915:
conditions faced by
Central African workers. This led to criticism of French rule in Africa from communists and other groups, leading to French suspicions of the rebellion itself being instigated by communists. Though not achieving independence from the French colonial administration, the Kongo-Wara rebellion achieved an improvement in the conditions which initially sparked resistance, as the administration reduced the worse forms of oppression in a self-interested reaction to negative press the rebellion had caused. The rebellion also exposed several larger issues endemic to the French colonial system; the effect of unchecked, unrestricted capitalism upon native populations, and the fact that stability was dependent on a fragile, rural elite. Calls for fundamental reform in the wake of these revelations were silenced once order had been restored.
2440:
802:, followed by similar attacks on a caravan of Hausa merchants near Gankombon and a French agricultural agent accompanied by police escort at Nahing. Karnou's message spread rapidly on the back of these engagements and many distant Gbaya groups sent emissaries to Karnou in order to adopt his methods. Violence quickly spread towards French traders, French government posts and local chiefs and soldiers who worked for the French. Bouar was then occupied and burned down by Karnou's followers. Insurgency by Karnou's followers continued in the following months despite being ill-equipped. As a whole, the conflict took place away from urban centers.
291:) that was distributed by Karnou to his followers. A movement emerged around Karnou, which grew to include a boycott of European merchandise and black solidarity. This movement went unnoticed by the French administration, which had only a limited presence in the region, until 1927, when many of the movement's followers began to take up arms. By this time there were over 350,000 adherents to the movement, including around 60,000 warriors. Such unity was unprecedented in a region known for its political fragmentation and historical lack of centralised authority.
884:
256:
333:
863:
cultivated links with their Fulani neighbours and French and/or former German colonisers chose to side instead with the French administration in opposing the rebellion. This was because their diplomatic ties had allowed their leaders to become officially recognised chiefs. Examples include the Gbaya chiefs in the villages of Alim and
Gbangen, in the Mbéré and Pangara valleys, respectively, the Gbaya chief in the village of
124:
112:
99:
938:
politico-economic and
Christian religious orders. It is also claimed that Boganda was the reincarnation of Karnou, having visited the epicentre of the rebellion that was Karnou's former residence in the early 1950s. In this way, the story of Karnou serves to reconcile Gbaya myth and tradition with the tumultuous history of Central Africa.
903:. In the wake of the rebellion the movement's leaders were imprisoned and executed, although two of Karnou's lieutenants, Bissi and Yandjere, were not captured until 1935. Populations of natives were also forcibly relocated to designated villages where they could be supervised. Two of these villages are Ngoundi and Ndele of the
937:
The story of the rebellion continues to be passed on by Gbaya people in the form of traditional Gbaya folktales, sometimes including songs. It continues to have relevance, with Karnou's prophecies explaining the radical change in the experience of
Africans under colonialism, namely regarding the new,
805:
A French counterattack with reinforced troops was launched in late 1928 and on
December 11, Karnou was killed by a French military patrol. The rebellion, however, continued to spread unevenly from the Sangha basin to include the neighbouring groups from Cameroon and the lower Ubangi region, namely in
853:
Kongo-Wara followers fought under the premise of invulnerability from
European soldiers from a sacred hoe handle. This mysticism, perpetuated by Karnou, encouraged unmilitarized villagers to fight bravely yet recklessly. One recorded example of this behaviour was an account of a man dancing before a
874:
Much of this spread in activity against France, meanwhile, was a series of parochial reactions to the indiscriminate French suppression, with far-reaching associations with Karnou's movement being nominal at best and existing only out of convenience. This is also the case for the support by groups
862:
Though initially a response to the atrocities committed by concession companies, the rebellion spread quickly to eastern
Cameroon and southern Chad, both of which had never been controlled by such companies. Among Gbaya clans themselves, those in eastern Cameroon and western Ubangi-Shari which had
845:
To further quell "dissent", French troops were dispatched to imprison followers of the movement and also sent into areas of forest unaffected by the rebellion to relocate natives. French authorities also attempted to forcibly recruit swathes of natives in the fight against the rebels, however this
914:
Unlike other conflicts to have occurred in French colonies, the Kongo-Wara rebellion was relegated to relative obscurity amongst the public in France and few politicians and commentators remarked of it. What little news of the rebellion that was made known in Europe helped bring attention to the
910:
In order to assert control over the region the French administration divided the Kadei-Sangha
Department, where the rebellion had originated, into the Haute-Sangha and N'Goko-Sangha department in 1933. In the following year, however, the two departments were merged. In response to the rebellion
850:, many of whom abandoned their villages and relocated to camps deep in the forest for the duration of the conflict, as had occurred during periods of forced labour. The final stage of the conflict, known as the "war of the caves", took place in 1931.
