French Third Republic

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families settled in the colonies, and they were too poor in natural resources and trade to significantly benefit the overall economy. Nevertheless, they were second in size only to the British Empire, provided prestige in world affairs, and gave an opportunity for Catholics (under heavy attack by the Republicans in Parliament) to devote their energies to spread French culture and civilization worldwide. An extremely expensive investment in building the Panama Canal was a total failure, in terms of money, many deaths by disease, and political scandal. Bismarck was fired in 1890, and after that German foreign policy was confused and misdirected. For example, Berlin broke its close ties with St. Petersburg, allowing the French to enter through heavy financial investment, and a Paris–St Petersburg military alliance that proved essential and durable. Germany feuded with Britain, which encouraged London and Paris to drop their grievances over Egypt and Africa, reaching a compromise whereby the French recognized British primacy in Egypt, while Britain recognized French primacy in Morocco. This enabled Britain and France to move closer together, finally achieving an

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of Mankind) (LDH). It kept a low profile in the first two years of war, holding its first congress in November 1916 against the background slaughters French soldiers on the Western Front. The theme was the "conditions for a lasting peace." Discussions focused on France's relationship with its autocratic, undemocratic ally, Russia, and in particular how to square support for all that the LDH stood for with Russia's bad treatment of its oppressed minorities, especially the Poles. Secondly, many delegates wanted to issue a demand for a negotiated peace. This was rejected only after a lengthy debate showed how the LDH was divided between a majority that believed that arbitration could be applied only in times of peace, and a minority that demanded an immediate end to the carnage. In spring 1918 the desperate German offensive failed, and the Allies successfully pushed back. The French people of all classes rallied to Prime Minister

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for veterans, were always remembered. France demanded that Germany assume many of the costs incurred from the war through annual reparation payments. French foreign and security policy used the balance of power and alliance politics to compel Germany to comply with its obligations under the Treaty of Versailles. The problem was that the United States and Britain rejected a defensive alliance. Potential allies in Eastern Europe, such as Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were too weak to confront Germany. Russia had been the long term French ally in the East, but now it was controlled by the Bolsheviks, who were deeply distrusted in Paris. France's transition to a more conciliatory policy in 1924 was a response to pressure from Britain and the United States, as well as to French weakness.

4789:, supported by Daladier, brought in a series of sweeping laws that undid much of the Popular Front's economic policies, most notably ending the 48 hour work week. Blum joined forces with the Communists in opposing the Daladier government's economic policies, and supported the general strike called by the Communists on 30 November 1938. Daladier called out the French Army to operate essential services and had the French police use tear gas to evict striking workers at the Renault works. The use of the military to operate essential services while sending out the police to arrest the strike leaders broke the general strike. In a speech, Blum accused Daladier of using repressive methods to crush the French working class and revert France back to the pre-1936 economic system. 3252: 3067:

information unless the business immediately started advertising in the paper. Foreign governments, especially Russia and Turkey, secretly paid the press hundreds of thousands of francs a year to guarantee favourable coverage of the bonds it was selling in Paris. When the real news was bad about Russia, as during its 1905 Revolution or during its war with Japan, it raised the ante to millions. During the World War, newspapers became more of a propaganda agency on behalf of the war effort and avoided critical commentary. They seldom reported the achievements of the Allies, crediting all the good news to the French army. In a sentence, the newspapers were not independent champions of the truth, but secretly paid advertisements for banking.

3148: 4871:, in case the Germans retaliated. The French mobilisation had called up many essential workers, which disrupted vital French industries in the first weeks of the campaign. Gamelin's vision for France's defence was based upon a static defence along the Franco-German border, which was reinforced by the Maginot Line. However, the Line did not extend along the Belgian frontier. During the winter of 1939–40, which was one of the coldest of the 20th century, work on the extension of the Line along the Belgian frontier was slow and not of the same quality as the original defences. Gamelin, along with many other members of the French High Command, saw the 3464:(where the Foreign Ministry was located), and their style changed little from generation to generation. Most of the diplomats came from high status aristocratic families. Although France was one of the few republics in Europe, its diplomats mingled smoothly with the aristocratic representatives at the royal courts. Prime ministers and leading politicians generally paid little attention to foreign affairs, allowing a handful of senior men to control policy. In the decades before the First World War they dominated the embassies in the 10 major countries where France had an ambassador (elsewhere, they sent lower-ranking ministers). They included 1928: 1924:, to restore unity between the monarchy and the nation. Compromise on this was impossible, Chambord believed, if the nation were to be made whole again. The general population, however, was unwilling to abandon the Tricolour flag. Monarchists therefore resigned themselves to delay the monarchy until the death of the ageing, childless Chambord, then to offer the throne to his more liberal heir, the Comte de Paris. A "temporary" republican government was therefore established. Chambord lived on until 1883, but by that time, enthusiasm for a monarchy had faded, and the Comte de Paris was never offered the French throne. 783: 2021: 797: 2139: 738: 724: 811: 144: 4482:. It was intensely nationalistic, anti-Semitic and reactionary, calling for a return to the monarchy and domination of the state by the Catholic Church. In 1926, Pope Pius XI condemned Action Française because the pope decided that it was folly for the French Church to continue to tie its fortunes to the unlikely dream of a monarchist restoration and distrusted the movement's tendency to defend the Catholic religion in merely utilitarian and nationalistic terms. Action Française never fully recovered from the denunciation, but it was active in the Vichy era. 825: 3320:("popular") to signify this expansion. Membership was open to everyone, not just Catholics. It sought to gather all the "honest people" and to be the melting pot sought by Leo XIII where Catholics and moderate Republicans would unite to support a policy of tolerance and social progress. Its motto summarized its program: "Liberty for all; equality before the law; better conditions for the workers." However, the "old republicans" were few, and it did not manage to regroup all Catholics, as it was shunned by monarchists, Christian democrats, and 3071:

raised the price of newsprint, which was always in short supply. The cover price went up, circulation fell and many of the 242 dailies published outside Paris closed down. The government set up the Interministerial Press Commission to supervise the press closely. A separate agency imposed tight censorship that led to blank spaces where news reports or editorials were disallowed. The dailies sometimes were limited to only two pages instead of the usual four, leading one satirical paper to try to report the war news in the same spirit:

2841: 70: 1837: 4383:, as demanded by the Communists. Culturally, the Popular Front forced the Communists to come to terms with elements of French society they had long ridiculed, such as patriotism, the veterans' sacrifice, the honour of being an army officer, the prestige of the bourgeois, and the leadership of the Socialist Party and the parliamentary Republic. Above all, the Communists portrayed themselves as French nationalists. Young Communists dressed in costumes from the revolutionary period and the scholars glorified the 3489: 1710: 3727: 3476:, in Washington from 1902 to 1924; and Camille Barrère, in Rome from 1897 to 1924. In terms of foreign policy, there was general agreement about the need for high protective tariffs, which kept agricultural prices high. After the defeat by the Germans, there was a strong widespread anti-German sentiment focused on revanchism and regaining Alsace and Lorraine. The Empire was a matter of great pride, and service as administrators, soldiers and missionaries was a high status occupation. 139: 4644:, which had been declared to be a permanent demilitarized zone. With the Rhineland remilitarized, for the first time since 1918 German military forces could menace France directly, and equally importantly the Germans started to build the Siegfried line along the Franco-German border. The assumption behind the French alliance system in Eastern Europe was that the French Army would use the demilitarized status of the Rhineland to launch an offensive into western Germany if the 153: 4914:, many Allied aircraft were attacked while still on the ground. The rest of the air support was concentrated on the French advance, rather than attacking the exposed 150 km (93 mi) column supplying the German advance. Quickly, the French and the British became fearful of being outflanked and they withdrew from the defensive lines drawn up across Belgium. They did not pull back fast enough to prevent them being outflanked by the German Panzer divisions. 3240:, a time in French history most republicans hoped was long behind them. The republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support. Numerous laws were passed to weaken the Catholic Church. In 1879, priests were excluded from the administrative committees of hospitals and boards of charity; in 1880, new measures were directed against the religious congregations; from 1880 to 1890 came the substitution of lay women for nuns in many hospitals; in 1882, the 710: 2863:

conservatives whose first priority was stability. The workers' demands for strikes threatened such stability and pushed many Radicals toward conservatism. It opposed women's suffrage for fear that women would vote for its opponents or for candidates endorsed by the Catholic Church. It favoured a progressive income tax, economic equality, expanded educational opportunities and cooperatives in domestic policy. In foreign policy, it favoured a strong

3970:. Building on foundations laid in the early months of the war, the Ministry of War matched production to the operational and tactical needs of the army, with an emphasis on meeting the insatiable demands for artillery. The elaborately designed link between industry and the army, and the compromises made to ensure that artillery and shells of the required quantity and quality were supplied, proved crucial to French success on the battlefield. 56: 4918: 3443:

decision came in response to popular demand, and the Army's demand for a strong frontier. It was not necessary since France was much weaker militarily than Germany, but it forced Bismarck to orient German foreign policy to block France from having any major allies. Alsace and Lorraine were a grievance for some years, but by 1890 had largely faded away with the French realization that nostalgia was not as useful as modernization.

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military planning and readiness to fight. Young finds that American reporters in the late 1930s portrayed a calm, united, competent, and confident France. They praised French art, music, literature, theatre, and fashion, and stressed French resilience and pluck in the face of growing Nazi aggression and brutality. Nothing in the tone or content of the articles foretold the crushing military defeat and collapse of June 1940.

4864:, a German staff officer on the Western Front, if France had attacked in September 1939 German forces could not have held out for more than one or two weeks. Gamelin ordered his troops back behind the Maginot Line, but only after telling France's ally, Poland, that France had broken the Siegfried Line and that help was on its way . Before the war, he had expected the Polish Army to hold out against Germany for six months. 2761: 1401: 3614: 766: 696: 2913: 2776: 1416: 185: 4302:

appeased Italy on the Ethiopia question because it could not afford to risk an alliance between Italy and Germany. When Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland—the part of Germany where no troops were allowed—neither Paris nor London would risk war, and nothing was done. The military alliance with Czechoslovakia was sacrificed at Hitler's demand when France and Britain agreed to his terms at

2828:

activists were not as well organized or as influential as in Germany, Britain or the United States. For example, there was a long battle over a public health law which began in the 1880s as a campaign to reorganize the nation's health services, to require the registration of infectious diseases, to mandate quarantines, and to improve the deficient health and housing legislation of 1850.

4003: 4769:: "There is not a woman and a man to refuse MM. Neville Chamberlain and Édouard Daladier their rightful tribute of gratitude. War is avoided. The scourge recedes. Life can become natural again. One can resume one's work and sleep again. One can enjoy the beauty of an autumn sun. How would it be possible for me not to understand this sense of deliverance when I feel it myself?" 10678: 5266:, who was hostile to First and Second Empire, and wrote that France was living and wished to live in a world of illusion. Raudot pointed out the declining birth rate, falling below replacement level, which he considered a cancerous symptom of the national malaise, foretelling an inevitable national decline, while the Russians and the Americans pushed ahead as seen in 4463:. It encouraged young working women to adopt Catholic approaches to morality and to prepare for future roles as mothers at the same time as it promoted notions of spiritual equality and encouraged young women to take active, independent, and public roles in the present. The model of youth groups was expanded to reach adults in the 1956:

prompted resistance and outcry from radical and leftist elements of the republican movement. In Paris, a series of public altercations broke out between the Versailles-aligned Parisian government and the city's radical socialists. The radicals ultimately rejected the authority of Versailles, responding with the foundation of the

4753:

Anglo-French plan called for a transfer to occur after 1 October. For a time in September 1938, it appeared that Europe was on brink of a war again. The fact that the issue at stake was only a secondary issue, namely the timetable for transferring the Sudetenland, after the primary issue had been settled struck many as bizarre.

3521:, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. The government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt. 4777:. Bonnet was known to be the advocate of some sort of Franco-German understanding under which France would recognize Eastern Europe as being in the German sphere of influence and abandon all of France's allies in Eastern Europe. Blum focused his criticism on Bonnet as the main advocate of appeasement in the cabinet. 3393:. Church and State were declared separate, though all Church property was confiscated. Religious personnel were no longer paid by the State. Public worship was to be given over to associations of Catholic laymen who controlled access to churches. However, in practice, masses and rituals continued to be performed. 3332:). The ALP was drawn into battle from its very beginnings (its first steps coincided with the beginning of the Combes ministry and its anticlerical combat policy), as religious matters were at the heart of its preoccupations. It defended the Church in the name of liberty and common law. Fiercely fought by the 116: 3273:—indoctrinated anti-republicanism into children. Determined to root this out, republicans insisted they needed control of the schools for France to achieve economic and militaristic progress. (Republicans felt one of the primary reasons for the German victory in 1870 was their superior education system.) 3027:, reached an audience more interested in diverse entertainment and gossip than hard news. It captured a quarter of the Parisian market and forced the rest to lower their prices. The main dailies employed their own journalists who competed for news flashes. All newspapers relied upon the Agence Havas (now 120: 119: 118: 4289:

France tried to create a web of defensive treaties against Germany with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. There was little effort to build up the military strength or technological capabilities of these small allies, and they remained weak and divided among themselves.

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In 1931 the well-organized veterans movement demanded and received pensions for their wartime service. This was funded by a lottery—the first one allowed in France since 1836. The lottery immediately became popular, and became a major foundation of the annual budget. Although the Great Depression was

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with controls and rationing. By 1915, the war economy went into high gear, as millions of French women and colonial men replaced the civilian roles of many of the 3 million soldiers. Considerable assistance came with the influx of American food, money and raw materials in 1917. This war economy would

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in 1882. Religious instruction in all schools was forbidden, and religious orders were forbidden to teach in them. Funds were appropriated from religious schools to build more state schools. Later in the century, other laws passed by Ferry's successors further weakened the Church's position in French

5312:

victory of 1936, and so had allowed themselves to fall under the spell of fascism and defeatism. Bloch said that the Third Republic suffered from a deep internal "rot" that generated bitter social tensions, unstable governments, pessimism and defeatism, fearful and incoherent diplomacy, hesitant and

4809:

on 9 December 1938, the Popular Front formally came to an end as Daladier chose to base his majority of the parties of the right and center. Despite the end of the Popular Front, Blum did not press for a vote of no-confidence or new elections. Blum believed that Daladier would win an election if one

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where he agreed that the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia would be transferred to Germany. At a subsequent Anglo-German summit at Bad Godesberg, Hitler rejected Chamberlain's plan over a secondary issue as he demanded that the Sudetenland be transferred to Germany before 1 October 1938 while the

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strongly but unsuccessfully pressed Daladier to renounce the French-Czechoslovak alliance, which led to Britain becoming involved in the crisis. From the British perspective, the problem was not the Sudetenland but the French-Czechoslovak alliance. British military experts were almost unanimous that

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Historians have turned their attention to the right in the interwar period, looking at various categories of conservatives and Catholic groups as well as the far right fascist movement. Conservative supporters of the old order were linked with the "haute bourgeoisie" (upper middle class), as well as

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brought to power a government headed by the Socialists in alliance with the Radicals. The Communists supported its domestic policies, but did not take any seats in the cabinet. The prime minister was Léon Blum, a technocratic socialist who avoided making decisions. In two years in office, it focused

4026:

The entry into war by the United States turned the war around and in the summer and autumn of 1918 led to the defeat of Germany. The most important factors that led to the surrender of Germany were its exhaustion after four years of fighting and the arrival of large numbers of troops from the United

3989:

sought to draw the French people closer to the actual front and thus garner social, political, and economic support for the soldiers. Antiwar sentiment was very weak among the general population. However, among intellectuals there was a pacifistic "Ligue des Droits de l'Homme" (League for the Rights

3965:

The production of munitions proved a striking success, well ahead of Britain or the United States or even Germany. The challenges were monumental: the German seizure of the industrial heartland in the northeast, a shortage of manpower, and a mobilization plan that left France on the brink of defeat.

2032:

The elections of 1876 demonstrated strong public support for the increasingly anti-monarchist republican movement. A decisive Republican majority was elected to the Chamber of Deputies while the monarchist majority in the Senate was maintained by only one seat. President de MacMahon responded in May

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and was a recurring theme of debate during the Third Republic. Each defeat, setback, or national humiliation served to confirm the idea, as France lost its vital essence or even will to exist, while energetic young countries like the United States appeared to be on the upsurge, France and old world

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Blum's contorted position of voting for the Munich Agreement, but being opposed to further appeasement was largely an attempt to hold together the Socialists. In the months that followed, Blum became more critical of the "men of Munich". The principal object of his criticism was not Daladier - whom

4711:

At the Anglo-French summit on 28–29 April 1938, Chamberlain pressured Daladier to renounce the alliance with Czechoslovakia, only to be firmly informed that France would stand by its obligations, which forced the British to be involved very reluctantly in the Sudetenland Crisis. The summit of 28–29

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The nation that France wanted the most as an ally was Great Britain, which had the world's largest navy and provided that Britain made the "continental commitment" of sending another large expeditionary force to France like the BEF of the First World War would allow the French to face any challenge

4364:

in an effort to break the power of the richest 200 families in the country. Farmers received higher prices, and the government purchased surplus wheat, but farmers had to pay higher taxes. Wave after wave of strikes hit French industry in 1936. Wage rates went up 48%, but the work week was cut back

4257:

Foreign policy was of growing concern to France during the inter-war period, with fears of German militarism in the forefront. The horrible devastation of the war, including the death of 1.5 million French soldiers, the devastation of much of the steel and coal regions, and the long-term costs

3446:

France rebuilt its Army, emphasizing modernization in such features as new artillery, and after 1905 invested heavily in military aircraft. Most important in restoring prestige was a strong emphasis on the growing French Empire, which brought prestige, despite large financial costs. Very few French

3419:

law and the 1904 law on religious congregations' freedom of teaching. On 10 February 1905, the Chamber declared that "the attitude of the Vatican" had rendered the separation of Church and State inevitable and the law of the separation of church and state was passed in December 1905. The Church was

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Combes was vigorously opposed by all the Conservative parties, who saw the mass closure of church schools as a persecution of religion. Combes led the anti-clerical coalition on the left, facing opposition primarily organized by the pro-Catholic ALP. The ALP had a stronger popular base, with better

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as the real spy. After high-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence, a military court unanimously acquitted Esterhazy. In response, the Army brought up additional charges against Dreyfus based on false documents. Word of the military court's attempts to frame Dreyfus began to spread,

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Governing coalitions collapsed with regularity, rarely lasting more than a few months, as radicals, socialists, liberals, conservatives, republicans and monarchists all fought for control. Some historians argue that the collapses were not important because they reflected minor changes in coalitions

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However, the reformers met opposition from bureaucrats, politicians, and physicians. Because it was so threatening to so many interests, the proposal was debated and postponed for 20 years before becoming law in 1902. Implementation finally came when the government realized that contagious diseases

2166:

Revisionist scholars have argued that the Boulangist movement more often represented elements of the radical left rather than the extreme right. Their work is part of an emerging consensus that France's radical right was formed in part during the Dreyfus era by men who had been Boulangist partisans

5190:

One of the most surprising aspects of the Third Republic was that it constituted the first stable republican government in French history and the first to win the support of the majority of the population, but it was intended as an interim, temporary government. Following Thiers's example, most of

4906:

Despite reports of the build-up of German forces, and even knowing the date of the planned German attack, Gamelin did nothing until May 1940, stating that he would "await events". Then, when the Germans attacked, Gamelin insisted on moving 40 of his best divisions, including the BEF, northwards to

4671:

The other major ally the French wanted was the Soviet Union. However, the lack of a common German-Soviet frontier, the unwillingness of Romania and especially Poland to grant the Red Army transit rights, and the strong British dislike of the alliance that the French signed with the Soviet Union in

4611:

center-right party. Reynaud was Prime Minister during the German defeat of France in May and June 1940; he persistently refused to support an armistice with Germany, as premier in June 1940, he unsuccessfully attempted to save France from German occupation in World War II, and resigned on 16 June.

4191:

affected France a bit later than other countries, hitting around 1931. While the GDP in the 1920s grew at the very strong rate of 4.43% per year, the 1930s rate fell to only 0.63%. In comparison to countries such as the United States, Great Britain, and Germany, the depression was relatively mild:

3788:

rose from 1,600,000 hectares in 1890 to 2,700,000 hectares in 1940; combined with similar operations in Morocco and Tunisia, the result was that North African agriculture became one of the most efficient in the world. Metropolitan France was a captive market, so large landowners could borrow large

3479:

French foreign policy from 1871 to 1914 showed a dramatic transformation from a humiliated power with no friends and not much of an empire in 1871, to the centerpiece of the European alliance system in 1914, with a flourishing colonial empire that was second in size only to Great Britain. Although

2818:

France lagged behind Bismarckian Germany, as well as Great Britain and Ireland, in developing a welfare state with public health, unemployment insurance and national old age pension plans. There was an accident insurance law for workers in 1898, and in 1910, France created a national pension plan.

2162:

marked a decisive defeat for the Boulangists. They were defeated by the changes in the electoral laws that prevented Boulanger from running in multiple constituencies; by the government's aggressive opposition; and by the absence of the general himself, in self-imposed exile with his mistress. The

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being sent east with the remainder of the Wehrmacht staying on the defensive in the Rhineland to halt any French offensive into Germany, a situation that boded ill for the survival of the French alliance system in Eastern Europe. A further complication for the French was the greater population of

3058:

It vigorously advocated for traditional Catholicism while at the same time innovating with the most modern technology and distribution systems, with regional editions tailored to local taste. Secularists and Republicans recognized the newspaper as their greatest enemy, especially when it took the

2996:

From 1894 to 1906, the scandal divided France deeply and lastingly into two opposing camps: the pro-Army "anti-Dreyfusards" composed of conservatives, Catholic traditionalists and monarchists who generally lost the initiative to the anti-clerical, pro-republican "Dreyfusards", with strong support

121: 5484:

argued that French society was not decadent, that the defeat of 1940 was due to only military factors, not moral failures, and that the Third Republic's leaders had done their best under the difficult conditions of the 1930s. Young argued that the decadence, if it existed, did not impact French

4804:

Daladier responded with a series of resolute speeches on French radio where he rejected all of the Italian demands, which won him much popularity in France. From the viewpoint of Blum, being opposed to Daladier at a time when he won himself many accolades as the defender of France's territorial

3070:

The World War ended a golden era for the press. Their younger staff members were drafted, and male replacements could not be found (female journalists were not considered suitable). Rail transportation was rationed and less paper and ink came in, and fewer copies could be shipped out. Inflation

2900:

The Dreyfus affair was a major political scandal that convulsed France from 1894 until its resolution in 1906, and then had reverberations for decades more. The conduct of the affair has become a modern and universal symbol of injustice. It remains one of the most striking examples of a complex

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in political orientation and opposed the monarchists and clerical elements on the one hand, and the Socialists on the other. Many members had been recruited by the Freemasons. The Radicals were split between activists who called for state intervention to achieve economic and social equality and

4301:

Appeasement was increasingly adopted as Germany grew stronger after 1933, for France suffered a stagnant economy, unrest in its colonies, and bitter internal political fighting. Appeasement, says historian Martin Thomas was not a coherent diplomatic strategy or a copying of the British. France

3442:

Foreign policy of 1871–1914 was based on a slow rebuilding of alliances with Russia and Britain in order to counteract the threat from Germany. Bismarck had made a mistake in taking Alsace and Lorraine in 1871, setting off decades of popular hatred of Germany and demand for revenge. Bismarck's

2065:

again brought a Republican majority to the Chamber of Deputies, reiterating public opinion. The Republicans would go on to gain a majority in the Senate by January 1879, establishing dominance in both houses and effectively ending the potential for a monarchist restoration. De MacMahon himself

1955:

due to the encirclement of Paris by Prussian forces. New representatives were elected in February of that year, constituting the government which would come to evolve into the Third Republic. These representatives – predominantly conservative republicans – enacted a series of legislation which

2827:

was the most dreaded disease of the day, especially striking young people in their twenties. Germany set up vigorous measures of public hygiene and public sanatoria, but France let private physicians handle the problem. The French medical profession guarded its prerogatives, and public health

2057:

to the office. The Chamber of Deputies declared the appointment illegitimate, exceeding the president's powers, and refused to cooperate with either de MacMahon or de Broglie. De MacMahon then dissolved the Chamber and called for a new general election to be held the following October. He was

5574:

1872–73: After the nation faced the immediate political problems, it needed to establish a permanent form of government. Thiers wanted to base it on the constitutional monarchy of Britain, however he realized France would have to remain republican. In expressing this belief, he violated the

4668:

from Germany on more even terms. The need for the "continental commitment" allowed Britain to have a sort of veto power over French foreign policy in the interwar period as the French wanted the "continental commitment" very badly, and thus could not afford to alienate the British too much.

3066:

Banks secretly paid certain newspapers to promote particular financial interests and hide or cover up misbehaviour. They also took payments for favourable notices in news articles of commercial products. Sometimes, a newspaper would blackmail a business by threatening to publish unfavorable

3016:

The democratic political structure was supported by the proliferation of politicized newspapers. The circulation of the daily press in Paris went from 1 million in 1870 to 5 million in 1910; it later reached 6 million in 1939. Advertising grew rapidly, providing a steady financial basis for

3192:

did at the famous department stores in the central city. Like the bourgeois stores, it helped transform consumption from a business transaction into a direct relationship between consumer and sought-after goods. Its advertisements promised the opportunity to participate in the newest, most

5822:, who had been strictly enforcing the 1901 voluntary association law and the 1904 law on religious congregations' freedom of teaching (more than 2,500 private teaching establishments were by then closed by the state, causing bitter opposition from the Catholic and conservative population). 3977:(GDP) of 1913, chiefly the destruction of productive capital and housing. The national debt rose from 66% of GDP in 1913 to 170% in 1919, reflecting the heavy use of bond issues to pay for the war. Inflation was severe, with the franc losing over half its value against the British pound. 3925:("the Tiger"), led a coalition government after 1917 that was determined to defeat Germany. Meanwhile, large swaths of northeastern France fell under the brutal control of German occupiers. The bloodbath of the war of attrition reached its apogee in the Battles of Verdun and the Somme. 3138:

was weak in the provinces. Weber then looked at how the policies of the Third Republic created a sense of French nationality in rural areas. Weber's scholarship was widely praised, but was criticized by some who argued that a sense of Frenchness existed in the provinces before 1870.

