ramsden believes Calhoun's work may have influenced other apocalyptic fiction as well, including
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and bird habits. Calhoun spent his junior high and high school years banding birds and recording the habits of birds. His first published article was in
242:" to describe aberrant behaviors in overcrowded population density situations and "beautiful ones" to describe passive individuals who withdrew from all
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561:
314:
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Ramsden, Edmund; Adams, Jon (2009). "Escaping the
Laboratory: The Rodent Experiments of John B. Calhoun & Their Cultural Influence".
1159:
Ramsden, Edmund; Adams, Jon (2008). "Escaping the
Laboratory: The Rodent Experiments of John B. Calhoun & Their Cultural Influence".
442:
The research carried on in the lab on Casey's farm began in 1958 and lasted until 1962, when
Calhoun was invited to spend a year at The
665:
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The Role of
Temperature and Natural Selection in Relation to the Variations in the Size of the English Sparrow in the United States
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Calhoun met his future wife, Edith
Gressley, at Northwestern, where she was a biology major and a student in one of his classes.
246:. His work gained world recognition. He spoke at conferences around the world and his opinion was sought by groups as diverse as
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experiment setup allowed for as many as 3840 mice in terms of nesting space. This period between day 315 and day 600 saw a
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Environment and
Population: Problems and Adaptation: An Experimental Book Integrating Statements by 162 Contributors
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Environment and
Population: Problems of Adaptation: An Experimental Book Integrating Statements by 162 Contributors
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Calhoun's phrase "behavioral sink" was sometimes used by others in reference to perceived urban moral degradation.
580:
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254:'s Panel on overcrowding in local jails. Calhoun's rat studies were used as a basis in the development of
862:
Calhoun, John B. (Nov 1972). "Plight of the Ik and
Kaiadilt is seen as a chilling possible end for Man".
598:. Edmund Ramsden described one of Calhoun's experiments in which rats were placed in a sealed enclosure:
19:"Mouse universe" redirects here. For the fictional universe about the Disney character Mickey Mouse, see
321:
Despite his father's refusal to help him attend an out-of-state university, Calhoun made his way to the
517:
passivity of non-dominant males with increased attacks on each other which were not defended against.
985:""Escaping the Laboratory: The Rodent Experiments of John B. Calhoun & Their Cultural Influence""
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were a grim model for the future of the human race. During his studies, Calhoun coined the term "
42:
1272:"Letting the rat out of the bag, The cultural influence of John B. Calhoun's rodent experiments"
296:, when Calhoun was in junior high school. At this time, Calhoun began attending meetings of the
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in 1954 where he worked for the next 33 years. 1954 was also the year his second daughter,
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1163:(23). Department of Economic History, London School of Economics and Political Science.
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Calhoun, John B. (1962). "Chapter 22: A Behavioral Sink". In Bliss, Eugene L. (ed.).
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Calhoun, John B. (1950). "The Study of Wild Animals under Controlled Conditions".
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Calhoun died on 7 September 1995 at the age of 78. His papers were donated to the
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and published in 1971, was inspired by Calhoun's work. The book later inspired an
1112:"The urban animal: population density and social pathology in rodents and humans"
459:
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318:, the journal of the Tennessee Ornithological Society when he was 15 years old.
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Six battles every man must win: and the ancient secrets you'll need to succeed
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in 1942 and 1943. The subject of his thesis was the 24-hour rhythms of the
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945:"Death Squared: The Explosive Growth and Demise of a Mouse Population"
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Calhoun, John B. (1952). "The Social Aspects of Population Dynamics".
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in the division of neuropsychiatry before gaining his position at the
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Working Papers on the Nature of Evidence: How Well do "facts" Travel
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Alsop, Stewart (17 August 1970). "Dr. Calhoun's Horrible Mousery".
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John Calhoun (age 56) meeting Pope Paul VI (27 September 1973).
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Calhoun wrote or edited a number of publications, including:
1260:"J. B. Calhoun, 78, Researcher On Effects of Overpopulation"
1079:"J. B. Calhoun, 78, Researcher On Effects of Overpopulation"
466:
309:
247:
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Davis, Louise (1971). "The Garden of Eden or Doomsday?".
547:
1097:"Secret of NIMH Was Inspired by Hideous Lab Experiments"
308:, was a pivotal influence on his developing interest in
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Calculation of Home Range and Density of Small Mammals
444:
Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences
668:by Edith Calhoun and the American Heritage Center.