922:, explicitly equated himself to Karnou and utilised the mass appeal of the rebellion to successfully mobilise nationalistic sentiments among Central Africans for political purposes. Boganda incidentally died in a plane crash in
2656:
286:
on France's behalf. The nonviolent overthrow of the French and Fulani was to be achieved through the use of traditional medicine, symbolised by a small hooked stick that resembled a miniature hoe handle
239:
which began as a result of recruitment of the native population in railway construction and rubber tapping. It was a large colonial uprising but also among the least well-known uprisings during the
2610:
2744:
781:
911:
French authorities agreed not to renew the leases of concessionary companies, however
European business interests, including plantations, continued to be promoted in the region.
1465:
Dramé, Patrick (2020). "'Nous ne voulons pas de Blancs dans le pays': L'insurrection des populations de la Haute-Sangha et la pacifi cation de l'espace rebelle (1928–1931)".
2566:
2556:
2369:
2865:
274:
basin region. In 1924 he began preaching non-violent resistance against the French colonisers in response to the recruitment of natives in the construction of the
2561:
654:
774:
750:
2860:
1886:
1328:
Bahuchet, Serge; McKey, Doyle; de Garine, Igor (1991). "Wild Yams
Revisited: Is Independence from Agriculture Possible for Rain Forest Hunter-Gatherers?".
2780:
2516:
1537:
875:
other than the Gbaya, as although Karnou's preachings revolved around universal Gbaya traditions and spirituality, it was not pan-ethnic in its appeal.
2620:
2470:
2676:
2526:
2475:
2427:
715:
982:
Burnham, Philip; Christensen, Thomas (1983). "Karnu's Message and the 'War of the Hoe Handle': Interpreting a Central African Resistance Movement".
2644:
2460:
1761:
767:
745:
304:
2754:
2615:
2536:
2018:
690:
583:
2480:
2465:
926:, near where one version of the story tells of Karnou having seen a sign from God in the form of a shooting star. Boganda's former lieutenant,
2855:
2597:
2592:
2546:
2362:
871:
sub-prefecture, all in Cameroon. The Gbaya chiefs in the villages of Abba and Gaza in Ubangi-Shari too supported the French administration.
2724:
2696:
2661:
2551:
2531:
2511:
1607:
1597:
2686:
629:
2825:
676:
594:
2681:
2666:
2630:
2521:
2448:
2008:
2739:
2701:
2691:
2499:
2485:
2439:
2355:
1821:
1393:
2773:
2729:
2711:
2625:
2580:
2387:
1530:
794:
Armed conflict broke out in mid 1928 in a clash between Karnou's followers and a group of Fula pastoralists between the towns of
313:
2719:
2671:
1876:
485:
270:
Barka Ngainoumbey, known as Karnou (meaning "he who can change the world"), was a Gbaya religious prophet and healer from the
2749:
618:
542:
2734:
2023:
1293:
O'Toole, Thomas (1984). "The 1928-1931 Gbaya Insurrection in Ubangui-Shari: Messianic Movement or Village Self-Defense?".
278:
and rubber tapping, and mistreatment by European concessionary companies. Karnou also preached against Europeans and the
2422:
1891:
1694:
1523:
854:
French commander and threatening him with a spear while chanting: "fire, big gorilla; your gun will only shoot water".