4243:, in an attempt to thwart the rise of fascism in France. According to historian Joel Colton, "The consensus among scholars is that there was no concerted or unified design to seize power and that the leagues lacked the coherence, unity, or leadership to accomplish such an end." 1546:). The early governments of the French Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but disagreement as to the nature of that monarchy and the rightful occupant of the throne could not be resolved. Consequently, the French Third Republic, originally envisioned as a 2993:. The new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence, but Dreyfus was given a pardon and set free. Eventually all the accusations against him were demonstrated to be baseless, and in 1906, Dreyfus was exonerated and re-instated as a major in the French Army. 1671:; it extended over 13,500,000 km (5,200,000 sq mi) of land at its height in the 1920s and 1930s. In terms of population however, on the eve of World War II, France and its colonial possessions totaled only 150 million inhabitants, compared with 330 million for 4433:

France's republican government had long been strongly anti-clerical. The Law of Separation of Church and State in 1905 had expelled many religious orders, declared all Church buildings government property, and led to the closing of most Church schools. Since that time, Pope

4396:

nationalism, military power, the maintenance of the empire, and national security. The favourite enemy was the left, especially as represented by socialists. The conservatives were divided on foreign affairs. Several important conservative politicians sustained the journal

4135:. Herriot's party was in fact neither radical nor socialist, rather it represented the interests of small business and the lower middle class. It was intensely anti-clerical and resisted the Catholic Church. The Cartel was occasionally willing to form a coalition with the 3017:

publishing, but it did not cover all of the costs involved and had to be supplemented by secret subsidies from commercial interests that wanted favourable reporting. A new liberal press law of 1881 abandoned the restrictive practices that had been typical for a century.

3404:, the scandal undermined support for the Combes government, and he resigned. It also undermined morale in the army, as officers realized that hostile spies examining their private lives were more important to their careers than their own professional accomplishments. 2886:

of many parties that routinely lost and gained a few allies. Consequently, the change of governments could be seen as little more than a series of ministerial reshuffles, with many individuals carrying forward from one government to the next, often in the same posts.

3235:

middle class, who saw the Church's alliance with the monarchists as a political threat to republicanism, and a threat to the modern spirit of progress. The republicans detested the Church for its political and class affiliations; for them, the Church represented the

4743:

started a correspondence with Blum, sending him a series of letters written in his idiosyncratic French, encouraging him to support rearmament and oppose appeasement. During the Sudetenland crisis of 1938, Daladier accepted the offer of the British Prime Minister

4154:. Taxation policies were inefficient, with widespread evasion, and when the financial crisis grew worse in 1926, Poincaré levied new taxes, reformed the system of tax collection, and drastically reduced government spending to balance the budget and stabilize the 4121:. The Bloc was supported by business and finance and was friendly toward the army and the Church. Its main goals were revenge against Germany, economic prosperity for French business and stability in domestic affairs. On the other hand, there was the left-center 3459:

French diplomacy was largely independent of domestic affairs; economic, cultural and religious interest groups paid little attention to foreign affairs. Permanent professional diplomats and bureaucrats had developed their own traditions of how to operate at the

3703:

Preoccupied with internal problems, France paid little attention to foreign policy in the period between late 1912 and mid-1914, although it did extend military service to three years from two over strong Socialist objections in 1913. The rapidly escalating

4701:

Germany would defeat France in a war unless Britain intervened. The British thought that allowing Germany to defeat France would unacceptably alter the balance of power, and so Britain would have no choice but to intervene if a French-German war broke out.

3496:

French foreign policy was based on a fear of Germany—whose larger size and fast-growing economy could not be matched—combined with a revanchism that demanded the return of Alsace and Lorraine. At the same time, imperialism was a factor. In the midst of the

5677:

1882: Religious instruction was removed from all state schools. The measures were accompanied by the abolition of chaplains in the armed forces and the removal of nuns from hospitals. Due to the fact that France was mainly Roman Catholic, this was greatly

4715:

Unlike Chamberlain, Daladier had no illusions about Hitler's ultimate goals. In fact, he told the British in a late April 1938 meeting that Hitler's real aim was to eventually secure "a domination of the Continent in comparison with which the ambitions of

3509:

arrived. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in

4756:

The Munich Agreement that ended the crisis was a compromise as it was affirmed that the Sudetenland would be transferred to Germany but after only 1 October, albeit on a schedule that favored the German demand to have the Sudetenland "go home to the

3948:

to bypass the censorship. The economy was hurt by the German invasion of major industrial areas in the northeast. Although the occupied area in 1914 contained only 14% of France's industrial workers, it produced 58% of the steel and 40% of the coal.

3085:, which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939, its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid 3775:

France successfully integrated the colonies into its economic system. By 1939, one third of its exports went to its colonies; Paris businessmen invested heavily in agriculture, mining, and shipping. In Indochina, new plantations were opened for

4285:

into a series of concessions to Germany. In total, France received £1600 million from Germany before reparations ended in 1932, but France had to pay war debts to the United States, and thus the net gain was only about £600 million.

4196:

not yet severe, the lottery appealed to charitable impulses, greed, and respect for veterans. These contradictory impulses produced cash that made possible the French welfare state, at the crossroads of philanthropy, market and public sphere.

3230:

among the republicans, monarchists and the authoritarians (such as the Napoleonists). The French clergy and bishops were closely associated with the monarchists and many of its hierarchy were from noble families. Republicans were based in the

5388:

with Renouvin arguing that French society under the Third Republic was "sorely lacking in initiative and dynamism" and Baumont arguing that French politicians had allowed "personal interests" to override "any sense of the general interest".

5650:

returned triumphant, finally killing off the prospect of a restored French monarchy by gaining control of the Senate on 5 January 1879. MacMahon himself resigned on 30 January 1879, leaving a seriously weakened presidency in the shape of

4792:

Complicating matters was the beginning of a major crisis in Italo-French relations. On 30 November 1938 - the same day as the general strike - a carefully staged "spontaneous" demonstration organized by the Italian Foreign Minister Count

1963:

The principles underpinning the Commune were viewed as morally degenerate by French conservatives at large while the government at Versailles sought to maintain the tenuous post-war stability which it had established. In May, the regular

1693:, and the army. In spite of France's sharply divided electorate and persistent attempts to overthrow it, the Third Republic endured for 70 years, which makes it the longest-lasting system of government in France since the collapse of the 4672:

1935 all presented problems from the French viewpoint. Blum's foreign policy was one of attempting to improve relations with Germany to avoid a war while seeking to strengthen France's alliances and to conclude an alliance with Britain.

3188:. In a neighbourhood with few public spaces, it provided a consumer version of the public square. It educated workers to approach shopping as an exciting social activity, not just a routine exercise in obtaining necessities, just as the 3480:

religion was a hotly contested matter in domestic politics, the Catholic Church made missionary work and church building a speciality in the colonies. Most Frenchmen ignored foreign policy; its issues were a low priority in politics.

2157:

and the establishment of a dictatorship. With his base of support in the working districts of Paris and other cities, plus rural traditionalist Catholics and royalists, he promoted an aggressive nationalism aimed against Germany. The

3181:(1882–83) in the typical department store. Zola represented it as a symbol of the new technology that was both improving society and devouring it. The novel describes merchandising, management techniques, marketing, and consumerism. 2819:

Unlike Germany or Britain, the programs were much smaller – for example, pensions were a voluntary plan. Historian Timothy Smith finds French fears of national public assistance programs were grounded in a widespread disdain for the

4297:

The main goal of foreign policy was the diplomatic response to the demands of the French army in the 1920s and 1930s to form alliances against the German threat, especially with Britain and with smaller countries in central Europe.

2153:. An enormously popular general, he won a series of elections in which he would resign his seat in the Chamber of Deputies and run again in another district. At the apogee of his popularity in January 1889, he posed the threat of a 1886:

Legitimists and Orléanists eventually agreed on the childless Comte de Chambord as king, with the Comte de Paris as his heir. This was the expected line of succession for the Comte de Chambord based on France's traditional rule of

115: 5178:

in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France least." France might have agreed about being a republic, but it never fully accepted the Third Republic. France's longest-lasting governmental system since before the 1789

4903:(BEF) to this strategy. Such a strategy also meant that most of the French Army would leave its one-year-old prepared defensive positions in northern France to be committed to joining battle on an unknown Belgian defensive line. 4731:. When Germany has obtained the oil and wheat it needs, she will turn on the West. Certainly we must multiply our efforts to avoid war. But that will not be obtained unless Great Britain and France stick together, intervening in 4954:

had been left intact and was only lightly defended. It was thus quickly captured and exploited by the Germans. Meanwhile, French guns were ordered to limit their firing in case they ran out of ammunition. German Colonel-General

4765:" ("shameful relief") as he wrote that he was happy that France would not be going to war with Germany, but he felt ashamed of an agreement that favored Germany at the expense of Czechoslovakia. On 1 October 1938, Blue wrote in 4735:

for new concessions but declaring at the same time that they will safeguard the independence of Czechoslovakia. If, on the contrary, the Western Powers capitulate again, they will only precipitate the war they wish to avoid."

5673:

on free, mandatory and secular public education, voted in 1881 and 1882, were one of the first sign of this republican control of the Republic, as public education was not any more in the exclusive control of the Catholic

3161:

in Paris in 1838, and by 1852 it offered a wide variety of goods in "departments inside one building." Goods were sold at fixed prices, with guarantees that allowed exchanges and refunds. By the end of the 19th century,

117: 5011:

Historians have debated two themes regarding the sudden collapse of the French government in 1940. One emphasizes a broad cultural and political interpretation, pointing to failures, internal dissension, and a sense of

5735:, was arrested on charges relating to conspiracy and espionage. Allegedly, Dreyfus had handed over important military documents discussing the designs of a new French artillery piece to a German military attaché named 1847:, held in the aftermath when the regime of Napoleon III collapsed, resulted in a monarchist majority in the French National Assembly that favoured a peace agreement with Prussia. Planning to restore the monarchy, the " 4365:

by 17%, and the cost of living rose 46%, so there was little real gain to the average worker. The higher prices for French products resulted in a decline in overseas sales, which the government tried to neutralize by

4502:. Although his tenure was brief during his two tenures in the 1930s as prime minister, his policies played a key role in French policy during the events leading up to World War II. As Prime Minister in the left-wing 2832:

had a national security impact in weakening military recruits, and keeping the population growth rate well below Germany's. There is no evidence to suggest than French life expectancy was lower than that of Germany.

3372:

in France. Then he had parliament reject authorization of all religious orders. This meant that all fifty-four orders in France were banned and about 20,000 members immediately left France, many for Spain. In 1904,

3212:, opening up prestigious job opportunities for young women. Despite the low pay and long hours, they enjoyed the exciting complex interactions with the newest and most fashionable merchandise and upscale customers. 10122:(12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th ed., plus three new volumes 30–31–32 that cover events since 1911 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. Included also in 13th ed., (1926) 3883:, a proto-fascist movement based in the lower middle class, had advocated a war of revenge since the 1880s. The strong socialist movement had long opposed war and preparation for war. However, when its leader 2970:

In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial. The intense political and judicial scandal that ensued divided French society between those who supported Dreyfus (now called "Dreyfusards"), such as

2017:), who was nominally answerable to both the President of the Republic and the legislature. Throughout the 1870s, the issue of whether a monarchy should replace or oversee the republic dominated public debate. 1792:

head of a provisional government, ("head of the executive branch of the Republic pending a decision on the institutions of France"). The new government negotiated a peace settlement with the newly proclaimed

4875:

as unlikely to be attacked and chose to defend it with only ten reserve divisions and few fortifications. Much of the French army was posted further northwest along the Belgian frontier. According to General

3361:

fought with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops. Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals in the years 1903 and 1904, and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs in 1904.

2226: 1997:

sympathies and a noted mistrust of secularists, de MacMahon grew to be increasingly at odds with the French parliament as liberal and secular republicans gained a legislative majority during his presidency.

866: 5283:

stated in one radio broadcast, "The regime led the country to ruin." In another, he said "Our defeat is punishment for our moral failures" that France had "rotted" under the Third Republic. In 1942 the

4356:

law facilitated union growth; membership soared from 1,000,000 to 5,000,000 in one year, and workers' political strength was enhanced when the Communist and non-Communist unions joined. The government

1685:

called republicanism in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France least"; however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood reformist France, heir to the

5567:. In a formal sense, the Paris Commune of 1871 was simply the local authority that exercised power in Paris for two months in the spring of 1871. It was separate from that of the new government under 5825:

1906: It became apparent that the documents handed over to Schwartzkoppen by Dreyfus in 1894 were a forgery and Dreyfus was exonerated after previously being pardoned after serving 5 years in prison.

3075:

War News. A half-zeppelin threw half its bombs on half-time combatants, resulting in one-quarter damaged. The zeppelin, halfways-attacked by a portion of half-anti aircraft guns, was half destroyed."

4712:

April 1938 represented a British "surrender" to the French, rather than a French "surrender" to the British since Daladier made it clear France would not renounce its alliance with Czechoslovakia.

7166: 3288:

became pope in 1878, he tried to calm Church-State relations. In 1884, he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner toward the State ('Nobilissima Gallorum Gens'). In 1892, he issued an

1585:, but growing support for the republican form of government among the French populace and a series of republican presidents in the 1880s gradually quashed prospects of a monarchical restoration. 7135: 4801:

had intended to use what he called "Sudeten methods" on France as the Italian media started a violent anti-French campaign demanding that France cede Corsica, Nice, Savoy and Tunisia to Italy.

3853:

France entered World War I because Russia and Germany were going to war, and France honoured its treaty obligations to Russia. Decisions were all made by senior officials, especially president

6922: 3130:

France went from backward and isolated to modern with a sense of national identity during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He emphasized the roles of railroads, republican schools, and

3035:

to provide world service. The staid old papers retained their loyal clientele because of their concentration on serious political issues. While papers usually gave false circulation figures,

4844:, a facility completely devoid of telephonic or any other electronic links to his commanders in the field: a massive oversight in the face of the Wehrmacht's subsequent swift and flexible ' 1982:("moral order") subsequently came to be applied to the budding Third Republic due to the perceived restoration of conservative policies and values following the suppression of the Commune. 773: 5195:

monarchists progressively rallied themselves to the Republican institutions, thus giving support of a large part of the elites to the Republican form of government. On the other hand, the

5183:, the Third Republic was consigned to the history books as being unloved and unwanted in the end. Yet, its longevity showed that it was capable of weathering many storms, particularly the 5008:(the portions of Czechoslovakia with German-speaking majorities). Intensive rearmament programs began in 1936 and were re-doubled in 1938, but they would only bear fruit in 1939 and 1940. 4224:. The police shot and killed 15 demonstrators. It was one of the major political crises during the Third Republic (1870–1940). Frenchmen on the left feared it was an attempt to organize a 3292:

advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in republican politics ('Au milieu des sollicitudes'). The Liberal Action was founded in 1901 by

3662:

served as the cornerstone of French foreign policy until 1917. A further link with Russia was provided by vast French investments and loans before 1914. In 1904, French foreign minister

5635:. If his hope had been to halt the move towards republicanism, it backfired spectacularly, with the President being accused of having staged a constitutional coup d'état, known as 3789:

sums in Paris to modernize agricultural techniques with tractors and mechanized equipment. The result was a dramatic increase in the export of wheat, corn, peaches, and olive oil.

3184:

The Grands Magasins Dufayel was a huge department store with inexpensive prices built in 1890 in the northern part of Paris, where it reached a very large new customer base in the

4273:. The main goal of French foreign policy was to preserve French power and neutralize the threat posed by Germany. When Germany fell behind in reparations payments in 1923, France 2118:), were voted in 1881 and 1882, one of the first signs of the expanding civic powers of the Republic. From that time onward, the Catholic clergy lost control of public education. 4376:

Most historians judge the Popular Front a failure, although some call it a partial success. There is general agreement that it failed to live up to the expectations of the left.

10154: 5815: 292: 4290:

In the end, the alliances proved worthless. France also constructed a powerful defensive wall in the form of a network of fortresses along its German border. It was called the

4150:

played a central role in strengthening French finances. The government began a large-scale reconstruction program to repair wartime damages, and was burdened with a very large

3400:

The Combes government worked with Masonic lodges to create a secret surveillance of all army officers to make sure that devout Catholics would not be promoted. Exposed as the

3887:, a pacifist, was assassinated at the start of the war, the French socialist movement abandoned its anti-militarist positions and joined the national war effort. President 5761:

The article alleged an anti-Semitic conspiracy in the highest ranks of the military to scapegoat Dreyfus, tacitly supported by the government and the Catholic Church. The

4452:

The Catholic Church expanded its social activities after 1920, especially by forming youth movements. For example, the largest organization of young working women was the

3700:, in which French public opinion was very much on the side of Britain's enemies. Ultimately, the fear of German power was the link that bound Britain and France together. 2909:

and defended by conservatives and Catholic traditionalists against secular centre-left, left and republican forces, including most Jews. In the end, the latter triumphed.

1784:

After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, and national elections were called to elect a new French government.

5967:

The Americans left their heavy weapons at home in order to use the few available transports to send as many soldiers to front as possible in the shortest amount of time.

3433: 2997:

from intellectuals and teachers. It embittered French politics and facilitated the increasing influence of radical politicians on both sides of the political spectrum.

8758:

Downs, Laura Lee (2009). "'Each and every one of you must become a "chef"': Toward a Social Politics of Working-Class Childhood on the Extreme Right in 1930s France".

5288:

was held bringing several leaders of the Third Republic to trial for declaring war on Germany in 1939 and accusing them of not doing enough to prepare France for war.

5016:

that ran through all French society. A second one blames the poor military planning by the French High Command. According to the British historian Julian Jackson, the

3872:

in September 1914 ensured the failure of Germany's strategy to win quickly. It became a long and very bloody war of attrition, but France emerged on the winning side.

4369:

the franc, a measure that led to a reduction in the value of bonds and savings accounts. The overall result was significant damage to the French economy, and a lower

3865:. Not involved in the decision-making were military leaders, arms manufacturers, the newspapers, pressure groups, party leaders, or spokesmen for French nationalism. 12069: 4170: 3654:

French foreign policy in the years leading up to the First World War was based largely on hostility to and fear of German power. France secured an alliance with the

2867:

after the war, and the maintenance of peace through compulsory arbitration, controlled disarmament, economic sanctions, and perhaps an international military force.

4616:'s administration. Surrendering to German custody in 1942, he was imprisoned in Germany and later Austria until liberation in 1945, where he was released after the 5938: 5273:

Proponents of the concept have argued that the French defeat of 1940 was caused by what they regard as the innate decadence and moral rot of France. The notion of

5140:

Throughout its seventy-year history, the Third Republic stumbled from crisis to crisis, from dissolved parliaments to the appointment of a mentally ill president (

4336:

was made possible with an emphasis on unity against fascism. In 1936, the Socialists and the Radicals formed a coalition, with Communist support, to complete it.

11849: 5948: 5262:

civilization appeared in stasis or on a slow decline, according to this thesis. It first made its appearance in the somewhat bizarre and now obscure writings of

12467: 5913: 1729:

A French propaganda poster from 1917 is captioned with an 18th-century quote: "Even in 1788, Mirabeau was saying that War is the National Industry of Prussia."

4239: 6958: 5505: 5489: 5263: 3412: 3134:. He based his findings on school records, migration patterns, military service documents and economic trends. Weber argued that until 1900 or so a sense of 10522: 7415:

Alexander, Martin S.; Keiger, John F. V. (1999). "Defending France: foreign policy and the quest for security, 1850s–1990s". In Alexander, Martin S. (ed.).

6454: 5943: 1816:, which maintained a radical left-wing regime for two months until the Thiers government bloodily suppressed it in May 1871. The ensuing repression of the 7843:

Hautcoeur, Pierre-Cyrille (2005). "Was the Great War a watershed? The economics of World War I in France". In Broadberry, Stephen; Harrison, Mark (eds.).

6428: 5308:(written in 1940, and published posthumously in 1946) argued that the French upper classes had ceased to believe in the greatness of France following the 4887:

Gamelin's own views had changed from a purely defensive strategy relying on the Maginot Line. French strategists predicted a German drive across northern

3420:

badly hurt and lost half its priests. In the long run, however, it gained autonomy; ever after, the State no longer had a voice in choosing bishops, thus

12462: 8203:

Delalande, Nicolas (2017). "Giving and Gambling: The Gueules Cassées, the National Lottery, and the Moral Economy of the Welfare State in 1930s France".

7158: 5243: 4899:, fitted with Belgian defensive plans and also with British objectives. Gamelin committed much of the motorised forces of the French Army and the entire 2804: 1444: 7127: 5338:

blamed the defeat on the "corrupt" and "decadent" capitalist Third Republic (conveniently hiding its own sabotaging of the French war effort during the

3966:

Nevertheless, by 1918 France was producing more munitions and artillery than its allies, while supplying virtually all of the heavy equipment needed by

3063:

and stirring up anti-Semitism. After Dreyfus was pardoned, the Radical government closed down the entire Assumptionist order and its newspaper in 1900.

6317:

Smith, Timothy B. (1997). "The ideology of charity, the image of the English poor law, and debates over the right to assistance in France, 1830–1905".

5808: 5501: 3673: 3345:(1894–1906). Catholics were for the most part anti-Dreyfusard. The Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their journal 2070:. He promised that he would not use his presidential power of dissolution, and therefore lost his control over the legislature, effectively creating a 3917:, with very high casualty rates. It became a war of attrition. Until spring of 1918 there were almost no territorial gains or losses for either side. 3338:, the movement declined from 1908, when it lost the support of Rome. Nevertheless, the ALP remained until 1914 the most important party on the right. 5373: 4708:

stated at a Cabinet meeting in March 1938, "Whether we liked or not, we had to admit the plain fact that we could not afford to see France overrun."

3221: 743: 4962:

In response, Gamelin withdrew forces in this area so that they could defend Paris, thinking this was the Germans' objective, rather than the coast.

3079:

Regional newspapers flourished after 1900. However the Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the war. The major postwar success story was

9973: 4984: 3762:. French administrators, soldiers, and missionaries were dedicated to bringing French civilization to the local populations of these colonies (the 10673:

Lancereau, Guillaume. "For Science and Country: History Writing, Nation Building, and National Embeddedness in Third Republic France, 1870–1914."

10362:

Institutions and Innovation: Voters, Parties, and Interest Groups in the Consolidation of Democracy – France and Germany, 1870–1939

5382:(profound forces) such as the influence of domestic politics on foreign policy. However, Renouvin and his followers still followed the concept of 10879: 10735: 8807:

Whitney, Susan B. (2001). "Gender, Class, and Generation in Interwar French Catholicism: The Case of the Jeunesse Ouvrière Chrétienne Féminine".

5829: 5709: 2931:. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris and sent to the penal colony at 4651:

With the building of the Siegfried Line, it was possible for Germany to invade any of France's Eastern European allies with the majority of the

12407: 5033: 4829: 4474:

Catholics on the far right supported several shrill, but small, groupings that preached doctrines similar to fascism. The most influential was

4417:

Summer camps and youth groups were organized to promote conservative values in working-class families, and help them design a career path. The

3868:

Britain wanted to remain neutral but entered the war when the German army invaded Belgium on its way to Paris. The Anglo-French victory at the

3651:. This alliance with Britain and Russia against Germany and Austria eventually led Russia, Britain, and France to enter World War I as Allies. 3533: 3529: 3525: 3368:, when elected Prime Minister in 1902, was determined to defeat Catholicism thoroughly. After only a short while in office, he closed down all 7978:

Ingram, Norman (2016). "Le creuset de la guerre: La Ligue des droits de l'homme et le débat sur "les conditions d'une paix durable" en 1916".

12175: 11741: 8641:

Hurcombe, Martin (2011). "Heroes of the Republic, heroes of the revolution: French communist reportage of the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1938".

5933: 5398:

that offered a total condemnation of the entire Third Republic as weak, cowardly and degenerate. Even more so then in France, the concept of

3524:

France had colonies in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a possible ally. At Japan's request, Paris sent military missions in

3505:

of 1898 when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the

3304:. From the Church's perspective, its mission was to express the political ideals and new social doctrines embodied in Leo's 1891 encyclical " 2627: 2101: 1801:

signed on 10 May 1871. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of financial laws, such as the controversial

1566: 1267: 5772:

is founded and remained the most important party of the Third Republic starting at the end of the 19th century. The same year, followers of

10793: 2093: 2083: 2043: 5623:, himself a monarchist, made one last desperate attempt to salvage the monarchical cause by dismissing the republic-minded Prime Minister 4192:

unemployment peaked under 5%, and the fall in production was at most 20% below the 1929 output. In addition, there was no banking crisis.

3341:

The attempt at improving the relationship with republicans failed. Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the

1725: 235: 12382: 10788: 8982: 8844:

Newsome, W. Brian (2011). "French Catholics, Women, and the Home: The Founding Generation of the Jeunesse ouvrière chrétienne féminine".

6017: 4837: 10667: 3772:

were unattached men committed to staying permanently, learning local languages and customs, and converting the natives to Christianity.