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Social Welfare as a Variable in Population Dynamics
214:(May 11, 1917 – September 7, 1995) was an American
56:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
771:
470:John Calhoun (age 52) with mice experiment (1970).
385:. Calhoun worked on the Rodent Ecology Project at
810:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
480:(NIMH) acquired property in a rural area outside
369:After graduating from Northwestern, he taught at
144:John Calhoun (age 69) in the fall of 1986 at the
1300:
1276:London School of Economics and Political Science
1003:Behavioral changes due to overpopulation in mice
732:(2). American Society of Mammalogists: 139–159.
281:who rose to a position in administration in the
345:work. He then earned his M.S. and Ph.D. from
300:. Mrs. Laskey, distinguished for her work in
16:American ethologist and behavioral researcher
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825:Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine
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377:. In 1946, he and his wife, Edith, moved to
866:. Vol. 3, no. 8. pp. 27–32.
652:The Ecology and Sociology of the Norway Rat
329:in 1939. During the summers, he worked for
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689:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
403:In 1951, Calhoun and family moved back to
138:
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1116:Bulletin of the World Health Organization
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773:"Population density and social pathology"
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116:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1030:. Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House. p.
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270:John Calhoun was born May 11, 1917, in
230:. He claimed that the bleak effects of
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288:Calhoun's family moved from Elkton to
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1258:Fountain, Henry (29 September 1995).
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54:adding citations to reliable sources
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1319:People from Giles County, Tennessee
1314:20th-century American psychologists
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478:National Institute of Mental Health
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1236:Barnes, Bart (30 September 1995).
1211:"John B. Calhoun Papers 1909-1996"
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790:10.1038/scientificamerican0262-139
709:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1950.tb27339.x
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1110:Ramsden, Edmund (February 2009).
283:Tennessee Department of Education
1334:20th-century American zoologists
819:Calhoun, John B (January 1973).
581:Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH
298:Tennessee Ornithological Society
30:
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1213:. National Library of Medicine.
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1077:Fountain, Henry (29 Sep 1995).
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488:s (the most famous of which is
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41:needs additional citations for
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616:, co-creator of the dystopian
560:During the 1960s, Calhoun and
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1344:University of Virginia alumni
1238:"Scientist John Calhoun Dies"
1001:Hammock, James (2000-01-01).
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413:National Institutes of Health
666:National Library of Medicine
285:. His mother was an artist.
7:
1278:. June 2009. Archived from
1055:Fessenden, Marissa (2015).
906:
678:Calhoun, John (1947–1948).
648:(with James U. Casby, 1958)
10:
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837:10.1177/00359157730661P202
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1177:Journal of Social History
943:Calhoun, John B. (1973).
770:Calhoun, John B. (1962).
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222:noted for his studies of
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891:. Praeger. p. 486.
887:Calhoun, John B (1983).
476:In the early 1960s, the
387:Johns Hopkins University
304:and in the study of the
266:Early life and education
148:of his first grandchild.
792:(inactive 2024-09-12).
405:Silver Spring, Maryland
347:Northwestern University
335:Smithsonian Institution
1024:Perkins, Bill (2004).
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323:University of Virginia
290:Brownsville, Tennessee
205:Behavioral sink theory
1128:10.2471/BLT.09.062836
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482:Poolesville, Maryland
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375:Ohio State University
220:behavioral researcher
21:Mickey Mouse universe
1061:Smithsonian Magazine
757:. New York: Harper.
726:Journal of Mammalogy
556:Reception and legacy
448:Stanford, California
325:where he earned his
252:District of Columbia
212:John Bumpass Calhoun
50:improve this article
1251:Tennessean Magazine
778:Scientific American
701:1950NYASA..51.1113C
226:and its effects on
1264:The New York Times
1189:10.1353/jsh.0.0156
1083:The New York Times
595:The Secret of NIMH
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244:social interaction
224:population density
1099:. 2 October 2014.
1011:10.15760/etd.1428
955:(1 Pt 2): 80–88.
949:Proc. R. Soc. Med
831:(1 Pt 2): 80–88.
755:Roots of Behavior
586:Robert C. O'Brien
454:Mouse experiments
398:Bar Harbor, Maine
365:Early rat studies
331:Alexander Wetmore
327:bachelor's degree
292:, and finally to
272:Elkton, Tennessee
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417:Cheshire Calhoun
407:. He worked for
392:While posted at
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371:Emory University
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