701:
2789:
2417:
2120:
1918:
1506:
1172:
918:
During the 1940s and 50s, vanguard Central African nationalist and first Prime Minister of the autonomous territory,
665:
517:
2840:
2302:
2157:
2003:
1881:
1826:
1689:
795:
930:, also overtly identified with the story in his nationalist movement against the alleged French puppet, President
2794:
755:
452:
1376:
1270:
1262:
1236:
1206:
1140:
1106:
1081:
1045:
2830:
2115:
2068:
2058:
2043:
1866:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1567:
1494:
2541:
2307:
2053:
1973:
1856:
1704:
1073:
2332:
945:, Cameroon, there is a cinema named after Karnou. More recently, a Central African airline has been named
1983:
1953:
2850:
2845:
2162:
2125:
2073:
1968:
1948:
1943:
1923:
1734:
1639:
1368:
1132:
1397:
895:
The Kongo rebellion was suppressed in 1931 but had become the largest interwar insurrection of either
2602:
2292:
2257:
2252:
1963:
1811:
556:
360:
2870:
2400:
2378:
900:
402:
244:
232:
116:
40:
2287:
2820:
2815:
2262:
2247:
2048:
1928:
835:
726:
2412:
2098:
1546:
531:
471:
1938:
1037:
2835:
2197:
1816:
1714:
1709:
103:
919:
506:
2110:
2078:
1806:
1644:
1577:
373:
8:
2312:
2282:
2277:
2063:
1978:
1933:
1786:
1070:
Cutting the Vines of the Past: Environmental Histories of the Central African Rain Forest
575:
275:
263:
2272:
2083:
1871:
1861:
1831:
1766:
1684:
1602:
1482:
1345:
1310:
1007:
999:
904:
2267:
2192:
1502:
1486:
1372:
1349:
1266:
1232:
1202:
1168:
1136:
1102:
1077:
1041:
1030:
1011:
811:
640:
2347:
2105:
1634:
1474:
1337:
1302:
991:
946:
160:
2297:
2242:
2093:
2088:
1796:
1699:
896:
561:
443:
283:
240:
236:
128:
44:
842:
regions of Ubangi-Shari, and around the town of Berandjoko in the French Congo.
2222:
2172:
1836:
1801:
1791:
1572:
827:
2809:
2177:
1958:
1478:
847:
259:
1515:
1440:
1023:
1021:
2395:
2207:
2202:
1418:
831:
432:
410:
381:
347:
271:
146:
70:
2212:
1679:
1018:
931:
927:
421:
279:
255:
134:
815:
2013:
1341:
1003:
883:
807:
1314:
2167:
2152:
1499:
L'Afrique centrale insurgée : la guerre du Kongo-Wara, 1928-1930
1165:
The French empire between the wars: imperialism, politics and society
228:
1259:
The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers
995:
2217:
1306:
942:
868:
1167:. Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press. pp. 211–244, 279, 350.
2182:
332:
1101:(3rd ed.). Lanham (Md.): Scarecrow Press. p. xxviii.
923:
864:
839:
823:
819:
814:
valleys of French Cameroons, around the towns of Baïbokoum and
123:
111:
98:
888:
799:
243:. Much of the conflict took place in what is now part of the
1231:(1 ed.). London: Europa Publications. pp. 72–73.
867:
and the Mbum chief in the village of Mboula, both in the
1327:
1222:
1220:
1218:
984:
Africa: Journal of the International African Institute
2377:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1099:
Historical dictionary of the Central African Republic
977:
975:
973:
971:
969:
967:
965:
963:
961:
1215:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1493:
1279:
1029:
981:
958:
282:, who administered sections of Gbaya territory in
2807:
1201:(1st ed.). London: CRC Press. p. 401.
1115:
554:
2866:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa
1252:
1250:
1248:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1184:
2363:
1545:
1531:
1067:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1057:
775:
1560:
1394:"Central African Republic: The Colonial Era"
1245:
2861:Wars involving the Central African Republic
1292:
1196:
1181:
1127:Fage, J.D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (1986).
2370:
2356:
1538:
1524:
1501:(in French). Paris: Editions L'Harmattan.
1256:
1126:
1054:
1032:Encyclopedia of Africa south of the Sahara
887:Depiction of Karnou in 2016 as a "Hero of
782:
768:
1391:
1090:
1036:. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. pp.
1027:
846:was avoided by many groups including the
1257:Hill, Robert A.; Garvey, Marcus (2006).
1158:
1156:
1154:
1152:
949:, using an outdated spelling of Karnou.