2858:, founded in 1901 as the "Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party" ("Parti républicain, radical et radical-socialiste"). It was 10688: 10436: 6931: 5928: 5057: 4900: 6092: 2033:

1877, attempting to quell the Republicans' rising popularity and limit their political influence through a series of actions known as

12457: 11514: 10889: 10505: 7192:

Martin, Benjamin F. (1976). "The Creation of the Action Libérale Populaire: An Example of Party Formation in Third Republic France".

5068:, a broken and heavily forested terrain that had been believed to be impassable to armoured units. The Germans also rushed along the 3830: 3688:

of 1905 and 1911, and by secret military and naval staff talks. Delcassé's rapprochement with Britain was controversial in France as

1844: 6405:

Shapiro, Ann-Louise (1980). "Private Rights, Public Interest, and Professional Jurisdiction: The French Public Health Law of 1902".

3768:). Some French businessmen went overseas, but there were few permanent settlements. The Catholic Church became deeply involved. Its 9485: 4080: 4038:

in 1919. Germany was largely disarmed and forced to take full responsibility for the war, meaning that it was expected to pay huge

1667:

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the French colonial empire was the second largest colonial empire in the world only behind the

5516:

had on French rearmament and had nothing to do with French leaders being too "decadent" and cowardly to stand up to Nazi Germany.

4173:. They reported the improvement of financial markets, the brilliance of the post-war literature and the revival of public morale. 3021:, introduced in the 1860s, facilitated quick turnaround time and cheaper publication. New types of popular newspapers, especially 2189:. Plagued by disease, death, inefficiency, and widespread corruption, and its troubles covered up by bribed French officials, the 1612:, all of them acquired during the last two decades of the 19th century. The early years of the 20th century were dominated by the 11340: 10744: 5901: 4529:

became head of government on 10 April 1938, orienting his government towards the centre and ending the Popular Front. Along with

4252: 2797: 1437: 9876:

Jackson, Peter (2006). "Post-War Politics and the Historiography of French Strategy and Diplomacy Before the Second World War".

5658:

1880: The Jesuits and several other religious orders were dissolved, and their members were forbidden to teach in state schools.

5469:

thesis include Talbot Imlay, Anthony Adamthwaite, Serge Berstein, Michael Carely, Nicole Jordan, Igor Lukes, and Richard Crane.

5427:, where the French defeat is explained as the result of the moral weakness and cowardice of the French leaders.Shirer portrayed 12452: 11889: 11874: 11791: 7051:

Rigoulot, Philippe (2009). "Protestants and the French nation under the Third Republic: Between recognition and assimilation".

6544: 4797:

took place in the Italian Chamber of Deputies where on cue all of the deputies rose up to shout "Tunis, Corsica, Nice, Savoy!"

2163:

fall of Boulanger severely undermined the conservative and royalist elements within France; they would not recover until 1940.

90: 6511:

Stone, Judith F. (1988). "The Radicals and the Interventionist State: Attitudes, Ambiguities and Transformations, 1880–1910".

4785:

In an attempt to improve productivity in the French armament industry, especially its aviation industry, the Finance Minister

3929:. A consensus among soldiers agreed to resist any German attacks, but to postpone French attacks until the Americans arrived. 11642: 11084: 10410: 10086: 10048: 10018: 9941: 9911: 9866: 9841: 9806: 9738: 9711: 9410: 9361: 9317: 8896: 8514: 8171: 8056: 7852: 7819: 7752: 7704: 7620: 7305: 7276: 7240: 6896: 6871: 6764: 6735: 6607: 6582: 6068: 5918: 5604:

Feb 1875: Series of parliamentary Acts established the organic or constitutional laws of the new republic. At its apex was a

3875:

French intellectuals welcomed the war to avenge the humiliation of defeat and loss of territory in 1871. At the grass roots,

2447: 1569:

to serve as head of state. Calls for the re-establishment of the monarchy dominated the tenures of the first two presidents,

1087: 5300:

of democracy") had had 103 cabinets with an average length of eight months, and that 15 former prime ministers were living.

3825: 12273: 7876:

Bostrom, Alex (2016). "Fournissant le front: La production de l'artillerie française pendant la Première Guerre mondiale".

7529:

Otte, T. G. (2006). "From "War-in-Sight" to Nearly War: Anglo–French Relations in the Age of High Imperialism, 1875–1898".

4169:

Foreign observers in the 1920s noted the excesses of the French upper classes, but emphasized the rapid re-building of the

1972:

and the Versailles government, marched on Paris and succeeded in dismantling the Commune during what would become known as

10502:

France: 1848–1945: Politics and Anger; Anxiety and Hypocrisy; Taste and Corruption; Intellect and Pride; Ambition and Love

10202: 7581:

Armaments and politics in France on the eve of the First World War: The Introduction of Three-year Conscription, 1913–1914

4704:

The alliance would have turned any German attack on Czechoslovakia into a French–German war. As British Foreign Secretary

3251: 1785: 12397: 11996: 11759: 11415: 11405: 10728: 6126:

Kale, Steven D. (1988). "The Monarchy According to the King: The Ideological Content of the 'Drapeau Blanc,' 1871–1873".

5923: 3437: 2565: 1912: 1205: 9378: 8707: 2058:

subsequently accused by Republicans and their sympathizers of attempting a constitutional coup d'état, which he denied.

11844: 11165: 11041: 10563: 10422: 10176: 8523: 5423: 5349:

called the Third Republic a "weak" regime and argued that if France had a regime headed by a strong-man president like

4510:(1936–1939) to avoid the civil conflict spilling over into France itself. Once out of office in 1938, he denounced the 3962:

have important reverberations after the war, as it would be a first breach of liberal theories of non-interventionism.

2790: 2002: 1554: 1430: 10233: 10123: 8180: 4891:, as in 1914. Gamelin favoured an aggressive advance northward to meet the attacking German forces in Belgium and the 12387: 11816: 11801: 11220: 11148: 11114: 10584: 10336: 10243: 10140: 9991: 8953: 7954: 7014:

McBride, Theresa M. (1978). "A Woman's World: Department Stores and the Evolution of Women's Employment, 1870–1920".

6914:"Warenhausunternehmen und ihre Gründer in Frankreich und Deutschland oder: eine diskrete Elite und mancherlei Mythen" 6011: 5841: 5257:

The topic of the "decadence" of French institutions and France arose as a historiographical debate at the end of the

4637: 4454: 2726: 1366: 414: 4506:

government in 1936–1937, he provided a series of major economic and social reforms. Blum declared neutrality in the

3821: 2024:

In France from 1871 to the end of World War I in 1918, schoolchildren were taught not to forget the lost regions of

1765:(19 September 1870 – 28 January 1871). As Paris was cut off from the rest of unoccupied France, the Minister of War 12412: 12084: 11925: 11879: 6392:

Every Child a Lion: The Origins of Maternal & Infant Health Policy in the United States & France, 1890–1920

5632: 4748:

to serve as a "honest broker" in an attempt to find a compromise. Chamberlain met with Adolf Hitler at a summit at

4340: 3676:, the British Foreign Secretary, an agreement that ended a long period of Anglo-French tensions and hostility. The 3635:

In an effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Russia and Great Britain, first by means of the

2855: 2679: 2159: 2062: 1917:

Chambord believed the restored monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution (most famously including the

1319: 6916:[Department store firms and their founders in France and Germany, or: a discreet elite and various myths] 5089: 4324:

In 1920, the socialist movement split, with the majority forming the French Communist Party. The minority, led by

3548:. The treaty ending the war put France in a protectorate over northern and central Vietnam, which it divided into 12477: 12472: 8280: 5886: 5881: 2748: 2466: 1388: 1106: 10546: 6450: 5512:, who argued that French weakness on the international stage was due to structural factors as the impact of the 5459:

as a petty politician controlled by his mistress, Countess Hélène de Portes. Modern historians who subscribe to

5093: 4810:

was called, and the Socialists did not vote for a Communist motion of no-confidence in the Daladier government.

4580:. Daladier remained Minister of Defence until 19 May, when Reynaud took over the portfolio personally after the 4103:, France was governed by two main groupings of political alliances. On the one hand, there was the right-center 2901:

miscarriage of justice in which a central role was played by the press and public opinion. At issue was blatant

1879:

lost legitimacy due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of the

12377: 12104: 11679: 11058: 11053: 10721: 10222: 6835: 6424: 5781: 5534: 5156:

in 1944, few called for a restoration of the Third Republic, and a Constituent Assembly was established by the

4648:

should invade any of France's allies in Eastern Europe, namely Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia.

4608: 3794: 3385:

protested at this recognition of the Italian State. Combes reacted strongly and recalled his ambassador to the

2879: 1948: 1868: 1754: 1613: 10635: 10464: 8327:

Jordan, Nicole (2002). "The Reorientation of French Diplomacy in the mid-1920s: the Role of Jacques Seydoux".

5497: 2125:

were broken up and sold in 1885. Only a few crowns were kept, their precious gems replaced by coloured glass.

12402: 12027: 11647: 11588: 11583: 11068: 5736: 5313:

shortsighted military strategy, and, finally, facilitated German victory in June 1940. The French journalist

4931: 4739:

Despite being on the opposite sides of the ideological divide, starting on 14 April 1938 the Conservative MP

3967: 3848: 3608: 3349:. This infuriated republican politicians, who were eager to take revenge. Often they worked in alliance with 3281:

society. Civil marriage became compulsory, divorce was introduced, and chaplains were removed from the army.

2743: 2736: 2721: 2709: 2694: 2496: 2185:

of 1892, regarded as the largest financial fraud of the 19th century, involved a failed attempt to build the

1383: 1376: 1361: 1349: 1334: 1136: 489: 69: 11669: 5713: 5099:

The Third Republic officially ended on 10 July 1940, when the French parliament gave full powers to Marshal

4664:, it was the unanimous opinion of all French foreign policy and military experts that France needed allies. 4269:, when his promises that the United States would sign a defence treaty with France and join the League were 12355: 12094: 11573: 11410: 11129: 10974: 10848: 5717: 5609: 5538: 4861: 4761:" as soon as possible. When the Munich Agreement was signed on 30 September 1938, Blum wrote that he felt " 4270: 3904: 3658:

in 1894 after diplomatic talks between Germany and Russia had failed to produce any working agreement. The

3549: 3378: 3023: 2006: 1558: 804: 9854:

The Last Battle: When U.S. and German Soldiers Joined Forces in the Waning Hours of World War II in Europe

5868: 2419: 1628:

to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, between the Democratic Republican Alliance and the

1059: 12212: 11932: 11806: 11796: 11544: 11385: 11333: 11245: 11004: 10935: 9605: 8643: 7911: 5583: 5465:

argument or take a very critical view of France's pre-1940 leadership without necessarily subscribing to

5451:(whom Shirer represented as France's most influential intellectual) as the preacher of "drivel"; Marshal 4093: 3914: 3553: 2716: 2005:. At its head was a President of the Republic. A two-chamber parliament consisting of a directly elected 1356: 10656: 8914:, p. 3. The Blum family has always pronounced its name in a way that indicates its Alsatian origin. 7697:

Revanche and Revision: The Ligue des Patriotes and the Origins of the Radical Right in France, 1882–1900

5439:

as a reactionary soldier more interested in destroying the Third Republic than in defending it; General

5279:

as an explanation for the defeat began almost as soon as the armistice was signed in June 1940. Marshal

4058:, Germany's ally during World War I that also collapsed at the end of the conflict, France acquired the 3197:

at reasonable cost. The latest technology was featured, such as cinemas and exhibits of inventions like

3147: 12123: 12044: 11811: 11721: 11700: 11400: 11390: 11380: 11036: 11009: 9699: 6625: 5619:

May 1877: with public opinion swinging heavily in favour of a republic, the President of the Republic,

5545: 5334:

was widely embraced by different French political fractions as a way of discrediting their rivals. The

4946:

aerial bombardment. Although almost all the crossings over the Meuse were destroyed by the French, one

4182: 4028: 3817: 2947: 2731: 2699: 2674: 2234: 2206: 1798: 1762: 1371: 1339: 1314: 874: 846: 10653:

France reviews its revolutionary origins: social politics and historical opinion in the Third Republic

4856:, who advanced a mere 8 km (5.0 mi). They stopped even before reaching Germany's unfinished 3118:

France was a rural nation, and the peasant farmer was the typical French citizen. In his seminal book

1808:

In Paris, resentment built against the government from late March through May 1871. Paris workers and

12392: 12303: 12059: 11974: 11947: 11864: 11659: 11504: 10874: 9852: 8809: 8760: 7016: 6985:

Wemp, Brian (2011). "Social Space, Technology, and Consumer Culture at the Grands Magasins Dufayel".

6798: 6229: 5509: 4136: 4063: 4011: 3926: 3869: 3227: 3226:

Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic (1870–1940), there were battles over the status of the

2928: 2300: 2243: 2097: 1973: 1690: 940: 883: 208: 6085:"The Night the Old Regime Ended: August 4, 1789 and the French Revolution By Michael P. Fitzsimmons" 5784:, which became the main center-right party after World War I and the parliamentary disappearance of 5092:, which was signed on 22 June 1940 in the same railway carriage in which the Germans had signed the 4723:

Daladier went on to say, "Today, it is the turn of Czechoslovakia. Tomorrow, it will be the turn of

3985:

To uplift the French national spirit, many intellectuals began to fashion patriotic propaganda. The

3692:

was prominent around the start of the 20th century, sentiments that had been much reinforced by the

1927: 12447: 12442: 12437: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12417: 11884: 11854: 11459: 11235: 10901: 10836: 9929: 9127:

Aulach, Harindar "Britain and the Sudeten Issue, 1938: The Evolution of a Policy" pp. 233–259 from

4600: 4499: 4221: 4043: 3580: 3256: 3209: 3173:

The French gloried in the national prestige brought by the great Parisian stores. The great writer

2262: 2142: 1852: 902: 9655:(1998). "Forgotten Words and Faded Images: American Journalists before the Fall of France, 1940". 5837: 4422: 2193:

went bankrupt. Its stock became worthless, and ordinary investors lost close to a billion francs.

12140: 12022: 11969: 11915: 11869: 11558: 11298: 11288: 11230: 11170: 11016: 10843: 10826: 5796: 5743: 5666: 5647: 5369: 5353:

before 1940, the defeat could have been avoided. In power, they did exactly that and started the

4147: 4059: 3943: 3739: 3731: 3663: 3659: 3636: 3600: 3465: 3354: 2704: 2689: 2684: 2377: 1809: 1506:

The early days of the French Third Republic were dominated by political disruption caused by the

1344: 1329: 1324: 1017: 143: 9603:

Zahniser, Marvin R. (1987). "The French Connection: Thirty Years of French-American Relations".

9427: 9021: 7595: 6623:

Wilson, Stephen (1976). "Antisemitism and Jewish Response in France during the Dreyfus Affair".

4841: 2409: 1049: 212: 12245: 12207: 12165: 12150: 11942: 11764: 11664: 11326: 11089: 11026: 10809: 10355:

Reconciling France Against Democracy: the Croix de feu and the Parti social français, 1927–1945

8846: 8731: 8533: 8190: 8092: 7811: 7268: 6987: 6727: 6719: 6675:

Collins, Ross F. (2001). "The Business of Journalism in Provincial France during World War I".

5896: 5769: 5721: 5335: 5309: 5165: 5161: 5061: 4617: 4581: 4503: 4315: 4205: 4140: 4132: 4104: 4047: 3974: 3835: 3751: 3721: 3629: 3564: 3501:, French and British interest in Africa came into conflict. The most dangerous episode was the 3311: 3131: 2637: 2516: 2054: 2020: 1932: 1629: 1589: 1547: 1500: 1277: 1156: 627: 349: 204: 75: 10375:

Passmore, Kevin (1993). "The French Third Republic: Stalemate Society or Cradle of Fascism?".

10102: 8886: 8729:

Kennedy, Sean (2008). "The End of Immunity? Recent Work on the Far Right in Interwar France".

8290: 8163: 6001: 12170: 12160: 11952: 11776: 11619: 11175: 11031: 10853: 10705:

The constitutions and other select documents illustrative of the history of France, 1789–1901

10433:

Schism and solidarity in social movements: The politics of labor in the French third republic

9388: 9353: 8680:"Fighting for the Unknown Soldier: The Contested Territory of the French Nation in 1934–1938" 7946: 6088: 5354: 5224: 4604: 4449:(1924), many areas of dispute were tacitly settled and a bearable coexistence made possible. 4409: 4398: 4379:

Politically, the Popular Front fell apart over Blum's refusal to intervene vigorously in the

4353: 4328:, kept the name Socialist, and by 1932 greatly outnumbered the disorganized Communists. When 4166:

did not occur. From 1926 to 1929, the French economy prospered and manufacturing flourished.

3764: 3735: 3709: 3681: 3644: 3536:

to help modernize the Japanese army. Conflicts with China over Indochina climaxed during the

3416: 3248:

continued in operation, but in 1881, the government cut off salaries to priests it disliked.

3166:, a French credit merchant, had served up to three million customers and was affiliated with 2647: 2476: 1888: 1533: 1287: 1116: 9796: 8155: 7260: 6913: 6833:

Margadant, Ted W. (1979). "French Rural Society in the Nineteenth Century: A Review Essay".

6058: 5060:

moved in Belgium to meet Army Group B, the German Army Group A outflanked the Allies at the

4660:

could field along with the greater size of the German economy. To even the odds against the

3862: 3037: 2138: 1632:. The government fell less than a year after the outbreak of World War II, when Nazi forces 12195: 11736: 11674: 11563: 11454: 11180: 11099: 11094: 10814: 10454:

The Discovery of France: A Historical Geography, from the Revolution to the First World War

10095: 9934:

Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: A History of Christianity in the 19th and 20th Century

9756: 8090:(2002). "Out of the Ashes: The American Press and France's Postwar Recovery in the 1920s". 7613:

An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the Making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914

7096:"Church, State, and Education in France From the Falloux to the Ferry Laws: A Reassessment" 7060: 6956:

Amelinckx, Frans C. (1995). "The Creation of Consumer Society in Zola's Ladies' Paradise".

6227:

Mazgaj, Paul (1987). "The Origins of the French Radical Right: A Historiographical Essay".

6084: 5845: 5785: 5703: 5598: 5526: 5296: 5258: 5153: 4877: 4641: 4217: 4209: 4035: 3937: 3473: 3346: 3053: 3028: 2953: 2859: 2848: 2526: 2252: 2190: 2100:) who supported moderate social and political changes to nurture the new regime, such as a 2071: 1892: 1742: 1543: 1523: 1480: 1166: 892: 701: 549: 459: 358: 346: 131: 10529:

Sexual Moralities in France, 1780–1980: New Ideas on the Family, Divorce and Homosexuality

10090: 5571:. The regime came to an end after a bloody suppression by Thiers's government in May 1871. 5152:

saw much political strife with a growing rift between the right and the left. When France

5084:, the Allies were defeated in stunning fashion. France had to accept the terms imposed by 5024:

was destined for failure, since it drastically miscalculated the ensuing attack by German

3222:

Martin of Tours § Revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin in the Third Republic

1510:

of 1870–1871, which the French Third Republic continued to wage after the fall of Emperor

8: 12278: 12235: 12155: 12109: 11986: 11979: 11959: 11920: 11832: 11624: 11593: 11568: 11534: 11436: 11431: 11160: 10969: 10923: 10894: 10240:

A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930

8257:

Colton, Joel (1969). "Politics and economics in the 1930s". In Warner, Charles K. (ed.).

5700:'s bombing at the National Assembly, killing nobody but injuring one, deputies voted the 5620: 5605: 5579:, angering the Monarchists in the Assembly. As a result, he was forced to resign in 1873. 5530: 5004:

and appeased the Germans by giving in to their demands concerning the acquisition of the

4745: 4697: 4625: 4530: 3880: 3876: 3805: 3755: 3680:, which functioned as an informal Anglo-French alliance, was further strengthened by the 3541: 3498: 3018: 2486: 2395: 2334: 2324: 2122: 1986: 1985:

De MacMahon, his popularity bolstered by his victory over the Commune, was later elected

1969: 1965: 1944: 1856: 1734: 1609: 1580: 1507: 1484: 1126: 1035: 974: 964: 604: 372: 196: 10703: 7064: 5777: 5428: 5206: 4526: 4475: 4357: 4114: 3888: 3854: 3334: 3316:

was the parliamentary group from which the ALP political party emerged, adding the word

3170:, a large French department store established in 1870 by a former Bon Marché executive. 2875: 1761:

to serve as its president. This first government of the Third Republic ruled during the

1718: 55: 12190: 12135: 12089: 11937: 11903: 11487: 11293: 11260: 11225: 11104: 11021: 10999: 10979: 10945: 10459:

Sawyer, Stephen W. "A Fiscal Revolution: Statecraft in France's Early Third Republic."

10447: 10312: 9664: 9622: 8826: 8777: 8699: 8660: 8584: 8563: 8433: 8371: 8136: 8101: 8040: 8022: 7788: 7546: 7209: 7076: 7033: 6844: 6815: 6700: 6642: 6493: 6334: 6299: 6246: 5665:

were pushed out of power, and the Republic was finally governed by republicans, called

5638: 5230: 4717: 4554: 4274: 4122: 4110: 4015: 4007: 3991: 3933: 3918: 3576: 3401: 3397:

financing and a stronger network of newspapers, but had far fewer seats in parliament.

3135: 2980: 2034: 1908: 1899:

was recognised. Consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord.

1758: 1605: 433: 335: 138: 10713: 10192: 8416:

Schuker, Stephen A. (1986). "France and the Remilitarization of the Rhineland, 1936".

6060:

Religion, Politics and Preferment in France since 1890: La Belle Époque and its Legacy

5452: 5280: 5100: 4884:

commander, France had more and better tanks than Germany, but chose to disperse them.

4680:

Daladier's last government was in power at the time of the negotiations preceding the

4282: 4128: 3909:

After the French army successfully defended Paris in 1914, the conflict became one of

2984: 2149:

In 1889, the Republic was rocked by a sudden political crisis precipitated by General

1788:

at the time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected

1651: 445: 12336: 12318: 12313: 12298: 12283: 12222: 12185: 12099: 12032: 12010: 11991: 11859: 11786: 11609: 11509: 11395: 11375: 11352: 11280: 11265: 11141: 11109: 11063: 10603: 10580: 10494: 10418: 10332: 10324: 10316: 10082: 10044: 10014: 9997: 9987: 9937: 9907: 9891: 9862: 9837: 9820: 9812: 9802: 9772: 9764: 9734: 9707: 9406: 9357: 9345: 9313: 9149: 8949: 8892: 8830: 8781: 8703: 8664: 8628:

Léon Blum, French Socialism, and the Popular Front: A Case of Internal Contradictions

8510: 8389:

Salerno, Reynolds M. (1997). "The French Navy and the Appeasement of Italy, 1937–9".

8375: 8243: 8167: 8156: 8052: 8045: 8026: 7950: 7848: 7815: 7792: 7748: 7700: 7647: 7616: 7550: 7301: 7272: 7261: 7236: 7080: 6967: 6892: 6867: 6760: 6731: 6704: 6692: 6646: 6603: 6578: 6540:"The Official Philosophy of the French Third Republic: Leon Bourgeois and Solidarism" 6497: 6476:

Halpern, Avner (2002). "Freemasonry and party building in late 19th-Century France".

6338: 6064: 6007: 5628: 5587: 5493: 5418: 5376:, that started a new type of international history to take into what Renouvin called 5358: 5350: 5314: 5248:

The Representatives of Foreign Powers Coming to Greet the Republic as a Sign of Peace

5220: 5180: 5120: 5116: 5077: 4997: 4911: 4740: 4507: 4380: 4345: 4303: 4281:, who viewed reparations as impossible to pay successfully, pressured French Premier 4262: 3572: 3415:. This law was heavily supported by Combes, who had been strictly enforcing the 1901 3087: 2932: 2864: 2456: 2355: 2215: 2150: 1686: 1637: 1597: 1096: 995: 855: 523: 284: 10560:

Legislating the French Family: Feminism, Theater, and Republican Politics: 1870–1920

10182: 8932: 7326: 5616:, who was nominally answerable to both the President of the Republic and Parliament. 5168:(1946 to 1958) that December, a parliamentary system not unlike the Third Republic. 4294:

and was trusted to compensate for the heavy manpower losses of the First World War.

4229: 2976: 2840: 2154: 1757:

as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General

12250: 12202: 12074: 12049: 11539: 11275: 11155: 10950: 10884: 10831: 10773: 10384: 10304: 10162: 10114: 9887: 9614: 9439: 8855: 8818: 8769: 8740: 8691: 8652: 8555: 8487: 8460: 8425: 8398: 8363: 8336: 8239: 8212: 8128: 8014: 7987: 7938: 7920: 7885: 7780: 7768: 7538: 7484: 7201: 7107: 7068: 7025: 6996: 6807: 6688: 6684: 6634: 6553: 6520: 6485: 6326: 6291: 6264: 6238: 6135: 5802: 5762: 5697: 5682: 5670: 5669:

as they were in favour of moderate changes to firmly establish the new regime. The

5576: 5513: 5408:

often described the Third Republic as a tottering regime on the verge of collapse.

5339: 4971: 4823: 4798: 4681: 4588: 4542: 4534: 4443: 4278: 4213: 4188: 4027:

States beginning in the summer of 1918. Peace terms were imposed on Germany by the

3808:

in 1926, and Indochina in 1930, all of which the colonial army quickly suppressed.

3759: 3693: 3668: 3640: 3596: 3584: 3568: 3545: 3506: 3502: 3448: 3369: 3241: 3232: 2820: 2429: 2109: 2105: 2010: 1896: 1880: 1872: 1601: 1593: 1562: 1069: 575: 474: 11712: 11551: 8005:

Stevenson, David (1979). "French war aims and the American challenge, 1914–1918".