882:
254:
262:family camp during construction of the
2808:
1362:
1162:
1072:(1. publ. ed.). Charlottesville:
818:in southern Chad, around the towns of
2351:
2145:
1911:
1754:
1627:
1519:
1464:
1149:
1096:
2856:Military operations involving France
1969:Second Franco-Dahomean War (1892–94)
1984:Voulet–Chanoine Mission (1898–1900)
1974:Second Madagascar expedition (1895)
1295:Canadian Journal of African Studies
1226:
13:
1458:
14:
2882:
2826:African resistance to colonialism
1944:French conquest of Senegal (1854)
2438:
2333:Ouvéa cave hostage taking (1988)
2024:Intervention in Mexico (1861–67)
1964:First Franco-Dahomean War (1890)
1857:Burma–France relations (1729–56)
1229:A Political Chronology of Africa
331:
122:
110:
97:
2198:Tunisian independence (1952–56)
1979:Menalamba rebellion (1895-1903)
1817:French and Indian War (1754–60)
1433:
1411:
1385:
1356:
1321:
1199:Encyclopedia of African history
1131:(Reprint ed.). Cambridge:
1129:The Cambridge history of Africa
2248:Holy Man's Rebellion (1901–36)
2188:Kongo-Wara rebellion (1928–31)
2079:Cochinchina Campaign (1858–62)
1832:Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)
1263:University of California Press
1068:Giles-Vernick, Tamara (2002).
857:
724:
540:
1:
2313:First Indochina War (1946–54)
2064:Franco-Tahitian War (1844–47)
952:
364:
351:
250:
2126:Franco-Siamese crisis (1893)
1710:King William's War (1689–97)
1392:Giles-Vernick, Tamara Lynn.
1074:University of Virginia Press
878:
227:, was a rural, anticolonial
7:
2193:Malagasy Uprising (1947–48)
2019:Argentina–Uruguay (1845–50)
1892:Egypt and Syria (1798–1801)
1807:King George's War (1744–48)
1495:Nzabakomada-Yakoma, Raphaël
1197:Shillington, Kevin (2004).
294:
10:
2887:
2074:French conquest of Vietnam
1787:Queen Anne's War (1702–13)
1369:Cambridge University Press
1367:(1 ed.). Cambridge :
1133:Cambridge University Press
231:in the former colonies of
2767:
2710:
2652:
2643:
2588:
2579:
2507:
2498:
2456:
2447:
2436:
2386:
2325:
2298:Franco-Thai War (1940–41)
2235:
2138:
2094:Sino-French War (1884–85)
2089:Tonkin Campaign (1883–86)
2036:
2009:Río de la Plata (1838–40)
1996:
1904:
1849:
1837:Santo Domingo (1795–1809)
1779:
1747:
1727:
1672:
1620:
1590:
1553:
1547:French colonial conflicts
1365:Honour in African history
557:Emperor of Central Africa
361:Trans-Saharan slave trade
200:
185:
153:
63:
23:
18:
2512:Administrative divisions
2401:French Equatorial Africa
2379:Central African Republic
2173:Volta-Bani War (1915–16)
2037:Asia & Pacific Ocean
1792:Chickasaw Wars (1721–52)
1479:10.3167/hrrh.2020.460105
1028:Middleton, John (1997).
901:French Equatorial Africa
486:African Democratic Rally
403:French Equatorial Africa
322:Central African Republic
245:Central African Republic
233:French Equatorial Africa
173:Governor Auguste Lamblin
117:French Equatorial Africa
41:French Equatorial Africa
2841:20th-century rebellions
2308:South Vietnam (1945–46)
2178:Kaocen revolt (1916–17)
2106:Second Opium War (1860)
2099:North Vietnam (1886–96)
2084:North Vietnam (1873–74)
1887:East Indies (1793–1801)
1822:North America (1778–83)
1690:North America (1627–29)
1680:Beaver Wars (1609–1701)
1398:Encyclopædia Britannica
1163:Thomas, Martin (2005).
716:Conflict under Djotodia
543:Coronation of Bokassa I
2413:Central African Empire
2243:Boxer Rebellion (1901)
2208:Cameroon War (1955–64)
2203:Algerian War (1954–62)
2121:Leewards War (1888–97)
1919:Indian Ocean (1809–11)
1797:Dummer's War (1721–25)
1700:Carib Expulsion (1660)
1467:Historical Reflections
1097:Kalck, Pierre (2005).
892:
655:United Nations Mission
532:Central African Empire
472:Brazzaville Conference
267:
154:Commanders and leaders
2223:Bizerte crisis (1961)
2054:Philippines (1844–45)
2004:West Indies (1804–10)
1959:Ivory Coast (1883–98)
1882:East Indies (1778–83)
1812:Nova Scotia (1749–55)
1802:Natchez revolt (1729)
1762:West Africa (1758–63)
1695:West Indies (1635–59)
1568:South Carolina (1562)
1363:Iliffe, John (2005).