5773: 4404: 3237: 3158: 2946:

Two years later, evidence came to light that identified a French Army major named

2871: 2596: 2401: 1836: 1766: 1750: 1696: 1236: 1041: 12345: 12308: 12293: 12288: 12230: 12145: 11705: 11446: 11255: 11250: 10918: 10778: 10758: 10478: 10342: 10128: 10036: 10024: 9968: 9947: 9917: 9878: 9780: 9744: 9717: 9652: 9367: 8987: 8087: 7960: 7858: 7825: 7710: 6793: 6752: 6357: 5891: 5875: 5849: 5848:, abandoned its antimilitarist positions and joined the national war effort. The 5756: 5690: 5477: 5448: 5440: 5405: 5362: 5200: 5184: 5076:

coast to catch the Allies in a large pocket that forced them into the disastrous

5073: 5021: 4833: 4819: 4613: 4479: 4370: 4159: 4151: 4118: 4100: 4075: 4039: 3697: 3537: 3461: 3408: 3163: 2989: 2585: 2182: 2176: 2025: 1990: 1860: 1825: 1770: 1746: 1633: 1462: 1225: 270: 107: 36: 11691: 9310:

Britain, France and Appeasement: Anglo-French Relations in the Popular Front Era

5862: 4895:, as far removed from French territory as possible. This strategy, known as the 3892: 3858: 3488: 3374: 3358: 3006: 2547: 1187: 12268: 12263: 12255: 12079: 12037: 11614: 11199: 11046: 10928: 10913: 10821: 10783: 10639: 10610: 10173: 9899: 8822: 8616: 7784: 7228: 6638: 6054: 5732: 5728: 5594: 5568: 5436: 5432: 5267: 5251: 5214: 5171: 5141: 5001: 4956: 4857: 4853: 4794: 4774: 4685: 4515: 4460: 4361: 4266: 4055: 4019: 3910: 3790: 3781: 3655: 3648: 3604: 3390: 3342: 3245: 3167: 3060: 3048: 2972: 2924: 2917: 2895: 2780: 2366: 2014: 1919: 1789: 1714: 1709: 1680: 1668: 1572: 1488: 1420: 1006: 391: 288: 61: 9154:

The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940

8695: 8491: 8402: 8367: 8340: 8018: 7542: 7072: 6558: 6539: 6489: 6330: 5833: 5652: 4805:

integrity against Italy was politically difficult. At the next session of the

4414:

with its prestigious past and sharp articles, was a major conservative organ.

3884: 3265:

Republicans feared that religious orders in control of schools—especially the

2067: 12371: 12350: 12180: 11964: 11652: 11192: 11187: 10858: 10768: 10308: 10107: 9858: 8983:"World War II's Strangest Battle: When Americans and Germans Fought Together" 8859: 8679: 8656: 8216: 7991: 7889: 7692: 7651: 7638: 7293: 7256: 7000: 6971: 6696: 5906: 5564: 5557: 5294:

in 1940, before the defeat of France, reported that the Third Republic ("the

5175: 5145: 5081: 5069: 5053: 4951: 4749: 4349: 4333: 4085: 3726: 3685: 3621: 3350: 3329: 3305: 3297: 3270: 3185: 3031:), a telegraphic news service with a network of reporters and contracts with 2936: 2923:

The affair began in November 1894 with the conviction for treason of Captain

2902: 2765: 2506: 1957: 1813: 1794: 1672: 1519: 1515: 1405: 1146: 729: 715: 667: 510: 403: 355: 343: 328: 250: 237: 10634:(2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars 10536:

Women and the Second World War in France, 1939–1948: choices and constraints

10482: 10166: 10001: 9721: 9443: 9371: 8744: 7964: 7862: 7829: 6354:

The Divided Path: The German Influence on Social Reform in France After 1870

5750: 5686: 5325:

indicted the pre-war leadership for what he regarded as total incompetence.

4438:

had sought a rapprochement, but it was not achieved until the reign of Pope

3174: 2964: 12064: 11769: 11726: 11526: 11497: 10346: 10028: 9951: 9921: 9784: 9748: 9481: 7924: 7906: 7714: 7351: 6811: 6361: 5819: 5789: 5456: 5444: 5435:

as a corrupt opportunist even willing to do a deal with the Nazis; Marshal

5291: 5108: 5085: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5025: 4979: 4786: 4705: 4693: 4596: 4577: 4569: 4546: 4538: 4519: 4418: 4344:

on labour law changes sought by the trade unions, especially the mandatory

4291: 4234: 4155: 3365: 3325: 3293: 3096: 2824: 2614: 2345: 2186: 2114: 1876: 1738: 1737:

of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France and the overthrow of Emperor

1655: 1621: 1511: 1496: 1492: 1254: 985: 790: 759: 655: 588: 562: 9824: 9776: 6003:

Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia

5404:

was accepted in the English-speaking world, where British historians such

4595:

proposals for the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. After the outbreak of

4495: 4325: 4319: 3300:, former monarchists who switched to republicanism at the request of Pope 2051: 1943:

Following the French surrender to Prussia in January 1871, concluding the

1864: 11731: 11634: 11479: 11307: 11270: 11240: 11204: 11135: 11120: 10964: 10470: 10388: 10369:

To Be a Citizen: The Political Culture of the Early French Third Republic

9792: 6524: 6139: 5662: 5624: 5342:

and its opposition to the "imperialist war" against Germany in 1939–40).

5124: 5005: 4975: 4926: 4892: 4689: 4621: 4592: 4550: 4511: 4435: 4366: 4332:

told French Communists to collaborate with others on the left in 1934, a

3958: 3747: 3705: 3689: 3560: 3469: 3421: 3382: 3277: 3194: 3123: 3103: 2959: 2906: 2844: 2609: 2047: 1994: 1848: 1641: 1625: 1617: 1249: 818: 536: 483: 468: 303: 10517:

Campbell, Caroline. "Gender and Politics in Interwar and Vichy France."

9668: 9430:[French writers and the notion of decadence from 1870 to 1914]. 8464: 8105: 7112: 7095: 4938:

The German wing that attacked further south was able to cross the River

3696:

of 1898, in which Britain and France had almost gone to war, and by the

12240: 11469: 10940: 10906: 10295:

Hanson, Stephen E (2010). "The Founding of the French Third Republic".

9761:

France Under the Republic: The Development of Modern France (1870–1939)

9626: 8140: 6848: 6819: 6177: 5301: 5285: 5196: 4849: 4845: 4573: 4561: 4143:

on the left and royalists on the right, played relatively minor roles.

4054:, were partitioned between France and Britain. From the remains of the 3973:

In the end the damages caused by the war amounted to about 113% of the

3769: 3518: 3289: 3202: 3080: 2282: 2089: 2066:

resigned on 30 January 1879 to be succeeded by the moderate Republican

2013:

was created, along with a ministry under the President of the council (

1952: 1819: 1773:, and established the provisional republican government in the city of 1689:. On the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the 922: 152: 10250:

France and the Nazi Threat: The Collapse of French Diplomacy 1932–1939

10178:

The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France

9984:

How war came: the immediate origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939

8923:

Sévillia, Jean, Histoire Passionnée de la France, Perrin, 2013, p. 416

8567: 8437: 7213: 7037: 6303: 6269:

The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914

6250: 5211:

in 1898. This far-right monarchist movement became influential in the

4852:, apart from a few French divisions crossing the German border in the 4773:

he knew to be a reluctant appeaser - but rather the Foreign Minister,

4591:

of September 1938, when France and the United Kingdom gave way before

4576:

led to Daladier's resignation on 21 March 1940 and his replacement by

2878:, who would become President of the Council in the 1920s, created the 11578: 10955: 10475:

Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914

5591: 5586:, a conservative Roman Catholic, was made President of the Republic. 5346: 5192: 5017: 4943: 4896: 4656:

Germany as France could only field a third of the young men that the

4652: 4163: 3625: 3321: 3189: 2854:

The most important party of the early 20th century in France was the

298: 9618: 8132: 3940:

imposed, leading to the creation in 1915 of the satirical newspaper

1989:

in May 1873 and would hold the office until January 1879. A staunch

10664:

The Third Republic in France, 1870–1940: conflicts and continuities

10620:(1940), pp 269–30 summarizes published memoirs by main participants 10598:

French Women and the First World War: War Stories of the Home Front

10553:

Debating the woman question in the French Third Republic, 1870–1920

10137:

The Third Republic in France, 1870–1940: Conflicts and Continuities

8888:

Action Française: Royalism and Reaction in Twentieth Century France

8773: 8559: 8429: 8230:

Millington, Chris (2012). "Political Violence in Interwar France".

7205: 7029: 6295: 6242: 5553: 5318: 5149: 5123:

earlier, exhorting all French not to accept defeat and to rally to

5065: 4917: 4872: 4612:

After unsuccessfully attempting to flee France, he was arrested by

4459:(JOC/F), founded in 1928 by the progressive social activist priest 4171:

regions of northeastern France that had seen warfare and occupation

4158:. Holders of the national debt lost 80% of the face value of their 4034:

Clemenceau demanded the harshest terms and won most of them in the

3921:, whose ferocious energy and determination earned him the nickname 3708:

of July 1914 surprised France, and not much attention was given to

3617: 3386: 3301: 3285: 2882:(ARD), which became the main center-right party after World War I. 2092:

were pushed out of power, and the Republic was finally governed by

1539: 662: 361: 10149:(1995), pp 492–537. survey of political history by leading scholar 8586:

The New Jacobins: The French Communist Party and the Popular Front

8451:

Jordan, Nicole (1991). "Léon Blum and Czechoslovakia, 1936–1938".

3045:

had about 70,000. Advertising only filled 20% or so of the pages.

1902: 11492: 11360: 9428:"Les écrivains français et la notion de décadence de 1870 à 1914" 8354:

Thomas, Martin (2008). "Appeasement in the Late Third Republic".

6889:

Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869–1920

5080:. As a result of this brilliant German strategy, embodied in the 5029: 4989: 4959:

disregarded his orders, and attacked aggressively on this front.

4888: 4728: 4565: 4439: 4384: 4225: 4089: 4051: 3801: 3785: 3613: 3511: 3276:

The early anti-Catholic laws were largely the work of republican

3032: 2309: 2001:

In February 1875, a series of parliamentary acts established the

1557:

defined the composition of the Third Republic. It consisted of a

949: 323: 308: 11318: 10607:

Pyrrhic Victory: French Strategy and Operations in the Great War

10072:

A Biographical Dictionary of French Political Leaders since 1870

9904:

France since the Popular Front: Government and People, 1936–1986

9816: 9768: 7909:; Portier, Franck (2002). "The French depression in the 1930s". 7771:(1995). "War and 'Politics': The French Army Mutinies of 1917". 5780:, who became President of the Council in the 1920s, created the 4996:

The looming threat to France of Nazi Germany was delayed at the

3389:. Then, in 1905, a law was introduced that abolished Napoleon's 2967:. Activists put pressure on the government to re-open the case. 2912: 11781: 11349: 10230:

Grandeur and Misery: France's Bid for Power in Europe 1914–1940

9961:

The Third Republic from its Origins to the Great War, 1871–1914

8296: 7745:

The Long Silence: The Tragedy of Occupied France in World War I

6282:

Nord, Philip (1994). "The Welfare State in France, 1870–1914".

5549: 5548:, the peace treaty ending the Franco-Prussian War. France lost 5270:'s writings, and even Brazil was seen as a future rising star. 5107:(the "French State"), commonly known as the "Vichy Regime" or " 5049: 4881: 4732: 4724: 4329: 3324:. In the end, it recruited mostly among the liberal-Catholics ( 3266: 3107:, was modelled on the photojournalism of the American magazine 2313: 1527: 1476: 953: 8788: 7510: 5144:). It fought bitterly through the First World War against the 4867:

Gamelin prohibited any bombing of the industrial areas of the

3051:

revolutionized pressure group media by its national newspaper

3041:

in 1913 probably had a daily circulation of about 100,000 and

2983:, and those who condemned him (the anti-Dreyfusards), such as 2074:

that would be maintained until the end of the Third Republic.

1713:

Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy in front of the

184: 9936:. Vol. 4: The 20th Century in Europe. New York: Harper. 9834:

Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870–1940

8478:

Thomas, Martin (1999). "France and the Czechoslovak crisis".

6377:

Doctors, Bureaucrats & Public Health in France, 1888–1902

5112: 4939: 4042:. France regained Alsace-Lorraine, and the German industrial 3895:" ("Sacred Union"), and in France there were few dissenters. 3793:

became the fourth most important wine producer in the world.

3198: 3127: 1778: 1774: 1550:, instead became the permanent form of government of France. 313: 229: 8866: 6451:"Life expectancy (from birth) in Germany, from 1875 to 2020" 5681:

1889: The Republic was rocked by the sudden but short-timed

5455:

as the senile puppet of Laval and the French royalists, and

3126:

traced the modernization of French villages and argued that

2957:, a vehement open letter published on the liberal newspaper 12054: 11464: 9675: 9584: 9572: 9450: 7314: 5157: 4947: 4922: 4868: 4636:

The most important factor in French foreign policy was the

4002: 3777: 2987:, the director and publisher of the anti-Semitic newspaper 2272: 912: 9562: 9560: 9499: 9497: 9238: 9202: 9159: 8308: 7847:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–205. 7677:

Hamilton, Richard F.; Herwig, Holger H. (2004). "France".

3628:(right) personifying the Triple Entente as opposed to the 3377:, the president of France from 1899 to 1906, visited King 10091:

online review in English by James E. Connolly, Nov. 2013)

9633: 9291: 9289: 9259: 9257: 9255: 9253: 9192: 9190: 9188: 9186: 8507:

The Popular Front in France: Defending Democracy, 1934–38

8119:

Laufenburger, Henry (1936). "France and the Depression".

7465: 7453: 6774: 6720:"The Assumptionist Response to Secularisation, 1870–1900" 6653: 6208: 6196: 5601:

had replaced an absolute monarchy by a parliamentary one.

4631: 4360:

the armaments industry and tried to seize control of the

3997: 2943:, the dry guillotine), where he spent almost five years. 9836:. Vol. 2. London: Aldwych Press. pp. 690–694. 6158: 6146: 5939:

French anti-Southern sentiment during the Third Republic

5392:

In 1979, Duroselle published a well-known book entitled

4348:, down from 48 hours. All workers were given a two-week 189:

Territories and colonies of the French Republic in 1939

10743: 10625:

European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia

10129:

full text of vol 30 Abbe to English History online free

9557: 9545: 9533: 9521: 9509: 9494: 9462: 9087: 9063: 9041: 9039: 9037: 9035: 9002: 8962: 7566:

France and Britain, 1900–1940: Entente and Estrangement

6107: 5949:

Proclamation of the French Republic (September 4, 1870)

5556:, and had to pay a cash indemnity to the new nation of 4046:, a coal and steel region, was occupied by France. The 4031:: Great Britain, France, the United States, and Italy. 3434:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

3208:

Increasingly after 1870, the stores' work force became

10632:

Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919

9704:

Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion

9286: 9276: 9274: 9272: 9250: 9226: 9214: 9183: 9171: 8946:

In Hitlers Hand: die Sonder- und Ehrenhäftlinge der SS

7500: 7498: 5914:

French presidential elections under the Third Republic

2042:

On 16 May 1877, de MacMahon forced the resignation of

1851:" in the National Assembly supported the candidacy of 9326: 8546:

Wall, Irwin M. (1987). "Teaching the Popular Front".

7901: 7899: 7810:. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 7636:

Evans, Martin (2000). "Projecting a Greater France".

6959:

Proceedings of the Western Society for French History

5981: 5844:, the French socialist movement, as the whole of the 5631:

to office. He then dissolved parliament and called a

4557:

in 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany.

9075: 9051: 9032: 7432:

French public opinion and foreign affairs, 1870–1914

7233:

Religion, society, and politics in France since 1789

5944:

Nomination of Mayors under the French Third Republic

5488:

Young has been followed by other historians such as

4212:

street demonstration in Paris organized by multiple

3514:, but France suffered a humiliating defeat overall. 2847:: 5 francs of France 1876, released under President 2096:(pejoratively labelled "Opportunist Republicans" by 10152: 9269: 8596:

The French Socialist Party in the Popular Front Era

7495: 5830:

SFIO (French Section of the Workers' International)

4780: 4240:

Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes

3994:'s demand for total victory and harsh peace terms. 3201:machines (that could be used to fit shoes) and the 2128: 1831: 1745:. After Napoleon's capture by the Prussians at the 1565:to form the legislative branch of government and a 10417:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1982. 8615: 8583: 8044: 7896: 7658: 7267:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 5135: 4233:. As a result of the actions of that day, several 3710:conditions that led to the outbreak of World War I 3674:Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne 3255:The first page of the bill, as brought before the 2196: 1620:political alliance, but over time became the main 9959:Mayeur, Jean-Marie; Rebérioux, Madeleine (1984). 9405:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 11. 7298:Children of the Revolution: The French, 1799–1914 7263:The March to the Marne: The French Army 1871–1914 5219:in the 1930s. It also became a model for various 5032:. The Dyle Plan embodied the primary war plan of 4965: 4607:in March 1940. He was also vice-president of the 4498:was a French socialist politician and three-time 1875:, who replaced his cousin Charles X in 1830. The 12369: 8162:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 7387:The End of the European Era: 1890 to the Present 7296:(2008). "Secularization and Religious Revival". 5174:, first president of the Third Republic, called 3413:French law on the separation of Church and State 3113: 2595: 1235: 10403: 10288: 9958: 9490:. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 182. 9022:"Sepp Gangl-Straße in Wörgl • Strassensuche.at" 7681:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 112–129. 7414: 7357: 7332: 5685:, spawning the rise of the modern intellectual 4848:' tactics. France saw little action during the 3826:Diplomatic history of World War I § France 3492:Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913 3095:sponsored a highly successful women's magazine 1903:Monarchists' republic and constitutional crisis 1636:, and was replaced by the rival governments of 10701: 10575:Audoin-Rouzeau, Stephane, and Annette Becker. 10329:The Politics of Depression in France 1932–1936 10252:(2004); Translation of his highly influential 10216: 8274:The foreign policy of France from 1914 to 1945 7905: 7676: 6670: 6668: 6041:France overseas: A Study of Modern Imperialism 5597:, became prime minister. Unintentionally, the 5525:September 1870: following the collapse of the 5476:concept explicitly was the Canadian historian 5238: 4467:("League of Working Christian Women") and the 3427: 622:13,500,000 km (5,200,000 sq mi) 12468:States and territories disestablished in 1940 11334: 10729: 10444:A Social History of Nineteenth-Century France 10223:French colonial empire § Further reading 9728: 9480: 9352:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 9350:The Fall of France: The Nazi Invasion of 1940 8933:Paul Reynaud | premier of France | Britannica 8302: 8047:Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World 7447:The ideology of French imperialism, 1871–1881 6759:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 492–573. 5934:Purge of the French Civil Service (1879-1884) 5612:was created, along with a ministry under the 5056:. As the French 1st, 7th, 9th armies and the 4428: 2798: 1749:(1 September 1870), Parisian deputies led by 1438: 11710: 11689: 11549: 10645: 10099:The development of modern France (1870–1939) 9974:The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918 9731:The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914–1938 9474: 9419: 8905: 8118: 7483: 7384: 7226: 5800: 5754: 5701: 5636: 5460: 5412: 5399: 5393: 5383: 5377: 5329: 5274: 5228: 5212: 5204: 5000:of 1938. France and Great Britain abandoned 4696:. In April–May 1938, British Prime Minister 4485: 3941: 1859:, the last king from the senior line of the 1817: 1694: 1678: 1659: 1645: 1578: 1570: 1531: 1470: 105: 88: 28: 10511: 8259:From the Ancien Regime to the Popular Front 8158:The French Economy in the Twentieth Century 6665: 5661:1881: Following the 16 May crisis in 1877, 5158:government of a provisional French Republic 5111:" following its re-location to the town of 5103:, who proclaimed in the following days the 4628:, took a sniper's bullet to save Reynaud. 3822:Home front during World War I § France 1840:Composition of the national Assembly – 1871 12463:States and territories established in 1870 11341: 11327: 10736: 10722: 10268:The War that Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 9928: 9105:Overy, Richard, & Wheatcroft, Andrew. 9099: 8891:. Stanford University Press. p. 249. 8872: 8794: 8229: 7385:Gilbert, Felix; Large, David Clay (2002). 7283:, is the most thorough account in English. 6263: 5929:Freemasonry under the Second French Empire 5693:also were quickly criticized by the press. 4620:in which one of the leaders, German Major 4478:, founded in 1905 by the vitriolic author 4339:The Popular Front's narrow victory in the 3563:, the Third Republic greatly expanded the 3468:, the foreign minister from 1898 to 1905; 2805: 2791: 1475:) was the system of government adopted in 1445: 1431: 183: 151: 10630:Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. 9729:Bernard, Philippe; Dubief, Henri (1985). 8677: 8613: 8202: 8039: 8004: 7842: 7727: 7597:France and the Origins of the First World 7187: 7185: 7111: 6955: 6832: 6577:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6557: 6063:. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. 6038: 5816:law on the separation of Church and State 5533:, the Third Republic was created and the 5199:remained harshly anti-Republicans, while 4518:in 1940, he became a staunch opponent of 4199: 4006:The Council of Four in Versailles, 1919: 3754:. The largest and most important were in 2077: 1542:(the northeastern part, i.e. present-day 614:536,464 km (207,130 sq mi) 10618:Recent Revelations of European Diplomacy 10374: 9733:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 9602: 9400: 8640: 8509:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 8074:The dark valley: A panorama of the 1930s 7610: 7578: 7320: 7235:. London: Hambledon Press. p. 152. 7093: 7050: 6861: 6374: 6351: 5242: 5127:and continue the fight with the Allies. 5094:armistice that ended the First World War 4983: 4942:faster than anticipated, aided by heavy 4916: 4265:in 1919, but felt betrayed by President 4237:organizations were created, such as the 4079: 4001: 3829: 3750:of the day sweeping Europe, developed a 3725: 3612: 3544:destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at 3487: 3250: 3146: 3142: 2911: 2839: 2137: 2084:Moderate Republicans (France, 1871–1901) 2019: 1951:established a new seat of government at 1926: 1835: 1724: 1708: 1704: 10323: 10189:Democracy in France: The third republic 10081:(Paris: Éditions Belin, 2012) 1152 pp. 9875: 9850: 9698: 9681: 9590: 9578: 9566: 9551: 9539: 9527: 9515: 9503: 9468: 9456: 9384: 9344: 9008: 8980: 8968: 8843: 8806: 8728: 8601: 8504: 8415: 8388: 8314: 8153: 8071: 7945:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7875: 7805: 7742: 7691: 7504: 7429: 7300:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 7159:"Leo XIII – Au milieu des sollicitudes" 7013: 6911: 6866:. New York: Vendome Press. p. 22. 6674: 6537: 6475: 6404: 5987: 5902:List of French possessions and colonies 5627:and reappointing the monarchist leader 4525:After the fall of the Blum government, 4187:The world economic crisis known as the 4084:French soldiers observing the Rhine at 2028:, which were coloured in black on maps. 2003:constitutional laws of the new republic 1845:The French legislative election of 1871 12370: 10687:(Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010) 10294: 9967: 9898: 9831: 9791: 9755: 9425: 9307: 9295: 9263: 9244: 9232: 9220: 9208: 9196: 9177: 9165: 8911: 8625: 8609: 8593: 8581: 8529: 8477: 8450: 8353: 8326: 8286: 8256: 8186: 7977: 7664: 7593: 7516: 7471: 7459: 7444: 7399: 7369: 7292: 7191: 7182: 7128:"Leo XIII – Nobilissima Gallorum Gens" 6886: 6780: 6771:Also, pp 522–224 on foreign subsidies. 6751: 6717: 6659: 6622: 6572: 6545:International Review of Social History 6226: 6214: 6202: 6164: 6152: 6113: 6053: 5541:(19 September 1870 – 28 January 1871). 4836:was France's commander in chief, with 4632:Diplomatic situation with Nazi Germany 4490: 4271:rejected by the United States Congress 4139:. Anti-democratic groups, such as the 3998:Peace and revenge in Versailles Treaty 3957:In 1914, the government implemented a 3049:The Roman Catholic Assumptionist order 2963:in January 1898 by the notable writer 2927:, a young French artillery officer of 2167:of the radical left a decade earlier. 1786:French territories occupied by Prussia 1616:, which was originally conceived as a 16:Government of France from 1870 to 1940 12408:Political history of France by period 11322: 10717: 10685:Writing history in the Third Republic 10469: 10181:, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969 10074:(1990), 400 short articles by experts 10035: 10011:The Hollow Years: France in the 1930s 10008: 9906:. New York: Oxford University Press. 9651: 9639: 9332: 9093: 9081: 9069: 9057: 9045: 8937: 8884: 8757: 8604:The French Radical Party in the 1930s 8086: 7937: 7767: 7635: 7615:. New York: Oxford University Press. 7335:, pp. 155–161, 168–169, 272–278. 7255: 6855: 6792: 6755:(1977). "Newspapers and corruption". 6510: 6425:"Life expectancy in France 1765–2020" 6389: 6316: 6020:from the original on 19 November 2021 5919:France in the long nineteenth century 4813: 4275:seized the industrialized Ruhr region 3746:The Third Republic, in line with the 3738:killed on duty for France during the 3559:Under the leadership of expansionist 2835: 2088:Following the 16 May crisis in 1877, 9981: 9801:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. 9280: 8943: 8545: 8271: 7563: 7528: 6984: 6597: 6281: 6125: 5999: 5887:Economic history of France#1914–1944 5882:Economic history of France#1789–1914 5814:1905: The government introduced the 5807:with the British Foreign Secretary, 5782:Democratic Republican Alliance (ARD) 5431:as a well-meaning, but weak willed; 5164:for a successor, established as the 4277:. The British Labour Prime Minister 3715: 3643:with Great Britain, and finally the 3407:In December 1905, the government of 1855:, alias "Henry V," grandson of King 1824:had disastrous consequences for the 1624:party. The period from the start of 1588:The Third Republic established many 10745:International relations (1814–1919) 10591:The Great War and the French People 10555:(Cambridge University Press, 2018). 10543:French Feminism in the 19th Century 10435:(Cambridge University Press, 2001) 10395:Roberts, John. "General Boulanger" 9156:, 1969, Da Capo Press, pp. 339–340. 9131:, Vol. 18, No. 2 April 1983. p. 235 9129:The Journal of Contemporary History 8076:. Knopf. pp. 149–174, 576–603. 7477: 6407:Bulletin of the History of Medicine 6095:from the original on 7 October 2021 5924:History of France (1900 to present) 5519: 4675: 4640:on 7 March 1936 in defiance of the 4261:France enthusiastically joined the 4253:International relations (1919–1939) 4176: 3891:called for unity in the form of a " 3800:Opposition to colonial rule led to 3438:History of French foreign relations 3215: 2133: 2121:To discourage the monarchists, the 1913:Alleged military conspiracy of 1877 13: 12383:Former countries in French history 10695: 10655:(Columbia University Press, 1944) 10577:14–18: Understanding the Great War 10399:(Oct 1955) 5#10 pp 657–669, online 10059: 8710:from the original on 18 March 2022 7169:from the original on 16 March 2015 6923:Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte 6726:. Lexington: D.C. Heath. pp. 6039:Priestley, Herbert Ingram (1938). 5765:nearly causes an Anglo-French war. 5424:The Collapse of the Third Republic 4465:Ligue ouvrière chrétienne féminine 4069: 3811: 3734:commemorating the soldiers of the 3091:. In addition to its daily paper, 1555:French Constitutional Laws of 1875 1514:in 1870. Social upheaval and the 1499:. The French Third Republic was a 14: 12489: 11348: 10357:(McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2007) 10261:Franco-German Relations 1871–1914 7699:. Athens: Ohio University Press. 7404:(5th ed.). pp. 288–299. 7138:from the original on 18 June 2015 5130: 4950:60 km (37 mi) north of 4638:Remilitarization of the Rhineland 4246: 4216:that culminated in a riot on the 3838:among the Entente in World War I. 3000: 2889: 2170: 639:• 1938 (including colonies) 96:("Liberty, Equality, Fraternity") 12458:1940 disestablishments in France 10708:. The H. W. Wilson company 1904. 10275:Foreign Policy of France 1914–45 9892:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00344.x 9832:Hutton, Patrick H., ed. (1986). 9645: 9596: 9394: 9338: 9301: 9143: 9134: 9121: 9112: 9109:. London: Macmillan, 1989. p. 86 9014: 8974: 8926: 8917: 8878: 8837: 8800: 8751: 8722: 8671: 8634: 8574: 8539: 8498: 8471: 8444: 8409: 8382: 8244:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2011.00827.x 7730:The French home Front, 1914–1918 6937:from the original on 11 May 2020 6796:(1992). "Eugen Weber's France". 6457:from the original on 14 May 2020 6431:from the original on 14 May 2020 5712:. The following year, President 5643:after the date when it happened. 5472:The first historian to denounce 4781:Military and diplomatic policies 4469:Mouvement populaire des familles 4425:(CF/PSF) was especially active. 4309: 3784:. In Algeria, land held by rich 2774: 2759: 2225: 2129:Politics during the Belle Époque 1832:Attempts to restore the monarchy 1769:succeeded in leaving Paris in a 1526:, annexed the French regions of 1522:, proclaimed by the invaders in 1487:, until 10 July 1940, after the 1479:from 4 September 1870, when the 1414: 1399: 865: 823: 809: 795: 781: 764: 736: 722: 708: 694: 142: 137: 113: 68: 54: 9798:Leon Blum: Humanist in Politics 9312:. Washington: Berg Publishers. 8981:Roberts, Andrew (12 May 2013). 8347: 8320: 8265: 8250: 8223: 8196: 8147: 8112: 8080: 8065: 8033: 7998: 7971: 7931: 7869: 7836: 7799: 7761: 7736: 7721: 7685: 7670: 7629: 7604: 7587: 7572: 7557: 7522: 7438: 7423: 7408: 7393: 7378: 7372:France and the World since 1870 7363: 7338: 7286: 7249: 7220: 7151: 7120: 7087: 7044: 7007: 6978: 6949: 6905: 6880: 6826: 6786: 6744: 6722:. In Bezucha, Robert J. (ed.). 6711: 6616: 6591: 6566: 6531: 6504: 6469: 6443: 6417: 6398: 6383: 6368: 6345: 6310: 6275: 6257: 6220: 6170: 5961: 5317:, who wrote under the pen name 5136:Interpreting the Third Republic 4599:Reynaud became the penultimate 4390: 4341:elections of the spring of 1936 3861:, and the ambassador to Russia 3857:, Premier and Foreign Minister 3132:universal military conscription 2197:Welfare state and public health 1812:revolted and took power as the 1518:preceded the final defeat. The 805:Italian military administration 11680:Government of National Defense 10569: 10504:(2 vol 1979), topical history 10331:. Cambridge University Press. 10147:Revolutionary France 1770–1880 9691: 9118:Overy & Wheatcroft, p. 115 8684:Modern and Contemporary France 7808:The First World War: 1914–1918 7430:Carroll, Eber Malcolm (1964). 6891:. Princeton University Press. 6864:The World of Department Stores 6724:Modern European Social History 6689:10.1080/00947679.2001.12062578 6602:. New York: Bloomsbury Press. 6478:Modern and Contemporary France 6119: 6077: 6047: 6032: 5993: 5795:1904: French foreign minister 5753:published an article entitled 5731:: a Jewish artillery officer, 5710:1881 freedom of the press laws 5535:Government of National Defence 5443:as incompetent and defeatist, 5345:From a different perspective, 4966:Downfall of the Third Republic 4684:during which France pressured 4609:Democratic Republican Alliance 3952: 3795:Nickel mining in New Caledonia 3449:informal military relationship 2880:Democratic Republican Alliance 2112:free, mandatory, and secular ( 1949:Government of National Defence 1869:Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris 1755:Government of National Defence 1614:Democratic Republican Alliance 1: 12453:1870 establishments in France 11589:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 11584:War of the Spanish Succession 11115:Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits 11069:1917 Franco-Russian agreement 11059:Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty 10640:vol 2 excerpt and text search 10519:Contemporary European History 10297:Comparative Political Studies 10153:Lucien Edward Henry (1882). " 10079:Les Grandes Guerres 1914–1945 9982:Watt, Donald Cameron (1989). 8154:Dormois, Jean-Pierre (2004). 7417:French History Since Napoleon 7094:Harrigan, Patrick J. (2001). 6000:Page, Melvin E., ed. (2003). 5974: 5447:as a crooked crypto-fascist; 5090:Second Armistice at Compiègne 4910:In the first few days of the 3927:By 1917 mutiny was in the air 3849:French entry into World War I 3834:France sustained the highest 3609:French entry into World War I 3114:Modernization of the peasants 3019:High-speed rotary Hoe presses 3011: 2951:chiefly owing to the polemic 1935:was built as a symbol of the 10975:Second Industrial Revolution 10849:League of the Three Emperors 10404:Culture, economy and society 10364:(U. of Michigan Press, 2001) 10289:Political ideas and practice 7845:The Economics of World War I 7679:Decisions for war, 1914–1917 7360:, pp. 169–173, 291–295. 6375:Hildreth, Martha L. (1987). 5020:conceived by French General 4455:Jeunesse Ouvrière Chrétienne 3905:Western Front of World War I 3590: 3483: 3454: 3379:Victor Emmanuel III of Italy 3328:) and the Social Catholics ( 3246:Napoleon's Concordat of 1801 2145:, nicknamed Général Revanche 1495:led to the formation of the 157:The French Republic in 1939 91:Liberté, égalité, fraternité 7: 11005:Treaty of Versailles (1871) 10675:Modern Intellectual History 10217:Foreign policy and colonies 10199:France: 1815 to the Present 10041:An Uncertain Idea of France 9606:Reviews in American History 8678:Wardhaugh, Jessica (2007). 8644:Journal of European Studies 7912:Review of Economic Dynamics 7728:Fridenson, Patrick (1992). 7594:Keiger, John F. V. (1983). 7358:Mayeur & Rebérioux 1984 7333:Mayeur & Rebérioux 1984 7100:Canadian Journal of History 6887:Miller, Michael B. (1981). 6089:Penn State University Press 5856: 5584:Marshal Patrice de MacMahon 5498:Jean-Louis Crémieux-Brilhac 5328:After 1945, the concept of 5239:Historiography of decadence 5058:British Expeditionary Force 4901:British Expeditionary Force 4094:Occupation of the Rhineland 3898: 3428:Foreign policy 1871 to 1914 3157:Aristide Boucicaut founded 2160:elections of September 1889 1891:if the renunciation of the 1604:, and large territories in 1590:French colonial possessions 10: 12494: 12398:Former countries in Europe 12070:French subdivisions by GDP 11817:2022 presidential election 11802:2017 presidential election 11054:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 10461:American Historical Review 10282:The French Overseas Empire 10248:Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste. 10220: 10159:The Royal Family of France 10064: 9706:. Basingstoke: Macmillan. 8823:10.1177/036319900102600403 8594:Greene, Nathanael (1969). 8356:Diplomacy & Statecraft 8051:. New York: Random House. 7785:10.1177/096834459500200203 7489:The Fall of Imperial China 7370:Keiger, John F.V. (2001). 7346:A History of Modern France 6639:10.1177/026569147600600203 6538:Hayward, J. E. S. (1961). 5842:German invasion of Belgium 5696:1893: Following anarchist 5546:Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) 5323:The Gravediggers of France 4969: 4907:conform to the Dyle Plan. 4862:General Siegfried Westphal 4817: 4564:, France's failure to aid 4429:Relations with Catholicism 4313: 4250: 4183:Great Depression in France 4180: 4073: 3968:the arriving American army 3902: 3846: 3818:French Army in World War I 3815: 3719: 3594: 3431: 3219: 3177:(1840–1902) set his novel 3004: 2948:Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy 2893: 2174: 2102:purge of the civil service 2081: 2009:and an indirectly elected 1906: 611:1894 (Metropolitan France) 273:(official), several others 173: French protectorates 12331: 12221: 12131: 12122: 12018: 12009: 11911: 11902: 11840: 11831: 11752: 11633: 11602: 11574:Second Hundred Years' War 11525: 11478: 11445: 11424: 11416:Liberalism and radicalism 11368: 11359: 11213: 11077: 10990: 10875:European balance of power 10867: 10802: 10751: 10683:Noronha-DiVanna, Isabel. 10666:(Psychology Press, 2000) 10646:Historiography and memory 10463:121.4 (2016): 1141–1166. 10212:(5th ed. 1995) pp 205–382 10155:Current History of France 9930:Latourette, Kenneth Scott 9851:Harding, Stephen (2013). 8810:Journal of Family History 8761:Journal of Modern History 8696:10.1080/09639480701300018 8492:10.1080/09592299908406127 8418:French Historical Studies 8391:English Historical Review 8368:10.1080/09592290802345001 8329:English Historical Review 8303:Bernard & Dubief 1985 8205:French Historical Studies 8019:10.1017/S0018246X00017167 7980:French Historical Studies 7878:French Historical Studies 7543:10.1080/09592290600943064 7348:(4th ed. 2012) pp 170–71. 7194:French Historical Studies 7073:10.1080/14608940802680961 7017:French Historical Studies 6912:Homburg, Heidrun (1992). 6799:Journal of Social History 6598:Read, Piers Paul (2012). 6573:Keiger, J. F. V. (1997). 6559:10.1017/S0020859000001759 6490:10.1080/09639480220126134 6331:10.1017/S0018246X97007553 6284:French Historical Studies 6230:French Historical Studies 6006:. ABC-CLIO. p. 218. 5869:Paris in the Belle Époque 5606:President of the Republic 5411:A notable example of the 5223:that participated to the 4624:, declared a hero by the 4514:of Germany. When Germany 4486:World War II and downfall 4012:Vittorio Emanuele Orlando 3980: 3647:in 1907 which became the 3359:Combes Ministry (1902–05) 3355:Waldeck-Rousseau Ministry 3228:Catholic Church in France 1987:President of the Republic 1679: 1579: 1571: 1532: 673: 661: 651: 647: 637: 633: 626: 619:1938 (including colonies) 618: 610: 603: 599: 585: 572: 559: 546: 535:• France enters the 533: 520: 507: 503: 495: 480: 465: 455: 451: 439: 429:• 1870–1871 (first) 427: 423: 413: 409: 397: 387:• 1871–1873 (first) 385: 381: 371: 334: 322: 277: 266: 222: 182: 150: 129: 100: 84: 50: 45: 23: 12388:Modern history of France 11845:Administrative divisions 11166:Venezuela Naval Blockade 10837:Anglo-Russian Convention 10512:Women, sexuality, gender 10309:10.1177/0010414010370435 9403:Modern France: 1880–2002 9401:McMillan, James (2003). 8860:10.3167/hrrh.2011.370102 8657:10.1177/0047244110391038 8614:Lacouture, Jean (1982). 8505:Jackson, Julian (1990). 8480:Diplomacy and Statecraft 8217:10.1215/00161071-3946492 7992:10.1215/00161071-3438055 7943:France and the Great War 7890:10.1215/00161071-3438019 7611:Daughton, J. P. (2006). 7531:Diplomacy and Statecraft 7519:, pp. 345, 403–426. 7001:10.3167/hrrh.2011.370101 6352:Mitchell, Allan (1991). 5954: 5614:President of the Council 5480:, who, in his 1978 book 5227:that toppled the Second 5048:with their much revered 4500:Prime Minister of France 4387:as heroic predecessors. 4222:French National Assembly 4148:reparations from Germany 3842: 3472:, in London, 1890–1920; 2584: 2546: 2376: 2365: 2344: 2143:Georges Ernest Boulanger 1853:Henri, Comte de Chambord 1224: 1186: 1016: 1005: 984: 399:• 1932–1940 (last) 12413:Republicanism in France 12065:Franc (former currency) 11670:Coup of 2 December 1851 11643:Long nineteenth century 11171:Alaska boundary dispute 10844:Anglo-Japanese Alliance 10827:Franco-Russian Alliance 10702:Anderson, F.M. (1904). 10611:excerpt and text search 10564:excerpt and text search 10547:excerpt and text search 10538:(Harlow: Longman, 1999) 10431:Ansell, Christopher K. 10254:La décadence, 1932–1939 10244:excerpt and text search 10234:excerpt and text search 10141:excerpt and text search 10120:Encyclopædia Britannica 9444:10.3406/roman.1983.4673 9426:Guiral, Pierre (1983). 9308:Thomas, Martin (1996). 8745:10.3167/hrrh2008.340203 8626:Gruber, Helmut (1986). 8602:Larmour, Peter (1964). 