886:
677:Kolingba coup attempt
258:
221:War of the Hoe Handle
201:Casualties and losses
2831:Rebellions in Africa
2408:Kongo-Wara rebellion
1715:Santo Domingo (1691)
1443:. Mapping for Rights
1421:. Mapping for Rights
641:Bangui Peace Accords
595:Patassé coup attempt
584:Kolingba coup d'état
461:Kongo-Wara rebellion
374:Sultanate of Bagirmi
219:, also known as the
217:Kongo-Wara rebellion
19:Kongo-Wara rebellion
2168:Zaian War (1914–21)
2153:Wadai War (1906–11)
1929:Algeria (1835–1903)
1877:Vietnam (1777–1820)
1827:Caribbean (1778–83)
1227:Lea, David (2001).
630:Heightened tensions
576:Operation Barracuda
518:Bokassa coup d'état
276:Congo-Ocean Railway
264:Congo-Ocean Railway
2621:Telecommunications
2218:Ifni War (1957–58)
2213:Suez Crisis (1956)
1342:10.1007/bf00888746
920:Barthélemy Boganda
893:
691:Bozizé coup d'état
268:
55:Rebellion defeated
2851:Conflicts in 1931
2846:Conflicts in 1928
2803:
2802:
2763:
2762:
2677:Human trafficking
2639:
2638:
2575:
2574:
2557:Political parties
2552:National Assembly
2527:Foreign relations
2494:
2493:
2345:
2344:
2341:
2340:
2321:
2320:
2288:Vietnam (1930–31)
2273:Cilicia (1920–21)
2263:Vietnam (1918–21)
2258:Vietnam (1917–18)
2231:
2230:
2183:Rif War (1920–26)
2163:Morocco (1911–12)
2158:Casablanca (1907)
2134:
2133:
2032:
2031:
1992:
1991:
1954:Madagascar (1883)
1924:Algeria (1830–47)
1900:
1899:
1845:
1844:
1775:
1774:
1743:
1742:
1723:
1722:
1668:
1667:
1640:Senegal (1659–77)
1616:
1615:
1586:
1585:
1573:Florida (1562–65)
792:
791:
213:
212:
191:290,000 villagers
59:
58:
2878:
2783:
2776:
2650:
2649:
2606:
2586:
2585:
2505:
2504:
2454:
2453:
2442:
2372:
2365:
2358:
2349:
2348:
2323:
2322:
2303:Indochina (1945)
2233:
2232:
2143:
2142:
2034:
2033:
2014:Mexico (1838–39)
1994:
1993:
1909:
1908:
1847:
1846:
1777:
1776:
1752:
1751:
1725:
1724:
1685:Brazil (1612–15)
1670:
1669:
1645:Djidjelli (1664)
1625:
1624:
1608:Brazil (1590–04)
1603:Brazil (1555–67)
1588:
1587:
1558:
1557:
1540:
1533:
1526:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1490:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1389:
1383:
1382:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1290:
1277:
1276:
1265:. p. xcvi.
1254:
1243:
1242:
1224:
1213:
1212:
1194:
1179:
1178:
1160:
1147:
1146:
1124:
1113:
1112:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1065:
1052:
1051:
1035:
1025:
1016:
1015:
979:
947:Karinou Airlines
784:
777:
770:
733:
725:
714:
708:
697:
689:
683:
675:
661:
653:
647:
639:
625:
619:General election
601:
590:
574:
568:
555:
549:
541:
530:
524:
516:
484:
478:
470:
459:
442:
431:
420:
409:
369:
368: 1500–1600
366:
356:
353:
335:
334:
319:
299:
298:
181:Lt. Émile Boutin
165:
127:
126:
115:
114:
102:
101:
78:Co-belligerents:
25:
24:
16:
15:
2886:
2885:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2871:French Cameroon
2806:
2805:
2804:
2799:
2786:
2779:
2772:
2759:
2755:Public holidays
2706:
2635:
2604:
2571:
2537:Law enforcement
2490:
2443:
2434:
2382:
2376:
2346:
2337:
2317:
2278:Syria (1925–27)
2268:Syria (1919–21)
2227:
2130:
2111:Japan (1863–64)
2044:Moluccas (1810)
2028:
1988:
1896:
1872:India (1756–63)
1867:India (1749–54)
1862:India (1746–48)
1841:
1771:
1739:
1719:
1705:Texas (1685–89)
1664:
1612:
1582:
1549:
1544:
1509:
1461:
1459:Further reading
1456:
1446:
1444:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1424:
1422:
1417:
1416:
1412:
1402:
1400:
1390:
1386:
1379:
1371:. p. 189.