8582:Brower, Daniel (1968). 8403:10.1093/ehr/CXII.445.66 8341:10.1093/ehr/117.473.867 8072:Brendon, Piers (2000). 7743:McPhail, Helen (2014). 7579:Krumeich, Gerd (1984). 7564:Bell, P. M. H. (2014). 7400:Wright, Gordon (1995). 6718:Mather, Judson (1972). 6626:European Studies Review 6178:"Jules Grévy 1879–1887" 5818:, heavily supported by 5770:Radical-Socialist Party 5744:Franco-Russian Alliance 5667:Opportunist Republicans 5370:Jean-Baptiste Duroselle 5062:Battle of Sedan of 1940 5036:to stave off Wehrmacht 4572:'s invasion during the 4220:, near the seat of the 4133:Radical Socialist party 4048:German African colonies 3660:Franco-Russian Alliance 3639:of 1894, then the 1904 3637:Franco-Russian Alliance 3601:Franco-Russian Alliance 3120:Peasants into Frenchmen 2929:Alsatian Jewish descent 1968:, under the command of 1634:occupied much of France 1469:, sometimes written as 509:• Proclamation by 12478:20th century in France 12473:19th century in France 12085:Science and technology 11742:Provisional Government 11711: 11690: 11550: 11090:Unification of Germany 11037:Taft–Katsura agreement 10710:, complete text online 10589:Becker, Jean Jacques. 10521:27.3 (2018): 482–499. 10228:Adamthwaite, Anthony. 10210:France in Modern Times 9657:Historical Reflections 8847:Historical Reflections 8732:Historical Reflections 8272:Néré, Jacques (1975). 8093:Historical Reflections 7941:; et al. (2003). 7925:10.1006/redy.2001.0143 7806:Hardach, Gerd (1977). 7485:Wakeman, Jr., Frederic 7445:Murphy, Agnes (1968). 7402:France in Modern Times 6988:Historical Reflections 6862:Whitaker, Jan (2011). 5897:French colonial empire 5840:a few days before the 5801: 5755: 5737:Max von Schwartzkoppen 5702: 5637: 5610:two-chamber parliament 5527:Empire of Napoleon III 5461: 5413: 5400: 5394: 5384: 5378: 5357:. Then was a group of 5336:French Communist Party 5330: 5275: 5254: 5229: 5213: 5205: 5064:by coming through the 4993: 4992:tank destroyed in 1940 4935: 4618:Battle of Itter Castle 4582:French defeat at Sedan 4541:, Daladier signed the 4447:Maximam Gravissimamque 4316:Popular Front (France) 4206:6 February 1934 crisis 4200:6 February 1934 crisis 4096: 4023: 3975:Gross Domestic Product 3942: 3839: 3752:French colonial empire 3743: 3740:South-oranais campaign 3722:French colonial empire 3686:Second Moroccan crises 3632: 3575:, vast territories in 3565:French colonial empire 3493: 3262: 3154: 2920: 2851: 2420:Valois-Angoulême kings 2146: 2078:Republicans take power 2029: 1940: 1841: 1818: 1805:, to pay reparations. 1730: 1722: 1695: 1660: 1646: 1548:provisional government 1501:parliamentary republic 1471: 1466: 1060:Valois-Angoulême kings 350:provisional government 197:Metropolitan territory 106: 89: 29: 12378:French Third Republic 11176:First Moroccan Crisis 10890:Spread of nationalism 10854:Eight-Nation Alliance 10677:20.1 (2023): 88–115. 10623:Tucker, Spencer, ed. 10491:France, Fin de Siècle 10266:MacMillan, Margaret. 10183:online free to borrow 10043:. New York: P. Lang. 10009:Weber, Eugen (1994). 9986:. London: Heinemann. 8948:(in German). Böhlau. 8944:Koop, Volker (2010). 8885:Weber, Eugen (1962). 8121:International Affairs 7747:. London: IB Tauris. 6390:Klaus, Alisa (1993). 5720:by Italian anarchist 5246: 5225:6 February 1934 riots 5096:on 11 November 1918. 4987: 4920: 4423:Parti social français 4410:Revue des deux Mondes 4354:collective bargaining 4251:Further information: 4083: 4005: 3903:Further information: 3833: 3802:rebellions in Morocco 3765:mission civilisatrice 3736:French Foreign Legion 3729: 3645:Anglo-Russian Entente 3616: 3491: 3417:voluntary association 3254: 3150: 3143:City department store 2915: 2843: 2141: 2082:Further information: 2023: 1930: 1907:Further information: 1889:agnatic primogeniture 1839: 1728: 1721:, on 4 September 1870 1712: 1705:Origins and formation 1544:department of Moselle 1534:Territoire de Belfort 1483:collapsed during the 1459:French Third Republic 581:10 May – 25 June 1940 561:• France enters 267:Common languages 12403:Government of France 11890:World Heritage Sites 11807:Coronavirus pandemic 11181:Algeciras Conference 11161:Annexation of Hawaii 11100:Great Eastern Crisis 11095:Unification of Italy 11085:Formation of Romania 10902:French–German enmity 10662:Fortescue, William. 10596:Darrow, Margaret H. 10135:Fortescue, William. 10070:Bell, David, et al. 6836:Agricultural History 6812:10.1353/jsh/25.4.879 6356:. pp. 252–275. 5846:Second International 5482:In Command of France 5297:reductio ad absurdum 4878:Hasso von Manteuffel 4842:Château de Vincennes 4642:Treaty of Versailles 4587:Reynaud opposed the 4545:in 1938, which gave 4403:foremost among them 4218:Place de la Concorde 4210:anti-parliamentarist 4036:Treaty of Versailles 4022:of the United States 3836:number of casualties 3797:was also important. 3357:(1899–1902) and the 3179:Au Bonheur des Dames 3101:. Another magazine, 3061:Dreyfus as a traitor 3029:Agence France-Presse 2905:as practised by the 2849:Patrice de Mac Mahon 2628:Provisional Republic 2410:Valois-Orléans kings 2191:Panama Canal Company 2094:Moderate Republicans 2072:parliamentary system 1743:Second French Empire 1524:Palace of Versailles 1481:Second French Empire 1467:Troisième République 1268:Provisional Republic 1050:Valois-Orléans kings 745:Occupation of France 702:Second French Empire 550:Treaty of Versailles 251:48.87028°N 2.31639°E 132:Great Seal of France 30:République française 12028:Automotive industry 11812:2021 labor protests 11569:Peace of Westphalia 11437:History of Normandy 11432:History of Brittany 11246:Philippine–American 11231:First Sino-Japanese 11064:Racconigi agreement 11010:Treaty of Frankfurt 10970:Great Rapprochement 10924:Scramble for Africa 10367:Lehning, James R.; 9684:, pp. 880–883. 9642:, pp. 259–261. 9593:, pp. 874–880. 9581:, pp. 885–886. 9459:, pp. 871–872. 9247:, pp. 325–327. 9211:, pp. 318–319. 9168:, pp. 306–307. 8797:, pp. 129–153. 8317:, pp. 247–280. 8041:MacMillan, Margaret 7491:. pp. 189–191. 7474:, pp. 286–292. 7462:, pp. 321–326. 7419:. pp. 266–292. 7323:, pp. 104–108. 7113:10.3138/cjh.36.1.51 7065:2009NatId..11...45R 7053:National Identities 6783:, pp. 692–694. 6662:, pp. 690–694. 6217:, pp. 183–213. 6205:, pp. 144–179. 6167:, pp. 127–143. 6155:, pp. 106–113. 6043:. pp. 440–441. 5621:Patrice de MacMahon 5531:Franco-Prussian War 5506:Eugenia C. Kiesling 5490:Robert Frankenstein 5264:Claude-Marie Raudot 5250:, 1907 painting by 5115:in central France. 4807:Chambre des députés 4763:soulagement honteux 4746:Neville Chamberlain 4698:Neville Chamberlain 4626:Austrian resistance 4531:Neville Chamberlain 4491:National government 3936:was proclaimed and 3870:Battle of the Marne 3756:French North Africa 3748:imperialistic ethos 3499:Scramble for Africa 3258:Chambre des Députés 3043:Le Petit Meridional 2941:la guillotine sèche 2860:classically liberal 2123:French Crown Jewels 2098:Radical Republicans 2044:Moderate Republican 2007:Chamber of Deputies 1970:Patrice de MacMahon 1966:French Armed Forces 1947:, the transitional 1945:Franco-Prussian War 1933:Sacré-Cœur Basilica 1871:a grandson of King 1799:Treaty of Frankfurt 1735:Franco-Prussian War 1610:Scramble for Africa 1581:Patrice de MacMahon 1559:Chamber of Deputies 1508:Franco-Prussian War 1485:Franco-Prussian War 490:Chamber of Deputies 441:• 1940 (last) 247: / 12095:Telecommunications 11797:2015 Paris attacks 11660:Revolution of 1848 11488:Visigothic Kingdom 11105:Congress of Berlin 11022:Reinsurance Treaty 11000:Congress of Vienna 10980:Industrial warfare 10946:Scramble for China 10613:, military history 10604:Doughty, Robert A. 10500:Zeldin, Theodore. 10389:10.1093/fh/7.4.417 10325:Jackson, Julian T. 10303:(8–9): 1023–1058. 10280:Quinn, Frederick. 10238:Conklin, Alice L. 10174:Shirer, William L. 10077:Beaupré, Nicolas. 9346:Jackson, Julian T. 8305:, pp. 78–127. 8007:Historical Journal 7344:Jeremy D. Popkin, 6677:Journalism History 6600:The Dreyfus Affair 6525:10.1093/fh/2.2.173 6319:Historical Journal 6271:. pp. 45–242. 6184:. 15 November 2018 6140:10.1093/fh/2.4.399 6116:, pp. 77–105. 5797:Théophile Delcassé 5708:which limited the 5361:, centered around 5321:in his 1943 book, 5255: 5231:Cartel des gauches 5072:valley toward the 4994: 4936: 4932:Divide and Conquer 4814:Strategic missteps 4555:invasion of Poland 4442:(1922–39). In the 4124:Cartel des gauches 4111:Georges Clemenceau 4097: 4064:Mandate of Lebanon 4024: 4016:Georges Clemenceau 4008:David Lloyd George 3992:Georges Clemenceau 3944:Le Canard enchaîné 3934:state of emergency 3919:Georges Clemenceau 3881:League of Patriots 3863:Maurice Paléologue 3840: 3744: 3664:Théophile Delcassé 3633: 3567:. France acquired 3494: 3466:Théophile Delcassé 3402:Affaire Des Fiches 3263: 3155: 3122:(1976), historian 3059:lead in attacking 3038:Le Petit Provençal 2981:Georges Clemenceau 2921: 2852: 2836:Radicals' republic 2781:History portal 2277: until 50 BC 2147: 2050:and appointed the 2030: 1993:conservative with 1941: 1909:16 May 1877 crisis 1842: 1759:Louis-Jules Trochu 1731: 1723: 1421:History portal 917: until 50 BC 434:Louis Jules Trochu 12365: 12364: 12327: 12326: 12118: 12117: 12005: 12004: 11997:Political parties 11933:Foreign relations 11898: 11897: 11827: 11826: 11610:French Revolution 11564:Thirty Years' War 11545:Absolute monarchy 11510:Kingdom of France 11406:Foreign relations 11386:Political history 11316: 11315: 11285:Albanian Revolts 11142:German Naval Laws 11126:Naval arms races 11110:Berlin Conference 11042:Hague Conventions 10527:Copley, A. R. H. 10360:Kreuzer, Marcus. 10145:Furet, François. 10111:France, 1814–1940 10087:978-2-7011-3387-4 10050:978-0-8204-7481-6 10020:978-0-3930-3671-8 9943:978-0-8536-4110-0 9913:978-0-1987-3034-7 9868:978-0-3068-2209-4 9843:978-0-8617-2046-0 9808:978-0-3078-3089-0 9740:978-0-5212-5240-9 9713:978-0-3335-6739-5 9412:978-0-19-870058-6 9363:978-0-19-280300-9 9319:978-1-85973-187-1 9096:, pp. 41–43. 9072:, pp. 40–41. 8898:978-0-8047-0134-1 8875:, pp. 37–38. 8516:978-0-521-31252-3 8465:10.1093/fh/5.1.48 8276:. pp. 11–99. 8173:978-0-521-66787-6 8058:978-0-375-76052-5 7939:Smith, Leonard V. 7854:978-0-521-85212-8 7821:978-0-520-03060-2 7769:Smith, Leonard V. 7754:978-1-78453-053-2 7706:978-0-8214-0589-5 7693:Rutkoff, Peter M. 7622:978-0-19-537401-8 7389:. pp. 64–65. 7374:. pp. 25–47. 7307:978-0-674-03209-5 7278:978-0-521-54592-1 7242:978-1-85285-057-9 6898:978-0-691-05321-9 6873:978-0-86565-264-4 6766:978-0-19-822125-8 6757:France: 1848–1945 6737:978-0-669-61143-4 6609:978-1-60819-432-2 6584:978-0-521-57387-0 6265:McCullough, David 6070:978-0-521-52270-0 5629:Albert de Broglie 5588:Albert de Broglie 5537:ruled during the 5494:Jean-Pierre Azema 5419:William L. Shirer 5359:French historians 5351:Charles de Gaulle 5221:far right leagues 5121:Appeal of 18 June 5117:Charles de Gaulle 5078:Battle of Dunkirk 5052:divisions in the 4998:Munich Conference 4912:Battle of Belgium 4741:Winston Churchill 4553:. After Hitler's 4549:control over the 4508:Spanish Civil War 4381:Spanish Civil War 4346:40-hour work week 4263:League of Nations 4214:far-right leagues 3716:Overseas colonies 3370:parochial schools 3242:Ferry school laws 3136:French nationhood 3088:Le Petit Parisien 2865:League of Nations 2815: 2814: 2766:France portal 2659: 2658: 2556: 2555: 2467:Kingdom of France 2457:French Revolution 2448:Long 19th century 2438: 2437: 2386: 2385: 2356:Kingdom of France 2291: 2290: 2151:Georges Boulanger 2063:October elections 2055:Albert de Broglie 1803:Law of Maturities 1687:French Revolution 1638:Charles de Gaulle 1598:French Madagascar 1472:La III République 1455: 1454: 1406:France portal 1299: 1298: 1196: 1195: 1107:Kingdom of France 1097:French Revolution 1088:Long 19th century 1078: 1077: 1026: 1025: 996:Kingdom of France 931: 930: 839: 838: 835: 834: 831: 830: 752: 751: 524:Berlin Conference 285:Roman Catholicism 256:48.87028; 2.31639 122: 12485: 12393:Former republics 12129: 12128: 12045:Economic history 12016: 12015: 11909: 11908: 11838: 11837: 11716: 11695: 11594:Seven Years' War 11559:Wars of Religion 11555: 11540:House of Bourbon 11535:Early modern era 11515:Fundamental laws 11391:Military history 11366: 11365: 11343: 11336: 11329: 11320: 11319: 11236:Spanish–American 11156:Fashoda Incident 11032:Treaty of Björkö 11017:Treaty of Berlin 10951:Open Door Policy 10885:Eastern question 10832:Entente Cordiale 10738: 10731: 10724: 10715: 10714: 10709: 10558:Pedersen, Jean. 10534:Diamond, Hanna. 10486: 10428: 10392: 10350: 10320: 10208:Wright, Gordon. 10187:Thomson, David. 10170: 10054: 10037:Young, Robert J. 10032: 10005: 9978: 9964: 9955: 9925: 9895: 9872: 9847: 9828: 9788: 9752: 9725: 9685: 9679: 9673: 9672: 9653:Young, Robert J. 9649: 9643: 9637: 9631: 9630: 9600: 9594: 9588: 9582: 9576: 9570: 9564: 9555: 9549: 9543: 9537: 9531: 9525: 9519: 9513: 9507: 9501: 9492: 9491: 9478: 9472: 9466: 9460: 9454: 9448: 9447: 9423: 9417: 9416: 9398: 9392: 9382: 9376: 9375: 9342: 9336: 9330: 9324: 9323: 9305: 9299: 9293: 9284: 9278: 9267: 9261: 9248: 9242: 9236: 9230: 9224: 9218: 9212: 9206: 9200: 9194: 9181: 9175: 9169: 9163: 9157: 9147: 9141: 9138: 9132: 9125: 9119: 9116: 9110: 9103: 9097: 9091: 9085: 9079: 9073: 9067: 9061: 9055: 9049: 9043: 9030: 9029: 9026:Strassensuche.at 9018: 9012: 9006: 9000: 8999: 8997: 8995: 8978: 8972: 8966: 8960: 8959: 8941: 8935: 8930: 8924: 8921: 8915: 8909: 8903: 8902: 8882: 8876: 8870: 8864: 8863: 8841: 8835: 8834: 8804: 8798: 8792: 8786: 8785: 8755: 8749: 8748: 8726: 8720: 8719: 8717: 8715: 8675: 8669: 8668: 8638: 8632: 8631: 8623: 8621: 8607: 8599: 8591: 8589: 8578: 8572: 8571: 8543: 8537: 8527: 8521: 8520: 8502: 8496: 8495: 8475: 8469: 8468: 8448: 8442: 8441: 8413: 8407: 8406: 8386: 8380: 8379: 8351: 8345: 8344: 8335:(473): 867–888. 8324: 8318: 8312: 8306: 8300: 8294: 8284: 8278: 8277: 8269: 8263: 8262: 8254: 8248: 8247: 8227: 8221: 8220: 8200: 8194: 8184: 8178: 8177: 8161: 8151: 8145: 8144: 8116: 8110: 8109: 8088:Young, Robert J. 8084: 8078: 8077: 8069: 8063: 8062: 8050: 8037: 8031: 8030: 8002: 7996: 7995: 7975: 7969: 7968: 7935: 7929: 7928: 7903: 7894: 7893: 7873: 7867: 7866: 7840: 7834: 7833: 7803: 7797: 7796: 7765: 7759: 7758: 7740: 7734: 7733: 7725: 7719: 7718: 7689: 7683: 7682: 7674: 7668: 7662: 7656: 7655: 7633: 7627: 7626: 7608: 7602: 7601: 7591: 7585: 7584: 7576: 7570: 7569: 7561: 7555: 7554: 7526: 7520: 7514: 7508: 7502: 7493: 7492: 7481: 7475: 7469: 7463: 7457: 7451: 7450: 7442: 7436: 7435: 7427: 7421: 7420: 7412: 7406: 7405: 7397: 7391: 7390: 7382: 7376: 7375: 7367: 7361: 7355: 7349: 7342: 7336: 7330: 7324: 7318: 7312: 7311: 7290: 7284: 7282: 7266: 7253: 7247: 7246: 7227:Tallett, Frank; 7224: 7218: 7217: 7189: 7180: 7178: 7176: 7174: 7155: 7149: 7147: 7145: 7143: 7124: 7118: 7117: 7115: 7091: 7085: 7084: 7048: 7042: 7041: 7011: 7005: 7004: 6982: 6976: 6975: 6953: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6942: 6936: 6919: 6909: 6903: 6902: 6884: 6878: 6877: 6859: 6853: 6852: 6830: 6824: 6823: 6790: 6784: 6778: 6772: 6770: 6753:Zeldin, Theodore 6748: 6742: 6741: 6715: 6709: 6708: 6672: 6663: 6657: 6651: 6650: 6620: 6614: 6613: 6595: 6589: 6588: 6575:Raymond Poincare 6570: 6564: 6563: 6561: 6535: 6529: 6528: 6508: 6502: 6501: 6473: 6467: 6466: 6464: 6462: 6447: 6441: 6440: 6438: 6436: 6421: 6415: 6414: 6402: 6396: 6395: 6387: 6381: 6380: 6372: 6366: 6365: 6349: 6343: 6342: 6314: 6308: 6307: 6279: 6273: 6272: 6261: 6255: 6254: 6224: 6218: 6212: 6206: 6200: 6194: 6193: 6191: 6189: 6174: 6168: 6162: 6156: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6123: 6117: 6111: 6105: 6104: 6102: 6100: 6081: 6075: 6074: 6051: 6045: 6044: 6036: 6030: 6029: 6027: 6025: 5997: 5991: 5985: 5968: 5965: 5806: 5803:Entente Cordiale 5778:Raymond Poincaré 5763:Fashoda Incident 5760: 5718:stabbed to death 5707: 5698:Auguste Vaillant 5683:Boulanger crisis 5671:Jules Ferry laws 5642: 5633:general election 5577:Pact of Bordeaux 5520:Timeline to 1914 5514:Great Depression 5502:Martin Alexander 5464: 5429:Édouard Daladier 5416: 5403: 5397: 5387: 5381: 5379:forces profondes 5340:Nazi-Soviet Pact 5333: 5278: 5234: 5218: 5210: 5207:Action française 4972:Battle of France 4838:his headquarters 4830:war was declared 4824:Battle of France 4799:Benito Mussolini 4682:Munich Agreement 4676:Munich agreement 4589:Munich Agreement 4543:Munich Agreement 4535:Benito Mussolini 4527:Édouard Daladier 4476:Action Française 4444:papal encyclical 4279:Ramsay MacDonald 4189:Great Depression 4177:Great Depression 4115:Raymond Poincaré 4060:Mandate of Syria 3947: 3889:Raymond Poincaré 3855:Raymond Poincaré 3760:French Indochina 3694:Fashoda Incident 3678:Entente Cordiale 3669:Entente Cordiale 3641:Entente Cordiale 3597:Entente Cordiale 3507:Khedive of Egypt 3503:Fashoda Incident 3335:Action française 3216:Church and state 3024:Le Petit Journal 2876:Raymond Poincaré 2821:English Poor Law 2807: 2800: 2793: 2779: 2778: 2777: 2764: 2763: 2762: 2655: 2571: 2570: 2453: 2452: 2406: 2405: 2367:Direct Capetians 2306: 2305: 2249: 2248: 2229: 2219: 2201: 2200: 2134:Boulanger crisis 2110:public education 2106:Jules Ferry laws 1897:Peace of Utrecht 1893:Spanish Bourbons 1881:Bonaparte family 1873:Louis Philippe I 1823: 1753:established the 1719:Corps Législatif 1700: 1684: 1683: 1663: 1649: 1602:French Polynesia 1594:French Indochina 1584: 1583: 1576: 1575: 1537: 1536: 1497:Vichy government 1474: 1447: 1440: 1433: 1419: 1418: 1417: 1404: 1403: 1402: 1295: 1211: 1210: 1093: 1092: 1046: 1045: 1007:Direct Capetians 946: 945: 889: 888: 869: 859: 841: 840: 827: 826: 813: 812: 799: 798: 785: 784: 776: 768: 767: 756: 755: 746: 740: 739: 726: 725: 712: 711: 698: 697: 691: 690: 675: 674: 576:Battle of France 568:3 September 1939 529:15 November 1884 516:4 September 1870 262: 261: 259: 258: 257: 252: 248: 245: 244: 243: 240: 225:and largest city 187: 172: 164: 155: 146: 141: 124: 123: 111: 94: 72: 58: 40: 32: 21: 20: 12493: 12492: 12488: 12487: 12486: 12484: 12483: 12482: 12448:1930s in France 12443:1920s in France 12438:1910s in France 12433:1900s in France 12428:1890s in France 12423:1880s in France 12418:1870s in France 12368: 12367: 12366: 12361: 12360: 12341: 12323: 12304:Public holidays 12217: 12176:Life expectancy 12114: 12001: 11894: 11823: 11792:Great Recession 11765:Fourth Republic 11760:1900 to present 11748: 11665:Second Republic 11629: 11598: 11521: 11474: 11441: 11420: 11355: 11347: 11317: 11312: 11251:Boxer Rebellion 11209: 11073: 11027:Treaty of Paris 10992: 10986: 10919:New Imperialism 10880:Ottoman decline 10863: 10810:Triple Alliance 10798: 10759:Austria-Hungary 10747: 10742: 10698: 10696:Primary sources 10648: 10609:(2008), 592pp; 10572: 10541:Moses, Claire. 10514: 10425: 10413:La Belle Époque 10409: 10406: 10353:Kennedy, Sean. 10339: 10291: 10225: 10219: 10113:(2003) ch 9–16 10067: 10062: 10060:Further reading 10057: 10051: 10021: 9994: 9944: 9914: 9900:Larkin, Maurice 9879:History Compass 9869: 9844: 9809: 9741: 9714: 9700:Aldrich, Robert 9694: 9689: 9688: 9680: 9676: 9650: 9646: 9638: 9634: 9619:10.2307/2702049 9613:(3): 486–492 . 9601: 9597: 9589: 9585: 9577: 9573: 9565: 9558: 9550: 9546: 9538: 9534: 9526: 9522: 9514: 9510: 9502: 9495: 9479: 9475: 9471:, pp. 874. 9467: 9463: 9455: 9451: 9424: 9420: 9413: 9399: 9395: 9383: 9379: 9364: 9343: 9339: 9335:, pp. 6–7. 9331: 9327: 9320: 9306: 9302: 9294: 9287: 9279: 9270: 9262: 9251: 9243: 9239: 9231: 9227: 9219: 9215: 9207: 9203: 9195: 9184: 9176: 9172: 9164: 9160: 9150:Shirer, William 9148: 9144: 9139: 9135: 9126: 9122: 9117: 9113: 9107:The Road To War 9104: 9100: 9092: 9088: 9080: 9076: 9068: 9064: 9056: 9052: 9044: 9033: 9020: 9019: 9015: 9007: 9003: 8993: 8991: 8988:The Daily Beast 8979: 8975: 8967: 8963: 8956: 8942: 8938: 8931: 8927: 8922: 8918: 8910: 8906: 8899: 8883: 8879: 8873:Latourette 1961 8871: 8867: 8842: 8838: 8805: 8801: 8795:Latourette 1961 8793: 8789: 8756: 8752: 8727: 8723: 8713: 8711: 8676: 8672: 8639: 8635: 8579: 8575: 8548:History Teacher 8544: 8540: 8528: 8524: 8517: 8503: 8499: 8486:(23): 122–159. 8476: 8472: 8449: 8445: 8414: 8410: 8397:(445): 66–104. 8387: 8383: 8352: 8348: 8325: 8321: 8313: 8309: 8301: 8297: 8285: 8281: 8270: 8266: 8255: 8251: 8232:History Compass 8228: 8224: 8201: 8197: 8185: 8181: 8174: 8152: 8148: 8133:10.2307/2601740 8117: 8113: 8085: 8081: 8070: 8066: 8059: 8038: 8034: 8003: 7999: 7976: 7972: 7957: 7936: 7932: 7904: 7897: 7874: 7870: 7855: 7841: 7837: 7822: 7804: 7800: 7766: 7762: 7755: 7741: 7737: 7726: 7722: 7707: 7690: 7686: 7675: 7671: 7663: 7659: 7634: 7630: 7623: 7609: 7605: 7592: 7588: 7577: 7573: 7562: 7558: 7527: 7523: 7515: 7511: 7503: 7496: 7482: 7478: 7470: 7466: 7458: 7454: 7443: 7439: 7428: 7424: 7413: 7409: 7398: 7394: 7383: 7379: 7368: 7364: 7356: 7352: 7343: 7339: 7331: 7327: 7319: 7315: 7308: 7291: 7287: 7279: 7254: 7250: 7243: 7229:Atkin, Nicholas 7225: 7221: 7190: 7183: 7172: 7170: 7157: 7156: 7152: 7141: 7139: 7126: 7125: 7121: 7092: 7088: 7049: 7045: 7012: 7008: 6983: 6979: 6954: 6950: 6940: 6938: 6934: 6917: 6910: 6906: 6899: 6885: 6881: 6874: 6860: 6856: 6831: 6827: 6791: 6787: 6779: 6775: 6767: 6749: 6745: 6738: 6716: 6712: 6673: 6666: 6658: 6654: 6621: 6617: 6610: 6596: 6592: 6585: 6571: 6567: 6536: 6532: 6509: 6505: 6474: 6470: 6460: 6458: 6449: 6448: 6444: 6434: 6432: 6423: 6422: 6418: 6403: 6399: 6388: 6384: 6373: 6369: 6350: 6346: 6325:(4): 997–1032. 6315: 6311: 6280: 6276: 6262: 6258: 6225: 6221: 6213: 6209: 6201: 6197: 6187: 6185: 6176: 6175: 6171: 6163: 6159: 6151: 6147: 6124: 6120: 6112: 6108: 6098: 6096: 6083: 6082: 6078: 6071: 6055:Larkin, Maurice 6052: 6048: 6037: 6033: 6023: 6021: 6014: 5998: 5994: 5986: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5971: 5966: 5962: 5957: 5892:Women in France 5876:Interwar France 5859: 5850:First World War 5799:negotiated the 5704:lois scélérates 5691:Panama scandals 5522: 5478:Robert J. Young 5453:Philippe Pétain 5449:Charles Maurras 5441:Maurice Gamelin 5406:A. J. P. Taylor 5374:Maurice Baumont 5363:Pierre Renouvin 5281:Philippe Pétain 5241: 5201:Charles Maurras 5185:First World War 5166:Fourth Republic 5150:inter-war years 5138: 5133: 5101:Philippe Pétain 5074:English Channel 5034:the French Army 5022:Maurice Gamelin 4982: 4970:Main articles: 4968: 4860:. According to 4834:Maurice Gamelin 4826: 4820:Maurice Gamelin 4816: 4783: 4678: 4634: 4614:Philippe Petain 4516:defeated France 4493: 4488: 4480:Charles Maurras 4431: 4393: 4322: 4314:Main articles: 4312: 4283:Édouard Herriot 4255: 4249: 4202: 4185: 4179: 4137:Socialist Party 4129:Édouard Herriot 4119:Aristide Briand 4078: 4076:Interwar France 4072: 4070:Interwar period 4040:war reparations 4000: 3983: 3955: 3907: 3901: 3851: 3845: 3828: 3814: 3812:First World War 3724: 3718: 3666:negotiated the 3630:Triple Alliance 3611: 3595:Main articles: 3593: 3542:Admiral Courbet 3538:Sino-French War 3486: 3474:Jules Jusserand 3457: 3440: 3432:Main articles: 3430: 3411:introduced the 3409:Maurice Rouvier 3313:Action libérale 3224: 3218: 3164:Georges Dufayel 3145: 3116: 3014: 3009: 3003: 2990:La Libre Parole 2985:Édouard Drumont 2898: 2892: 2838: 2817: 2811: 2775: 2773: 2760: 2758: 2753: 2661: 2660: 2653: 2638:Fourth Republic 2619: 2586:Interwar period 2568: 2558: 2557: 2517:Second Republic 2450: 2440: 2439: 2398: 2388: 2387: 2303: 2293: 2292: 2246: 2217: 2210: 2199: 2183:Panama scandals 2179: 2177:Panama scandals 2173: 2136: 2131: 2086: 2080: 2046:prime minister 2026:Alsace-Lorraine 1974:The Bloody Week 1915: 1905: 1861:Bourbon dynasty 1834: 1826:labour movement 1810:National Guards 1771:hot air balloon 1747:Battle of Sedan 1707: 1691:Catholic Church 1661:L'État français 1652:Philippe Pétain 1647:La France libre 1451: 1415: 1413: 1400: 1398: 1393: 1301: 1300: 1293: 1278:Fourth Republic 1259: 1226:Interwar period 1208: 1198: 1197: 1157:Second Republic 1090: 1080: 1079: 1038: 1028: 1027: 943: 933: 932: 886: 857: 850: 824: 810: 796: 782: 775:German military 774: 765: 744: 737: 723: 709: 695: 640: 592: 578: 565: 552: 539: 526: 513: 486: 471: 446:Philippe Pétain 442: 430: 400: 388: 367: 318: 255: 253: 249: 246: 241: 238: 236: 234: 233: 232: 226: 218: 217: 178: 177: 174: 170: 166: 162: 136: 125: 114: 108:La Marseillaise 95: 80: 79: 78: 73: 65: 64: 59: 41: 34: 26: 25:French Republic 17: 12: 11: 5: 12491: 12481: 12480: 12475: 12470: 12465: 12460: 12455: 12450: 12445: 12440: 12435: 12430: 12425: 12420: 12415: 12410: 12405: 12400: 12395: 12390: 12385: 12380: 12363: 12362: 12359: 12358: 12353: 12348: 12342: 12340: 12339: 12333: 12332: 12329: 12328: 12325: 12324: 12322: 12321: 12316: 12311: 12306: 12301: 12296: 12291: 12286: 12281: 12276: 12271: 12266: 12261: 12260:Cultural icons 12258: 12253: 12248: 12243: 12238: 12233: 12227: 12225: 12219: 12218: 12216: 12215: 12210: 12205: 12200: 12199: 12198: 12188: 12183: 12178: 12173: 12168: 12163: 12158: 12153: 12148: 12143: 12138: 12132: 12126: 12120: 12119: 12116: 12115: 12113: 12112: 12107: 12102: 12097: 12092: 12087: 12082: 12080:Stock exchange 12077: 12072: 12067: 12062: 12057: 12052: 12047: 12042: 12041: 12040: 12030: 12025: 12019: 12013: 12007: 12006: 12003: 12002: 12000: 11999: 11994: 11989: 11984: 11983: 11982: 11977: 11972: 11962: 11957: 11956: 11955: 11950: 11940: 11935: 11930: 11929: 11928: 11918: 11912: 11906: 11900: 11899: 11896: 11895: 11893: 11892: 11887: 11882: 11880:National parks 11877: 11872: 11867: 11862: 11857: 11855:Climate change 11852: 11847: 11841: 11835: 11829: 11828: 11825: 11824: 11822: 11821: 11820: 11819: 11814: 11809: 11804: 11799: 11794: 11789: 11784: 11777:Fifth Republic 11774: 11773: 11772: 11762: 11756: 11754: 11750: 11749: 11747: 11746: 11745: 11744: 11739: 11734: 11729: 11719: 11718: 11717: 11703: 11698: 11697: 11696: 11685:Third Republic 11682: 11677: 11672: 11667: 11662: 11656: 11655: 11650: 11645: 11639: 11637: 11631: 11630: 11628: 11627: 11622: 11620:First Republic 11617: 11615:Napoleonic era 11612: 11606: 11604: 11600: 11599: 11597: 11596: 11591: 11586: 11581: 11576: 11571: 11566: 11561: 11556: 11547: 11542: 11537: 11531: 11529: 11523: 11522: 11520: 11519: 11518: 11517: 11507: 11502: 11501: 11500: 11490: 11484: 11482: 11476: 11475: 11473: 11472: 11467: 11462: 11460:Greek colonies 11457: 11451: 11449: 11443: 11442: 11440: 11439: 11434: 11428: 11426: 11422: 11421: 11419: 11418: 11413: 11408: 11403: 11398: 11393: 11388: 11383: 11378: 11372: 11370: 11363: 11357: 11356: 11346: 11345: 11338: 11331: 11323: 11314: 11313: 11311: 11310: 11305: 11304: 11303: 11302: 11301: 11296: 11291: 11283: 11278: 11268: 11263: 11261:Russo-Japanese 11258: 11253: 11248: 11243: 11238: 11233: 11228: 11226:Anglo-Egyptian 11223: 11217: 11215: 11211: 11210: 11208: 11207: 11202: 11200:Bosnian Crisis 11197: 11196: 11195: 11185: 11184: 11183: 11173: 11168: 11163: 11158: 11153: 11152: 11151: 11149:Austro-Italian 11146: 11145: 11144: 11139: 11124: 11117: 11112: 11107: 11102: 11097: 11092: 11087: 11081: 11079: 11075: 11074: 11072: 11071: 11066: 11061: 11056: 11051: 11050: 11049: 11047:Martens Clause 11039: 11034: 11029: 11024: 11019: 11014: 11013: 11012: 11002: 10996: 10994: 10988: 10987: 10985: 10984: 10983: 10982: 10972: 10967: 10962: 10961: 10960: 10959: 10958: 10953: 10948: 10943: 10933: 10932: 10931: 10929:Egyptian Lever 10916: 10914:Pax Britannica 10911: 10910: 10909: 10899: 10898: 10897: 10895:Sovereign debt 10892: 10887: 10877: 10871: 10869: 10865: 10864: 10862: 10861: 10856: 10851: 10846: 10841: 10840: 10839: 10834: 10829: 10822:Triple Entente 10819: 10818: 10817: 10806: 10804: 10800: 10799: 10797: 10796: 10791: 10789:United Kingdom 10786: 10781: 10776: 10771: 10766: 10761: 10755: 10753: 10749: 10748: 10741: 10740: 10733: 10726: 10718: 10712: 10711: 10697: 10694: 10693: 10692: 10681: 10671: 10660: 10651:Farmer, Paul. 10647: 10644: 10643: 10642: 10628: 10621: 10614: 10601: 10594: 10587: 10571: 10568: 10567: 10566: 10556: 10551:Offen, Karen. 10549: 10539: 10532: 10525: 10513: 10510: 10509: 10508: 10498: 10497:, on 1880–1900 10489:Weber, Eugen. 10487: 10467: 10457: 10452:Robb, Graham. 10450: 10442:Price, Roger. 10440: 10429: 10424:978-0870993299 10423: 10405: 10402: 10401: 10400: 10393: 10383:(4): 417–449. 10377:French History 10372: 10365: 10358: 10351: 10337: 10321: 10290: 10287: 10286: 10285: 10278: 10271: 10264: 10257: 10246: 10236: 10221:Main article: 10218: 10215: 10214: 10213: 10206: 10197:Wolf, John B. 10195: 10185: 10171: 10150: 10143: 10133: 10132: 10131: 10117: 10108:Bury, J. P. T. 10105: 10093: 10075: 10066: 10063: 10061: 10058: 10056: 10055: 10049: 10033: 10019: 10006: 9992: 9979: 9969:Taylor, A.J.P. 9965: 9956: 9942: 9926: 9912: 9896: 9886:(5): 870–905. 9873: 9867: 9848: 9842: 9829: 9807: 9789: 9753: 9739: 9726: 9712: 9695: 9693: 9690: 9687: 9686: 9674: 9663:(2): 205–229. 9644: 9632: 9595: 9583: 9571: 9569:, p. 876. 9556: 9554:, p. 884. 9544: 9542:, p. 878. 9532: 9530:, p. 877. 9520: 9518:, p. 875. 9508: 9506:, p. 873. 9493: 9473: 9461: 9449: 9418: 9411: 9393: 9377: 9362: 9337: 9325: 9318: 9300: 9298:, p. 328. 9285: 9268: 9266:, p. 327. 9249: 9237: 9235:, p. 319. 9225: 9223:, p. 320. 9213: 9201: 9199:, p. 317. 9182: 9180:, p. 316. 9170: 9158: 9142: 9140:Aulach, p. 238 9133: 9120: 9111: 9098: 9086: 9074: 9062: 9050: 9031: 9013: 9011:, p. 169. 9001: 8973: 8971:, p. 150. 8961: 8954: 8936: 8925: 8916: 8904: 8897: 8877: 8865: 8836: 8817:(4): 480–507. 8799: 8787: 8774:10.1086/593154 8750: 8721: 8690:(2): 185–201. 8670: 8633: 8573: 8560:10.2307/493125 8554:(3): 361–378. 8538: 8522: 8515: 8497: 8470: 8453:French History 8443: 8430:10.2307/286380 8424:(3): 299–338. 8408: 8381: 8362:(3): 566–607. 8346: 8319: 8307: 8295: 8279: 8264: 8261:. p. 183. 8249: 8238:(3): 246–259. 8222: 8211:(4): 623–649. 8195: 8179: 8172: 8146: 8127:(2): 202–224. 8111: 8079: 8064: 8057: 8032: 8013:(4): 877–894. 7997: 7986:(2): 347–371. 7970: 7955: 7930: 7895: 7884:(2): 261–286. 7868: 7853: 7835: 7820: 7798: 7779:(2): 180–201. 7773:War in History 7760: 7753: 7735: 7720: 7705: 7684: 7669: 7657: 7628: 7621: 7603: 7586: 7571: 7556: 7537:(4): 693–714. 7521: 7509: 7494: 7476: 7464: 7452: 7437: 7422: 7407: 7392: 7377: 7362: 7350: 7337: 7325: 7313: 7306: 7294:Gildea, Robert 7285: 7277: 7257:Porch, Douglas 7248: 7241: 7219: 7206:10.2307/286210 7200:(4): 660–689. 7181: 7150: 7119: 7086: 7043: 7030:10.2307/286519 7024:(4): 664–683. 7006: 6977: 6948: 6930:(1): 183–219. 6904: 6897: 6879: 6872: 6854: 6843:(3): 644–651. 6825: 6806:(4): 879–882. 6785: 6773: 6765: 6743: 6736: 6710: 6683:(3): 112–121. 6664: 6652: 6633:(2): 225–248. 6615: 6608: 6590: 6583: 6565: 6530: 6519:(2): 173–186. 6513:French History 6503: 6484:(2): 197–210. 6468: 6442: 6416: 6397: 6382: 6367: 6344: 6309: 6296:10.2307/286694 6290:(3): 821–838. 6274: 6256: 6243:10.2307/286267 6237:(2): 287–315. 6219: 6207: 6195: 6169: 6157: 6145: 6134:(4): 399–426. 6128:French History 6118: 6106: 6076: 6069: 6046: 6031: 6012: 5992: 5990:, p. 304. 5979: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5970: 5969: 5959: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5952: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5910: 5909: 5904: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5873: 5872: 5871: 5858: 5855: 5854: 5853: 5826: 5823: 5812: 5809:Lord Lansdowne 5793: 5766: 5747: 5740: 5733:Alfred Dreyfus 5729:Dreyfus Affair 5725: 5694: 5679: 5675: 5674:congregations. 5659: 5656: 5644: 5617: 5602: 5595:duc de Broglie 5580: 5572: 5569:Adolphe Thiers 5561: 5544:May 1871: The 5542: 5539:Siege of Paris 5521: 5518: 5437:Maxime Weygand 5433:Georges Bonnet 5355:Fifth Republic 5306:Strange Defeat 5268:de Tocqueville 5252:Henri Rousseau 5240: 5237: 5215:Quartier Latin 5172:Adolphe Thiers 5142:Paul Deschanel 5137: 5134: 5132: 5131:Historiography 5129: 5002:Czechoslovakia 4967: 4964: 4957:Heinz Guderian 4858:Siegfried Line 4854:Saar Offensive 4815: 4812: 4795:Galeazzo Ciano 4782: 4779: 4775:Georges Bonnet 4720:were feeble". 4686:Czechoslovakia 4677: 4674: 4633: 4630: 4605:Third Republic 4601:Prime Minister 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4461:Joseph Cardijn 4430: 4427: 4392: 4389: 4371:rate of growth 4362:Bank of France 4311: 4308: 4267:Woodrow Wilson 4248: 4247:Foreign policy 4245: 4201: 4198: 4181:Main article: 4178: 4175: 4162:, but runaway 4074:Main article: 4071: 4068: 4056:Ottoman Empire 4020:Woodrow Wilson 4018:of France and 3999: 3996: 3982: 3979: 3954: 3951: 3911:trench warfare 3900: 3897: 3877:Paul Déroulède 3847:Main article: 3844: 3841: 3813: 3810: 3791:French Algeria 3782:natural rubber 3720:Main article: 3717: 3714: 3656:Russian Empire 3649:Triple Entente 3605:Triple Entente 3592: 3589: 3583:, and much of 3581:Central Africa 3485: 3482: 3456: 3453: 3429: 3426: 3391:1801 Concordat 3351:Masonic lodges 3343:Dreyfus Affair 3271:Assumptionists 3217: 3214: 3168:La Samaritaine 3144: 3141: 3115: 3112: 3077: 3076: 3013: 3010: 3005:Main article: 3002: 3001:Social history 2999: 2977:Henri Poincaré 2973:Anatole France 2933:Devil's Island 2925:Alfred Dreyfus 2918:Alfred Dreyfus 2896:Dreyfus affair 2894:Main article: 2891: 2890:Dreyfus affair 2888: 2837: 2834: 2813: 2812: 2810: 2809: 2802: 2795: 2787: 2784: 2783: 2755: 2754: 2752: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2740: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2719: 2714: 2713: 2712: 2702: 2697: 2692: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2671: 2668: 2667: 2663: 2662: 2657: 2656: 2650: 2648:Fifth Republic 2644: 2643: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2630: 2624: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2617: 2612: 2606: 2603: 2602: 2599: 2592: 2591: 2588: 2581: 2580: 2577: 2575:Third Republic 2569: 2564: 2563: 2560: 2559: 2554: 2553: 2550: 2543: 2542: 2539: 2537:Third Republic 2533: 2532: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2509: 2503: 2502: 2499: 2493: 2492: 2489: 2483: 2482: 2479: 2477:First Republic 2473: 2472: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2459: 2451: 2446: 2445: 2442: 2441: 2436: 2435: 2432: 2426: 2425: 2422: 2416: 2415: 2412: 2399: 2394: 2393: 2390: 2389: 2384: 2383: 2380: 2373: 2372: 2369: 2362: 2361: 2358: 2352: 2351: 2348: 2341: 2340: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2327: 2321: 2320: 2317: 2304: 2299: 2298: 2295: 2294: 2289: 2288: 2287:50 BC – 486 AD 2285: 2279: 2278: 2275: 2269: 2268: 2267:600 BC – 49 BC 2265: 2263:Greek colonies 2259: 2258: 2255: 2247: 2242: 2241: 2238: 2237: 2231: 2230: 2222: 2221: 2212: 2211: 2204: 2198: 2195: 2175:Main article: 2172: 2171:Panama scandal 2169: 2135: 2132: 2130: 2127: 2079: 2076: 2015:prime minister 1904: 1901: 1833: 1830: 1790:Adolphe Thiers 1763:Siege of Paris 1717:, seat of the 1715:Palais Bourbon 1706: 1703: 1681:Adolphe Thiers 1669:British Empire 1573:Adolphe Thiers 1489:Fall of France 1453: 1452: 1450: 1449: 1442: 1435: 1427: 1424: 1423: 1395: 1394: 1392: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1380: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1359: 1354: 1353: 1352: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1311: 1308: 1307: 1303: 1302: 1297: 1296: 1290: 1288:Fifth Republic 1284: 1283: 1280: 1274: 1273: 1270: 1264: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1257: 1252: 1246: 1243: 1242: 1239: 1232: 1231: 1228: 1221: 1220: 1217: 1215:Third Republic 1209: 1204: 1203: 1200: 1199: 1194: 1193: 1190: 1183: 1182: 1179: 1177:Third Republic 1173: 1172: 1169: 1163: 1162: 1159: 1153: 1152: 1149: 1143: 1142: 1139: 1133: 1132: 1129: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1117:First Republic 1113: 1112: 1109: 1103: 1102: 1099: 1091: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1056: 1055: 1052: 1039: 1034: 1033: 1030: 1029: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1013: 1012: 1009: 1002: 1001: 998: 992: 991: 988: 981: 980: 977: 971: 970: 967: 961: 960: 957: 944: 939: 938: 935: 934: 929: 928: 927:50 BC – 486 AD 925: 919: 918: 915: 909: 908: 907:600 BC – 49 BC 905: 903:Greek colonies 899: 898: 895: 887: 882: 881: 878: 877: 871: 870: 862: 861: 852: 851: 844: 837: 836: 833: 832: 829: 828: 821: 815: 814: 807: 801: 800: 793: 787: 786: 779: 777:administration 770: 769: 762: 753: 750: 749: 741: 733: 732: 727: 719: 718: 713: 705: 704: 699: 687: 686: 681: 671: 670: 665: 659: 658: 653: 649: 648: 645: 644: 641: 638: 635: 634: 631: 630: 624: 623: 620: 616: 615: 612: 608: 607: 601: 600: 597: 596: 593: 586: 583: 582: 579: 573: 570: 569: 566: 560: 557: 556: 553: 547: 544: 543: 540: 534: 531: 530: 527: 521: 518: 517: 514: 508: 505: 504: 501: 500: 497: 493: 492: 487: 481: 478: 477: 472: 466: 463: 462: 457: 453: 452: 449: 448: 443: 440: 437: 436: 431: 428: 425: 424: 421: 420: 417: 415:Prime Minister 411: 410: 407: 406: 401: 398: 395: 394: 392:Adolphe Thiers 389: 386: 383: 382: 379: 378: 375: 369: 368: 366: 365: 353: 340: 338: 332: 331: 326: 320: 319: 317: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 289:state religion 281: 279: 275: 274: 268: 264: 263: 227: 224: 220: 219: 216: 215: 199: 190: 188: 180: 179: 176: 175: 169: 167: 161: 158: 156: 148: 147: 127: 126: 112: 98: 97: 82: 81: 74: 67: 66: 60: 53: 52: 51: 48: 47: 43: 42: 27: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12490: 12479: 12476: 12474: 12471: 12469: 12466: 12464: 12461: 12459: 12456: 12454: 12451: 12449: 12446: 12444: 12441: 12439: 12436: 12434: 12431: 12429: 12426: 12424: 12421: 12419: 12416: 12414: 12411: 12409: 12406: 12404: 12401: 12399: 12396: 12394: 12391: 12389: 12386: 12384: 12381: 12379: 12376: 12375: 12373: 12357: 12354: 12352: 12349: 12347: 12344: 12343: 12338: 12335: 12334: 12330: 12320: 12317: 12315: 12312: 12310: 12307: 12305: 12302: 12300: 12297: 12295: 12292: 12290: 12287: 12285: 12282: 12280: 12277: 12275: 12272: 12270: 12267: 12265: 12262: 12259: 12257: 12254: 12252: 12249: 12247: 12244: 12242: 12239: 12237: 12234: 12232: 12229: 12228: 12226: 12224: 12220: 12214: 12211: 12209: 12206: 12204: 12201: 12197: 12194: 12193: 12192: 12189: 12187: 12184: 12182: 12179: 12177: 12174: 12172: 12169: 12167: 12164: 12162: 12159: 12157: 12154: 12152: 12149: 12147: 12144: 12142: 12141:Birth control 12139: 12137: 12134: 12133: 12130: 12127: 12125: 12121: 12111: 12108: 12106: 12103: 12101: 12098: 12096: 12093: 12091: 12088: 12086: 12083: 12081: 12078: 12076: 12073: 12071: 12068: 12066: 12063: 12061: 12058: 12056: 12053: 12051: 12048: 12046: 12043: 12039: 12036: 12035: 12034: 12031: 12029: 12026: 12024: 12021: 12020: 12017: 12014: 12012: 12008: 11998: 11995: 11993: 11990: 11988: 11985: 11981: 11978: 11976: 11973: 11971: 11968: 11967: 11966: 11963: 11961: 11958: 11954: 11951: 11949: 11946: 11945: 11944: 11941: 11939: 11936: 11934: 11931: 11927: 11924: 11923: 11922: 11919: 11917: 11916:Constitutions 11914: 11913: 11910: 11907: 11905: 11901: 11891: 11888: 11886: 11883: 11881: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11871: 11868: 11866: 11863: 11861: 11858: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11848: 11846: 11843: 11842: 11839: 11836: 11834: 11830: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11810: 11808: 11805: 11803: 11800: 11798: 11795: 11793: 11790: 11788: 11785: 11783: 11780: 11779: 11778: 11775: 11771: 11768: 11767: 11766: 11763: 11761: 11758: 11757: 11755: 11751: 11743: 11740: 11738: 11735: 11733: 11730: 11728: 11725: 11724: 11723: 11720: 11715: 11714: 11713:Années folles 11709: 11708: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11699: 11694: 11693: 11688: 11687: 11686: 11683: 11681: 11678: 11676: 11675:Second Empire 11673: 11671: 11668: 11666: 11663: 11661: 11658: 11657: 11654: 11653:July Monarchy 11651: 11649: 11646: 11644: 11641: 11640: 11638: 11636: 11632: 11626: 11623: 11621: 11618: 11616: 11613: 11611: 11608: 11607: 11605: 11601: 11595: 11592: 11590: 11587: 11585: 11582: 11580: 11577: 11575: 11572: 11570: 11567: 11565: 11562: 11560: 11557: 11554: 11553: 11552:Ancien Régime 11548: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11538: 11536: 11533: 11532: 11530: 11528: 11524: 11516: 11513: 11512: 11511: 11508: 11506: 11503: 11499: 11496: 11495: 11494: 11491: 11489: 11486: 11485: 11483: 11481: 11477: 11471: 11468: 11466: 11463: 11461: 11458: 11456: 11453: 11452: 11450: 11448: 11444: 11438: 11435: 11433: 11430: 11429: 11427: 11423: 11417: 11414: 11412: 11409: 11407: 11404: 11402: 11399: 11397: 11394: 11392: 11389: 11387: 11384: 11382: 11379: 11377: 11374: 11373: 11371: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11358: 11354: 11351: 11344: 11339: 11337: 11332: 11330: 11325: 11324: 11321: 11309: 11306: 11300: 11297: 11295: 11292: 11290: 11287: 11286: 11284: 11282: 11279: 11277: 11274: 11273: 11272: 11269: 11267: 11266:Italo-Turkish 11264: 11262: 11259: 11257: 11254: 11252: 11249: 11247: 11244: 11242: 11239: 11237: 11234: 11232: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11221:Russo-Turkish 11219: 11218: 11216: 11212: 11206: 11203: 11201: 11198: 11194: 11193:Treaty of Fes 11191: 11190: 11189: 11188:Agadir Crisis 11186: 11182: 11179: 11178: 11177: 11174: 11172: 11169: 11167: 11164: 11162: 11159: 11157: 11154: 11150: 11147: 11143: 11140: 11138: 11137: 11133: 11132: 11131: 11128: 11127: 11125: 11123: 11122: 11118: 11116: 11113: 11111: 11108: 11106: 11103: 11101: 11098: 11096: 11093: 11091: 11088: 11086: 11083: 11082: 11080: 11076: 11070: 11067: 11065: 11062: 11060: 11057: 11055: 11052: 11048: 11045: 11044: 11043: 11040: 11038: 11035: 11033: 11030: 11028: 11025: 11023: 11020: 11018: 11015: 11011: 11008: 11007: 11006: 11003: 11001: 10998: 10997: 10995: 10989: 10981: 10978: 10977: 10976: 10973: 10971: 10968: 10966: 10963: 10957: 10954: 10952: 10949: 10947: 10944: 10942: 10939: 10938: 10937: 10934: 10930: 10927: 10926: 10925: 10922: 10921: 10920: 10917: 10915: 10912: 10908: 10905: 10904: 10903: 10900: 10896: 10893: 10891: 10888: 10886: 10883: 10882: 10881: 10878: 10876: 10873: 10872: 10870: 10866: 10860: 10859:Balkan League 10857: 10855: 10852: 10850: 10847: 10845: 10842: 10838: 10835: 10833: 10830: 10828: 10825: 10824: 10823: 10820: 10816: 10815:Dual Alliance 10813: 10812: 10811: 10808: 10807: 10805: 10801: 10795: 10794:United States 10792: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10780: 10777: 10775: 10772: 10770: 10767: 10765: 10762: 10760: 10757: 10756: 10754: 10750: 10746: 10739: 10734: 10732: 10727: 10725: 10720: 10719: 10716: 10707: 10706: 10700: 10699: 10690: 10686: 10682: 10680: 10676: 10672: 10669: 10665: 10661: 10658: 10654: 10650: 10649: 10641: 10637: 10636:vol 1 excerpt 10633: 10629: 10626: 10622: 10619: 10616:Gooch, G. P. 10615: 10612: 10608: 10605: 10602: 10599: 10595: 10592: 10588: 10586: 10585:0-8090-4643-1 10582: 10578: 10574: 10573: 10565: 10561: 10557: 10554: 10550: 10548: 10544: 10540: 10537: 10533: 10530: 10526: 10524: 10520: 10516: 10515: 10507: 10503: 10499: 10496: 10492: 10488: 10484: 10480: 10476: 10472: 10468: 10466: 10462: 10458: 10455: 10451: 10449: 10445: 10441: 10438: 10434: 10430: 10426: 10420: 10416: 10415: 10412: 10408: 10407: 10398: 10397:History Today 10394: 10390: 10386: 10382: 10378: 10373: 10370: 10366: 10363: 10359: 10356: 10352: 10348: 10344: 10340: 10338:0-521-26559-2 10334: 10330: 10326: 10322: 10318: 10314: 10310: 10306: 10302: 10298: 10293: 10292: 10283: 10279: 10276: 10272: 10269: 10265: 10262: 10258: 10255: 10251: 10247: 10245: 10241: 10237: 10235: 10231: 10227: 10226: 10224: 10211: 10207: 10204: 10200: 10196: 10194: 10190: 10186: 10184: 10180: 10179: 10175: 10172: 10168: 10164: 10160: 10156: 10151: 10148: 10144: 10142: 10138: 10134: 10130: 10127: 10126: 10125: 10124:partly online 10121: 10118: 10116: 10112: 10109: 10106: 10104: 10100: 10097: 10094: 10092: 10089:; in French; 10088: 10084: 10080: 10076: 10073: 10069: 10068: 10052: 10046: 10042: 10038: 10034: 10030: 10026: 10022: 10016: 10012: 10007: 10003: 9999: 9995: 9993:0-4348-4216-8 9989: 9985: 9980: 9976: 9975: 9970: 9966: 9962: 9957: 9953: 9949: 9945: 9939: 9935: 9931: 9927: 9923: 9919: 9915: 9909: 9905: 9901: 9897: 9893: 9889: 9885: 9881: 9880: 9874: 9870: 9864: 9860: 9859:Da Capo Press 9856: 9855: 9849: 9845: 9839: 9835: 9830: 9826: 9822: 9818: 9814: 9810: 9804: 9800: 9799: 9794: 9790: 9786: 9782: 9778: 9774: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9758: 9754: 9750: 9746: 9742: 9736: 9732: 9727: 9723: 9719: 9715: 9709: 9705: 9701: 9697: 9696: 9683: 9678: 9670: 9666: 9662: 9658: 9654: 9648: 9641: 9636: 9628: 9624: 9620: 9616: 9612: 9608: 9607: 9599: 9592: 9587: 9580: 9575: 9568: 9563: 9561: 9553: 9548: 9541: 9536: 9529: 9524: 9517: 9512: 9505: 9500: 9498: 9489: 9488: 9487:Inside Europe 9483: 9482:Gunther, John 9477: 9470: 9465: 9458: 9453: 9445: 9441: 9437: 9433: 9429: 9422: 9414: 9408: 9404: 9397: 9390: 9386: 9381: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9359: 9355: 9351: 9347: 9341: 9334: 9329: 9321: 9315: 9311: 9304: 9297: 9292: 9290: 9283:, p. 57. 9282: 9277: 9275: 9273: 9265: 9260: 9258: 9256: 9254: 9246: 9241: 9234: 9229: 9222: 9217: 9210: 9205: 9198: 9193: 9191: 9189: 9187: 9179: 9174: 9167: 9162: 9155: 9151: 9146: 9137: 9130: 9124: 9115: 9108: 9102: 9095: 9090: 9084:, p. 43. 9083: 9078: 9071: 9066: 9060:, p. 32. 9059: 9054: 9048:, p. 20. 9047: 9042: 9040: 9038: 9036: 9027: 9023: 9017: 9010: 9005: 8990: 8989: 8984: 8977: 8970: 8965: 8957: 8955:9783412205805 8951: 8947: 8940: 8934: 8929: 8920: 8913: 8908: 8900: 8894: 8890: 8889: 8881: 8874: 8869: 8861: 8857: 8853: 8849: 8848: 8840: 8832: 8828: 8824: 8820: 8816: 8812: 8811: 8803: 8796: 8791: 8783: 8779: 8775: 8771: 8767: 8763: 8762: 8754: 8746: 8742: 8738: 8734: 8733: 8725: 8709: 8705: 8701: 8697: 8693: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8674: 8666: 8662: 8658: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8645: 8637: 8629: 8620: 8619: 8611: 8605: 8597: 8588: 8587: 8577: 8569: 8565: 8561: 8557: 8553: 8549: 8542: 8535: 8531: 8526: 8518: 8512: 8508: 8501: 8493: 8489: 8485: 8481: 8474: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8447: 8439: 8435: 8431: 8427: 8423: 8419: 8412: 8404: 8400: 8396: 8392: 8385: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8365: 8361: 8357: 8350: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8330: 8323: 8316: 8311: 8304: 8299: 8292: 8288: 8283: 8275: 8268: 8260: 8253: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8233: 8226: 8218: 8214: 8210: 8206: 8199: 8192: 8188: 8183: 8175: 8169: 8165: 8160: 8159: 8150: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8122: 8115: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8095: 8094: 8089: 8083: 8075: 8068: 8060: 8054: 8049: 8048: 8042: 8036: 8028: 8024: 8020: 8016: 8012: 8008: 8001: 7993: 7989: 7985: 7982:(in French). 7981: 7974: 7966: 7962: 7958: 7956:9780521666312 7952: 7948: 7944: 7940: 7934: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7913: 7908: 7907:Beaudry, Paul 7902: 7900: 7891: 7887: 7883: 7880:(in French). 