1361:
1357:
1326:
1322:
1291:
1280:
1273:
1255:
1246:
1239:
1225:
1216:
1209:
1195:
1182:
1175:
1161:
1150:
1143:
1135:. p. 397.
1125:
1116:
1109:
1095:
1091:
1084:
1066:
1055:
1048:
1026:
1019:
996:10.2307/1159708
980:
959:
955:
941:In the town of
897:French Cameroon
881:
860:
788:
738:
737:
734:
731:
723:
720:
712:
709:
706:
698:
695:
687:
684:
681:
673:
670:
662:
659:
651:
648:
645:
637:
634:
626:
623:
614:
606:
605:
602:
599:
591:
588:
580:
572:
569:
566:
562:Operation Caban
553:
550:
547:
539:
536:
528:
525:
522:
514:
511:
502:
494:
493:
490:
482:
479:
476:
468:
465:
457:
449:
448:
444:French Cameroon
440:
437:
429:
426:
418:
415:
407:
398:
397:Colonial period
390:
389:
386:
378:
370:
367:
357:
355: 700–1380
354:
343:
325:
317:
308:
297:
284:French Cameroon
253:
241:interwar period
237:French Cameroon
193:60,000 warriors
192:
180:
179:Pierre Crubillé
178:
176:
174:
169:
167:
161:
144:
141:Co-belligerents
138:
129:French Cameroon
121:
109:
96:
90:
88:
86:
84:
82:
80:
75:
47:
45:French Cameroon
12:
11:
5:
2884:
2874:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2821:1931 in Africa
2818:
2816:1928 in Africa
2801:
2800:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2785:
2784:
2777:
2769:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2716:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2657:Child marriage
2653:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2600:
2595:
2589:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2567:Prime Minister
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2508:
2502:
2496:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2457:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2437:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2404:
2403:
2392:
2390:
2384:
2383:
2381: articles
2375:
2374:
2367:
2360:
2352:
2343:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2335:
2329:
2327:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2293:Vietnam (1940)
2290:
2285:
2283:Vietnam (1930)
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2253:Vietnam (1916)
2250:
2245:
2239:
2237:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2149:
2147:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2071:
2069:Tourane (1856)
2066:
2061:
2059:Tourane (1847)
2056:
2051:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2000:
1998:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1949:Tunisia (1881)
1946:
1941:
1936:
1934:Morocco (1844)
1931:
1926:
1921:
1915:
1913:
1906:
1902:
1901:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1853:
1851:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1783:
1781:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1767:Morocco (1765)
1764:
1758:
1756:
1749:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1735:Siam (1687–90)
1731:
1729:
1721:
1720:
1718:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1676:
1674:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1662:
1660:Algiers (1688)
1657:
1655:Algiers (1683)
1652:
1650:Algiers (1682)
1647:
1642:
1637:
1635:Morocco (1629)
1631:
1629:
1622:
1618:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1594:
1592:
1584:
1583:
1581:
1580:
1578:Florida (1568)
1575:
1570:
1564:
1562:
1555:
1551:
1550:
1543:
1542:
1535:
1528:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1507:
1491:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1454:
1432:
1410:
1384:
1377:
1355:
1320:
1307:10.2307/484333
1301:(2): 329–344.
1278:
1271:
1244:
1237:
1214:
1207:
1180:
1173:
1148:
1141:
1114:
1107:
1089:
1082:
1076:. p. 31.
1053:
1046:
1017:
956:
954:
951:
880:
877:
859:
856:
790:
789:
787:
786:
779:
772:
764:
761:
760:
759:
758:
753:
748:
740:
739:
736:
735:
729:
727:Fall of Bangui
721:
718:
710:
704:
699:
693:
685:
679:
671:
668:
663:
657:
649:
643:
635:
632:
627:
621:
615:
613:Current period
612:
611:
608:
607:
604:
603:
597:
592:
586:
581:
578:
570:
564:
559:
551:
545:
537:
534:
526:
520:
512:
509:
507:Bokassa period
503:
500:
499:
496:
495:
492:
491:
488:
480:
474:
466:
463:
455:
453:Decolonization
450:
446:
438:
435:
427:
424:
416:
413:
405:
399:
396:
395:
392:
391:
388:
387:
384:
379:
376:
371:
363:
358:
350:
344:
341:
340:
337:
336:
328:
327:
324:
323:
320:
318:History of the
314:
310:
309:
302:
296:
293:
252:
249:
211:
210:
207:
206:10,000-100,000
203:
202:
198:
197:
194:
188:
187:
183:
182:
177:Gaëtan Germain
171:
156:
155:
151:
150:
132:
131:
119:
93:
87:Yangere people
66:
65:
61:
60:
57:
56:
53:
49:
48:
39:
37:
33:
32:
29:
21:
20:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2883:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2782:
2778:
2775:
2771:
2770:
2766:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2397:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2380:
2373:
2368:
2366:
2361:
2359:
2354:
2353:
2350:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2324:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2137:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1903:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1750:
1746:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1632:
1630:
1626:
1623:
1619:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1598:Brazil (1531)
1596:
1595:
1593:
1591:South America
1589:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1563:
1561:North America
1559:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1541:
1536:
1534:
1529:
1527:
1522:
1521:
1518:
1510:
1508:9782858026500
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1469:(in French).
1468:
1463:
1462:
1442:
1436:
1420:
1414:
1399:
1395:
1388:
1380:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1359:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1330:Human Ecology
1324:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1274:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1240:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1210:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1176:
1174:9780719065187
1170:
1166:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1144:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1110:
1104:
1100:
1093:
1085:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1049:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1033:
1024:
1022:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
978:
976:
974:
972:
970:
968:
966:
964:
962:
957:
950:
948:
944:
939:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
916:
912:
908:
906:
905:Sangha-Mbaéré
902:
898:
890:
885:
876:
872:
870:
866:
855:
851:
849:
848:Ngando people
843:
841:
837:
836:Mambéré-Kadéï
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
803:
801:
797:
785:
780:
778:
773:
771:
766:
765:
763:
762:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
743:
742:
741:
728:
722:
717:
711:
703:
700:
692:
686:
678:
672:
667:
664:
656:
650:
642:
636:
631:
628:
620:
617:
616:
610:
609:
596:
593:
585:
582:
577:
571:
563:
560:
558:
552:
544:
538:
533:
527:
519:
513:
508:
505:
504:
498:
497:
487:
481:
473:
467:
462:
456:
454:
451:
445:
439:
434:
428:
423:
417:
412:
406:
404:
401:
400:
394:
393:
383:
380:
375:
372:
362:
359:
349:
346:
345:
342:Early history
339:
338:
330:
329:
326:
321:
316:
315:
312:
311:
306:
301:
300:
292:
290:
285:
281:
277:
273:
265:
261:
260:Forced labour
257:
248:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
208:
205:
204:
199:
195:
190:
189:
184:
172:
166:
164:
158:
157:
152:
148:
145:
142:
137:
136:
130:
125:
120:
118:
113:
108:
107:
106:
105:
100:
94:
92:Goundi people
91:
89:Mbimou people
79:
74:
72:
68:
67:
62:
54:
51:
50:
46:
42:
38:
35:
34:
30:
27:
26:
22:
17:
2836:Ubangi-Shari
2725:Coat of arms
2697:Prostitution
2662:Demographics
2532:Human rights
2407:
2396:Ubangi-Shari
2187:
2139:20th century
2116:Korea (1866)
1905:19th century
1748:18th century
1621:17th century
1554:16th century
1498:
1473:(2): 62–88.
1470:
1466:
1445:. Retrieved
1435:
1423:. Retrieved
1413:
1401:. Retrieved
1387:
1364:
1358:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1298:
1294:
1261:. Berkeley:
1258:
1228:
1198:
1164:
1128:
1098:
1092:
1069:
1031:
987:
983:
940:
936:
917:
913:
909:
907:prefecture.
894:
873:
861:
852:
844:
804:
793:
713:
688:
674:
652:
638:
573:
529:
515:
501:Independence
483:
469:
460:
458:
441:
433:Ubangi-Shari
430:
419:
411:French Congo
408:
382:Wadai Empire
348:Kanem Empire
288:
272:Sangha River
269:
224:
220:
216:
214:
175:Paul Germain
162:
159:Karnou
140:
139:
133:
95:
77:
76:
71:Gbaya people
69:
64:Belligerents
2687:LGBT rights
2593:Agriculture
2049:Java (1811)
1939:Salé (1851)
1447:10 November
1425:10 November
1403:10 November
990:(4): 3–22.
932:David Dacko
928:Abel Goumba
858:Allegiances
422:French Chad
135:Fula people
85:Pana people
83:Mbai people
81:Mbum people
2810:Categories
2605:(currency)
2603:CFA franc
2517:Censorship
2471:Ecoregions
1378:0521837855
1336:(2): 232.
1272:0520932757
1238:1857431162
1208:1579582451
1142:0521225051
1108:0810849135
1083:0813921031
1047:0684804662
953:References
289:koŋgo wara
251:Background
73:and clans
2682:Languages
2667:Education
2631:Transport
2562:President
2547:Ministers
2522:Elections
2476:Mountains
2449:Geography
2428:2013–2014
2423:Civil War
1487:226117204
1419:"Ngoundi"
1350:154358309
1012:145474688
879:Aftermath
719:2013–2014
702:Civil War
669:2004–2007
633:1993–1998
579:1979–1981
535:1976–1979
510:1966–1979
489:1946–1958
464:1928–1931
447:1918–1960
436:1903–1958
425:1900–1960
414:1882–1910
385:1635–1909
377:1522–1897
229:rebellion
149:chiefdoms
31:1928–1931
2790:Category
2740:Football
2702:Religion
2692:Polygamy
2542:Military
2500:Politics
2486:Wildlife
2418:Bush War
1997:Americas
1780:Americas
1673:Americas
1497:(1986).
943:Meiganga
869:Meiganga
816:Moïssala
746:Category
666:Bush War
305:a series
303:Part of
295:Fighting
225:Baya War
223:and the
186:Strength
170:Yandjere
36:Location
2774:Outline
2730:Cuisine
2712:Culture
2645:Society
2626:Tourism
2581:Economy
2461:Borders
2388:History
2326:Pacific
1441:"Ndele"
1004:1159708
834:in the
751:Commons
209:unknown
196:unknown
163:†
2795:Portal
2720:Cinema
2672:Health
2616:Mining
2611:Energy
2481:Rivers
2466:Cities
2146:Africa
1912:Africa
1755:Africa
1628:Africa
1505:
1485:
1375:
1348:
1315:484333
1313:
1269:
1235:
1205:
1171:
1139:
1105:
1080:
1044:
1010:
1002:
924:Lobaye
865:Lokoti
840:Lobaye
824:Bambio
820:Yaloke
796:Baboua
756:Portal
307:on the
104:France
52:Result
2781:Index
2750:Music
2745:Media
2598:Banks
1483:S2CID
1346:S2CID
1311:JSTOR
1008:S2CID
1000:JSTOR
889:Bouar
828:Ndele
808:Mbéré
800:Bouar
732:–0000
705:2012–
696:–0000
682:–0000
660:–0000
646:–0000
624:–0000
600:–0000
589:–0000
567:–0000
548:–0000
523:–0000
477:–0000
266:1930.
168:Bissi
147:Gbaya
2735:Flag
2236:Asia
1850:Asia
1728:Asia
1503:ISBN
1449:2013
1427:2013
1405:2013
1373:ISBN
1267:ISBN
1233:ISBN
1203:ISBN
1169:ISBN
1137:ISBN
1103:ISBN
1078:ISBN
1042:ISBN
838:and
832:Boda
830:and
812:Vina
810:and
806:the
798:and
730:2013
707:0000
694:2003
680:2001
658:1998
644:1997
622:1993
598:1982
587:1981
565:1979
546:1977
521:1966
475:1944
280:Fula
235:and
215:The
28:Date
1475:doi
1338:doi
1303:doi
1038:163
992:doi
899:or
2812::
1481:.
1471:46
1396:.
1344:.
1334:19
1332:.
1309:.
1299:18
1297:.
1281:^
1247:^
1217:^
1183:^
1151:^
1117:^
1056:^
1040:.
1020:^
1006:.
998:.
988:53
986:.
960:^
934:.
891:".
826:,
822:,
365:c.
352:c.
247:.
43:,
2371:e
2364:t
2357:v
1539:e
1532:t
1525:v
1511:.
1489:.
1477::
1451:.
1429:.
1407:.
1381:.
1352:.
1340::
1317:.
1305::
1275:.
1241:.
1211:.
1177:.
1145:.
1111:.
1086:.
1050:.
1014:.
994::
783:e
776:t
769:v
287:(
143::
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