7879: 7872: 7864: 7860: 7856: 7850: 7846: 7839: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7817: 7813: 7809: 7802: 7794: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7778: 7774: 7770: 7764: 7756: 7750: 7746: 7739: 7731: 7724: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7688: 7680: 7673: 7666: 7661: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7640: 7639:History Today 7632: 7624: 7618: 7614: 7607: 7599: 7598: 7590: 7582: 7575: 7567: 7560: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7525: 7518: 7513: 7506: 7501: 7499: 7490: 7486: 7480: 7473: 7468: 7461: 7456: 7448: 7441: 7433: 7426: 7418: 7411: 7403: 7396: 7388: 7381: 7373: 7366: 7359: 7354: 7347: 7341: 7334: 7329: 7322: 7321:McMillan 2003 7317: 7309: 7303: 7299: 7295: 7289: 7280: 7274: 7270: 7265: 7264: 7258: 7252: 7244: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7223: 7215: 7211: 7207: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7188: 7186: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7154: 7137: 7133: 7129: 7123: 7114: 7109: 7105: 7101: 7097: 7090: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7047: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7018: 7010: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6990: 6989: 6981: 6973: 6969: 6965: 6961: 6960: 6952: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6924: 6915: 6908: 6900: 6894: 6890: 6883: 6875: 6869: 6865: 6858: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6837: 6829: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6800: 6795: 6794:Amato, Joseph 6789: 6782: 6777: 6768: 6762: 6758: 6754: 6747: 6739: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6714: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6671: 6669: 6661: 6656: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6627: 6619: 6611: 6605: 6601: 6594: 6586: 6580: 6576: 6569: 6560: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6546: 6541: 6534: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6507: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6456: 6452: 6446: 6430: 6426: 6420: 6412: 6408: 6401: 6393: 6386: 6378: 6371: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6348: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6313: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6278: 6270: 6266: 6260: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6231: 6223: 6216: 6211: 6204: 6199: 6183: 6179: 6173: 6166: 6161: 6154: 6149: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6122: 6115: 6110: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6080: 6072: 6066: 6062: 6061: 6056: 6050: 6042: 6035: 6019: 6015: 6013:9781576073353 6009: 6005: 6004: 5996: 5989: 5984: 5980: 5964: 5960: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5908: 5907:French Africa 5905: 5903: 5900: 5899: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5877: 5874: 5870: 5867: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5860: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5838:assassination 5835: 5831: 5827: 5824: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5810: 5805: 5804: 5798: 5794: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5774:Léon Gambetta 5771: 5767: 5764: 5759: 5758: 5752: 5749:1898: Writer 5748: 5745: 5741: 5738: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5706: 5705: 5699: 5695: 5692: 5689:. Later, the 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5657: 5654: 5649: 5645: 5641: 5640: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5600: 5596: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5578: 5573: 5570: 5566: 5565:Paris Commune 5562: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5523: 5517: 5515: 5511: 5510:Martin Thomas 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5486: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5470: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5425: 5421:'s 1969 book 5420: 5415: 5409: 5407: 5402: 5396: 5390: 5386: 5380: 5375: 5371: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5343: 5341: 5337: 5332: 5326: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5311: 5310:Popular Front 5307: 5303: 5299: 5298: 5293: 5289: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5271: 5269: 5265: 5260: 5259:Second Empire 5253: 5249: 5245: 5236: 5233: 5232: 5226: 5222: 5217: 5216: 5209: 5208: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5188: 5186: 5182: 5177: 5176:republicanism 5173: 5169: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5154:was liberated 5151: 5147: 5146:German Empire 5143: 5128: 5126: 5122: 5119:had made the 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5105:État Français 5102: 5097: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5082:Manstein Plan 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5054:Low Countries 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5038:Army Groups A 5035: 5031: 5028:into central 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5009: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4934: 4933: 4928: 4924: 4919: 4915: 4913: 4908: 4904: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4885: 4883: 4879: 4874: 4870: 4865: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4825: 4821: 4811: 4808: 4802: 4800: 4796: 4790: 4788: 4778: 4776: 4770: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4754: 4751: 4750:Berchtesgaden 4747: 4742: 4737: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4721: 4719: 4713: 4709: 4707: 4702: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4663: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4629: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4585: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4558: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4504:Popular Front 4501: 4497: 4483: 4481: 4477: 4472: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4456: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4426: 4424: 4420: 4415: 4413: 4411: 4406: 4405:André Tardieu 4402: 4400: 4388: 4386: 4382: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4368: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4350:paid vacation 4347: 4342: 4337: 4335: 4334:popular front 4331: 4327: 4321: 4317: 4310:Popular Front 4307: 4305: 4299: 4295: 4293: 4287: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4259: 4254: 4244: 4242: 4241: 4236: 4232: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4197: 4193: 4190: 4184: 4174: 4172: 4167: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4144: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4127:dominated by 4126: 4125: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4107: 4106:Bloc national 4102: 4095: 4092:, during the 4091: 4087: 4086:Deutsches Eck 4082: 4077: 4067: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4032: 4030: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4004: 3995: 3993: 3988: 3978: 3976: 3971: 3969: 3963: 3960: 3950: 3946: 3945: 3939: 3935: 3930: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3915:Western Front 3912: 3906: 3896: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3873: 3871: 3866: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3850: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3809: 3807: 3803: 3798: 3796: 3792: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3766: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3713: 3711: 3707: 3706:Balkan crisis 3701: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3670: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3652: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3627: 3624:(centre) and 3623: 3622:Mother Russia 3619: 3615: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3588: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3557: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3540:(1884–1885). 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3522: 3520: 3515: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3490: 3481: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3452: 3450: 3444: 3439: 3435: 3425: 3423: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3405: 3403: 3398: 3394: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3381:in Rome, and 3380: 3376: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3339: 3337: 3336: 3331: 3330:Albert de Mun 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3314: 3309: 3307: 3306:Rerum Novarum 3303: 3299: 3298:Albert de Mun 3295: 3291: 3287: 3282: 3279: 3274: 3272: 3268: 3260: 3259: 3253: 3249: 3247: 3244:were passed. 3243: 3239: 3238:Ancien Régime 3234: 3233:anti-clerical 3229: 3223: 3213: 3211: 3206: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3191: 3187: 3186:working class 3182: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3169: 3165: 3160: 3159:Le Bon Marché 3153: 3152:Au Bon Marché 3149: 3140: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3111: 3110: 3106: 3105: 3100: 3099: 3094: 3090: 3089: 3084: 3083: 3074: 3073: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3062: 3057: 3055: 3050: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3039: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3025: 3020: 3008: 2998: 2994: 2992: 2991: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2961: 2956: 2955: 2949: 2944: 2942: 2938: 2937:French Guiana 2934: 2930: 2926: 2919: 2914: 2910: 2908: 2904: 2903:anti-Semitism 2897: 2887: 2883: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2872:Léon Gambetta 2870:Followers of 2868: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2856:Radical Party 2850: 2846: 2842: 2833: 2829: 2826: 2822: 2808: 2803: 2801: 2796: 2794: 2789: 2788: 2786: 2785: 2782: 2771: 2767: 2757: 2756: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2728: 2725: 2724: 2723: 2720: 2718: 2715: 2711: 2708: 2707: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2691: 2688: 2686: 2683: 2681: 2678: 2676: 2673: 2672: 2670: 2669: 2665: 2664: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2645: 2641: 2639: 2636: 2635: 2631: 2629: 2626: 2625: 2621: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2607: 2605: 2604: 2600: 2598: 2597:Années folles 2594: 2593: 2589: 2587: 2583: 2582: 2578: 2576: 2573: 2572: 2567: 2562: 2561: 2551: 2549: 2545: 2544: 2540: 2538: 2535: 2534: 2530: 2528: 2527:Second Empire 2525: 2524: 2520: 2518: 2515: 2514: 2510: 2508: 2507:July Monarchy 2505: 2504: 2500: 2498: 2495: 2494: 2490: 2488: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2478: 2475: 2474: 2470: 2468: 2465: 2464: 2460: 2458: 2455: 2454: 2449: 2444: 2443: 2433: 2431: 2430:Bourbon kings 2428: 2427: 2423: 2421: 2418: 2417: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2402:Ancien Régime 2397: 2392: 2391: 2381: 2379: 2375: 2374: 2370: 2368: 2364: 2363: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2353: 2349: 2347: 2343: 2342: 2338: 2336: 2333: 2332: 2328: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2296: 2286: 2284: 2281: 2280: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2270: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2260: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2223: 2220: 2214: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2202: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2178: 2168: 2164: 2161: 2156: 2152: 2144: 2140: 2126: 2124: 2119: 2117: 2116: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2085: 2075: 2073: 2069: 2064: 2059: 2056: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2040: 2038: 2037: 2027: 2022: 2018: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1983: 1981: 1980: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1961: 1959: 1958:Paris Commune 1954: 1950: 1946: 1938: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1914: 1910: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1838: 1829: 1827: 1822: 1821: 1815: 1814:Paris Commune 1811: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1795:German Empire 1791: 1787: 1782: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1767:Léon Gambetta 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1751:Léon Gambetta 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1727: 1720: 1716: 1711: 1702: 1699: 1698: 1697:Ancien Régime 1692: 1688: 1682: 1676: 1674: 1673:British India 1670: 1665: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1648: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1582: 1574: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1551: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1535: 1530:(keeping the 1529: 1525: 1521: 1520:German Empire 1517: 1516:Paris Commune 1513: 1509: 1504: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1448: 1443: 1441: 1436: 1434: 1429: 1428: 1426: 1425: 1422: 1411: 1407: 1397: 1396: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1378: 1375: 1373: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1363: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1351: 1348: 1347: 1346: 1343: 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1331: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1312: 1310: 1309: 1305: 1304: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1285: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1261: 1256: 1253: 1251: 1248: 1247: 1245: 1244: 1240: 1238: 1237:Années folles 1234: 1233: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1222: 1218: 1216: 1213: 1212: 1207: 1202: 1201: 1191: 1189: 1185: 1184: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1174: 1170: 1168: 1167:Second Empire 1165: 1164: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1150: 1148: 1147:July Monarchy 1145: 1144: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1104: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1083: 1073: 1071: 1070:Bourbon kings 1068: 1067: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1047: 1044: 1043: 1042:Ancien Régime 1037: 1032: 1031: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1014: 1010: 1008: 1004: 1003: 999: 997: 994: 993: 989: 987: 983: 982: 978: 976: 973: 972: 968: 966: 963: 962: 958: 955: 951: 948: 947: 942: 937: 936: 926: 924: 921: 920: 916: 914: 911: 910: 906: 904: 901: 900: 896: 894: 891: 890: 885: 880: 879: 876: 873: 872: 868: 864: 863: 860: 854: 853: 848: 843: 842: 822: 820: 817: 816: 808: 806: 803: 802: 794: 792: 789: 788: 780: 778: 772: 771: 763: 761: 758: 757: 754: 748: 742: 735: 734: 731: 730:German Empire 728: 721: 720: 717: 716:Paris Commune 714: 707: 706: 703: 700: 693: 692: 689: 688: 685: 682: 680: 677: 676: 672: 669: 666: 664: 663:ISO 3166 code 660: 657: 654: 650: 646: 642: 636: 632: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 584: 580: 577: 571: 567: 564: 558: 554: 551: 545: 542:3 August 1914 541: 538: 532: 528: 525: 519: 515: 512: 511:Leon Gambetta 506: 502: 498: 494: 491: 488: 485: 479: 476: 473: 470: 464: 461: 458: 454: 450: 447: 444: 438: 435: 432: 426: 422: 418: 416: 412: 408: 405: 404:Albert Lebrun 402: 396: 393: 390: 384: 380: 376: 374: 370: 363: 360: 359:parliamentary 357: 354: 351: 348: 347:parliamentary 345: 342: 341: 339: 337: 333: 330: 327: 325: 321: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 294: 290: 286: 283: 282: 280: 276: 272: 269: 265: 260: 231: 228: 221: 214: 213:protectorates 210: 206: 203: 200: 198: 195: 192: 191: 186: 181: 168: 160: 159: 154: 149: 145: 140: 135: 133: 128: 110: 109: 103: 99: 93: 92: 87: 83: 77: 71: 63: 57: 49: 44: 38: 31: 22: 19: 12246:Coat of arms 12236:Architecture 12208:Social class 12166:Homelessness 12151:Demographics 12105:Trade unions 12038:Central bank 11980:criminal law 11943:Human rights 11926:presidential 11770:Algerian War 11753:Contemporary 11727:Vichy France 11722:World War II 11692:Belle Époque 11684: 11625:First Empire 11527:Early Modern 11498:West Francia 11134: 11130:Anglo-German 11119: 10991:Treaties and 10763: 10752:Great powers 10704: 10684: 10674: 10663: 10652: 10631: 10624: 10617: 10606: 10597: 10590: 10576: 10559: 10552: 10542: 10535: 10528: 10518: 10501: 10490: 10474: 10471:Weber, Eugen 10460: 10453: 10443: 10432: 10414: 10411: 10396: 10380: 10376: 10368: 10361: 10354: 10328: 10300: 10296: 10281: 10274: 10267: 10260: 10259:Gooch, G.P. 10253: 10249: 10239: 10229: 10209: 10198: 10188: 10177: 10158: 10146: 10136: 10119: 10110: 10098: 10096:Brogan, D. W 10078: 10071: 10040: 10010: 9983: 9972: 9960: 9933: 9903: 9883: 9877: 9853: 9833: 9797: 9793:Colton, Joel 9760: 9757:Brogan, D.W. 9730: 9703: 9682:Jackson 2006 9677: 9660: 9656: 9647: 9635: 9610: 9604: 9598: 9591:Jackson 2006 9586: 9579:Jackson 2006 9574: 9567:Jackson 2006 9552:Jackson 2006 9547: 9540:Jackson 2006 9535: 9528:Jackson 2006 9523: 9516:Jackson 2006 9511: 9504:Jackson 2006 9486: 9476: 9469:Jackson 2006 9464: 9457:Jackson 2006 9452: 9438:(42): 9–22. 9435: 9431: 9421: 9402: 9396: 9385:Jackson 2003 9380: 9349: 9340: 9328: 9309: 9303: 9240: 9228: 9216: 9204: 9173: 9161: 9153: 9145: 9136: 9128: 9123: 9114: 9106: 9101: 9089: 9077: 9065: 9053: 9025: 9016: 9009:Harding 2013 9004: 8992:. Retrieved 8986: 8976: 8969:Harding 2013 8964: 8945: 8939: 8928: 8919: 8907: 8887: 8880: 8868: 8854:(1): 18–44. 8851: 8845: 8839: 8814: 8808: 8802: 8790: 8765: 8759: 8753: 8739:(2): 25–45. 8736: 8730: 8724: 8712:. Retrieved 8687: 8683: 8673: 8651:(1): 45–62. 8648: 8642: 8636: 8627: 8617: 8603: 8595: 8585: 8576: 8551: 8547: 8541: 8525: 8506: 8500: 8483: 8479: 8473: 8459:(1): 48–73. 8456: 8452: 8446: 8421: 8417: 8411: 8394: 8390: 8384: 8359: 8355: 8349: 8332: 8328: 8322: 8315:Jackson 2006 8310: 8298: 8282: 8273: 8267: 8258: 8252: 8235: 8231: 8225: 8208: 8204: 8198: 8182: 8157: 8149: 8124: 8120: 8114: 8100:(1): 51–72. 8097: 8091: 8082: 8073: 8067: 8046: 8035: 8010: 8006: 8000: 7983: 7979: 7973: 7942: 7933: 7919:(1): 73–99. 7916: 7910: 7881: 7877: 7871: 7844: 7838: 7807: 7801: 7776: 7772: 7763: 7744: 7738: 7729: 7723: 7696: 7687: 7678: 7672: 7660: 7646:(2): 18–25. 7643: 7637: 7631: 7612: 7606: 7596: 7589: 7580: 7574: 7568:. Routledge. 7565: 7559: 7534: 7530: 7524: 7512: 7505:Aldrich 1996 7488: 7479: 7467: 7455: 7446: 7440: 7431: 7425: 7416: 7410: 7401: 7395: 7386: 7380: 7371: 7365: 7353: 7345: 7340: 7328: 7316: 7297: 7288: 7262: 7251: 7232: 7222: 7197: 7193: 7171:. Retrieved 7162: 7153: 7140:. 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Retrieved 6002: 5995: 5988:Aldrich 1996 5983: 5963: 5865:, 1871–1914 5863:Belle Époque 5828:1914: After 5820:Emile Combes 5790:Bonapartists 5757:J'Accuse...! 5639:le seize Mai 5613: 5552:and most of 5487: 5481: 5474:la décadence 5473: 5471: 5467:la décadence 5466: 5462:la décadence 5457:Paul Reynaud 5445:Pierre Laval 5422: 5414:la décadence 5410: 5401:la décadence 5395:La Décadence 5391: 5385:la décadence 5366: 5344: 5331:la décadence 5327: 5322: 5315:André Géraud 5305: 5304:in his book 5295: 5292:John Gunther 5290: 5276:la décadence 5272: 5256: 5247: 5235:government. 5203:founded the 5189: 5170: 5162:constitution 5139: 5109:Vichy France 5104: 5098: 5086:Adolf Hitler 5026:Army Group B 5013: 5010: 4995: 4980:Vichy France 4961: 4937: 4930: 4921:Gamelin (in 4909: 4905: 4886: 4866: 4827: 4806: 4803: 4791: 4787:Paul Reynaud 4784: 4771: 4767:Le Populaire 4766: 4762: 4758: 4755: 4738: 4722: 4714: 4710: 4706:Lord Halifax 4703: 4694:Nazi Germany 4688:to hand the 4679: 4670: 4666: 4661: 4657: 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France 684:Succeeded by 683: 678: 656:French Franc 595:10 July 1940 589:Vichy France 563:World War II 555:28 June 1919 201: 193: 165: France 130: 101: 86:Motto: 85: 76:Coat of arms 18: 12356:WikiProject 12171:Immigration 12161:Health care 12023:Agriculture 11975:enforcement 11732:Free France 11701:World War I 11648:Restoration 11635:Late Modern 11505:Middle Ages 11480:Middle Ages 11465:Celtic Gaul 11308:World War I 11271:Balkan Wars 11256:Second Boer 11241:Banana Wars 11205:July Crisis 11136:Dreadnought 11121:Weltpolitik 10965:Pan-Slavism 10570:World War I 10205:pp 349–501. 10203:online free 9692:Works cited 9387:, pp. 9296:Colton 1966 9264:Colton 1966 9245:Colton 1966 9233:Colton 1966 9221:Colton 1966 9209:Colton 1966 9197:Colton 1966 9178:Colton 1966 9166:Colton 1966 8912:Colton 1966 8768:(1): 1–44. 8610:Colton 1966 8532:, pp. 8530:Larkin 1988 8287:Larkin 1988 8189:, pp. 8187:Larkin 1988 7665:Keiger 1983 7517:Taylor 1954 7472:Taylor 1954 7460:Brogan 1940 7179:(full text) 7148:(full text) 6995:(1): 1–17. 6781:Hutton 1986 6660:Hutton 1986 6215:Brogan 1940 6203:Brogan 1940 6165:Brogan 1940 6153:Brogan 1940 6114:Brogan 1940 6024:23 December 5878:, 1919–1939 5834:Jean Jaurès 5786:monarchists 5746:was formed. 5714:Sadi Carnot 5663:Legitimists 5653:Jules Grévy 5648:Republicans 5625:Jules Simon 5599:Monarchists 5417:thesis was 5197:Legitimists 5160:to draft a 5125:Free France 5006:Sudetenland 4976:Free France 4927:Frank Capra 4893:Netherlands 4880:, a German 4690:Sudetenland 4622:Josef Gangl 4560:During the 4551:Sudetenland 4512:appeasement 4436:Benedict XV 4230:coup d'état 4152:public debt 3959:war economy 3953:War economy 3885:Jean Jaurès 3742:(1897–1902) 3690:Anglophobia 3577:West Africa 3561:Jules Ferry 3470:Paul Cambon 3422:Gallicanism 3383:Pope Pius X 3278:Jules Ferry 3195:consumerism 3190:bourgeoisie 3124:Eugen Weber 2939:(nicknamed 2907:French Army 2845:Silver coin 2680:Health care 2610:Free France 2497:Restoration 2301:Middle Ages 2273:Celtic Gaul 2216:History of 2155:coup d'état 2090:Legitimists 2068:Jules Grévy 2048:Jules Simon 1979:ordre moral 1976:. The term 1937:Ordre Moral 1849:Legitimists 1642:Free France 1626:World War I 1618:centre-left 1608:during the 1606:West Africa 1320:Health care 1250:Free France 1137:Restoration 941:Middle Ages 913:Celtic Gaul 856:History of 819:Free France 679:Preceded by 643:150,000,000 484:Lower house 469:Upper house 456:Legislature 364:(1875–1940) 352:(1870−1875) 304:Lutheranism 254: / 202:Light blue: 12372:Categories 12299:Philosophy 12284:Literature 12196:secularism 11992:Parliament 11787:2005 riots 11737:Liberation 11603:Revolution 11470:Roman Gaul 11455:Prehistory 11411:Journalism 10993:agreements 10941:Great Game 10907:Revanchism 10167:Q107258923 10013:. Norton. 9640:Young 2005 9432:Romantisme 9333:Weber 1994 9094:Young 2005 9082:Young 2005 9070:Young 2005 9058:Young 2005 9046:Young 2005 8289:, p. 7163:vatican.va 7132:vatican.va 6188:8 November 5975:References 5811:, in 1904. 5776:, such as 5768:1901: The 5751:Émile Zola 5742:1894: The 5727:1894: The 5687:Émile Zola 5563:1871: The 5302:Marc Bloch 5286:Riom Trial 5181:Revolution 5148:, and the 4925:) seen in 4850:Phoney War 4846:Blitzkrieg 4818:See also: 4574:Winter War 4562:Phoney War 4141:Communists 4050:, such as 4044:Saar Basin 4014:of Italy, 3938:censorship 3913:along the 3816:See also: 3573:Madagascar 3519:Suez Canal 3424:was dead. 3322:Integrists 3290:encyclical 3220:See also: 3203:gramophone 3175:Émile Zola 3093:Paris Soir 3082:Paris Soir 3012:Newspapers 2965:Émile Zola 2874:, such as 2316:settlement 2283:Roman Gaul 2253:Prehistory 1995:Legitimist 1960:in March. 1953:Versailles 1867:supported 1865:Orléanists 1820:communards 956:settlement 923:Roman Gaul 893:Prehistory 747:by Germany 628:Population 460:Parliament 336:Government 324:Demonym(s) 242:02°18′59″E 239:48°52′13″N 194:Dark blue: 12156:Education 12110:Transport 11960:Judiciary 11921:Elections 11875:Mountains 11833:Geography 11579:Louis XIV 11369:Overviews 10956:Meiji era 10803:Alliances 10483:17758709M 10317:145438655 10273:Nere, J. 10161:: 39–48. 9722:10550976M 9372:22522982M 9281:Watt 1989 8994:26 August 8831:146472852 8782:142074638 8704:143962782 8665:154974252 8618:Léon Blum 8376:154961834 8027:162914333 7965:22521391M 7863:15182161W 7830:21488370M 7793:154834826 7652:0018-2753 7551:153431025 7081:145338843 6972:0099-0329 6966:: 17–21. 6705:141242021 6697:0094-7679 6647:144943082 6498:144278218 6413:(1): 4ff. 6339:159988092 6099:7 October 5592:Orleanist 5347:Gaullists 5193:Orleanist 5018:Dyle Plan 4944:Luftwaffe 4897:Dyle Plan 4832:in 1939, 4653:Wehrmacht 4496:Léon Blum 4457:/Féminine 4399:Gringoire 4367:devaluing 4326:Léon Blum 4320:Léon Blum 4306:in 1938. 4164:inflation 3804:in 1925, 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12191:Religion 12136:Abortion 12090:Taxation 11987:Military 11948:Intersex 11938:Politics 11904:Politics 11706:Interwar 11401:Economic 11396:Language 11381:Timeline 10473:(1976). 10347:3023833M 10327:(2002). 10163:Wikidata 10039:(2005). 10029:1094174M 10002:19269229 9971:(1954). 9952:6249001M 9932:(1961). 9922:2527483M 9902:(1988). 9817:65-18768 9795:(1966). 9785:6410854M 9769:40033736 9759:(1940). 9749:7738060M 9702:(1996). 9669:41299115 9484:(1940). 9348:(2003). 8708:Archived 8106:41299224 8043:(2003). 7715:4114844M 7695:(1981). 7487:(1975). 7259:(2003). 7231:(1991). 7173:18 March 7167:Archived 7142:18 March 7136:Archived 6941:18 March 6932:Archived 6455:Archived 6429:Archived 6362:1865793M 6267:(2001). 6093:Archived 6057:(2002). 6018:Archived 5857:See also 5678:opposed. 5554:Lorraine 5367:protégés 5365:and his 5319:Pertinax 5066:Ardennes 4929:'s film 4873:Ardennes 4718:Napoleon 4593:Hitler's 4385:Jacobins 4062:and the 4029:Big Four 3923:le Tigre 3899:Fighting 3786:settlers 3698:Boer War 3620:(left), 3618:Marianne 3387:Holy See 3347:La Croix 3302:Leo XIII 3286:Leo XIII 3054:La Croix 2960:L'Aurore 2954:J'accuse 2744:Taxation 2722:Religion 2717:Politics 2710:Consorts 2705:Monarchs 2700:Military 2695:Medicine 2371:987–1328 2360:987–1792 2314:Frankish 2312:and the 2235:Timeline 2207:a series 2205:Part of 1991:Catholic 1741:and his 1630:Radicals 1540:Lorraine 1384:Taxation 1362:Religion 1357:Politics 1350:Consorts 1345:Monarchs 1340:Military 1335:Medicine 1011:987–1328 1000:987–1792 954:Frankish 952:and the 875:Timeline 847:a series 845:Part of 652:Currency 362:republic 209:mandates 205:Colonies 12337:Outline 12319:Theatre 12314:Symbols 12274:Gardens 12264:Fashion 12256:Cuisine 12223:Culture 12213:Welfare 12186:Poverty 12124:Society 12100:Tourism 12060:Exports 12033:Banking 12011:Economy 11970:history 11865:Islands 11860:Borders 11493:Francia 11447:Ancient 11425:Regions 11376:History 11361:History 10936:In Asia 10769:Germany 10579:(2003) 10562:(2003) 10545:(1985) 10493:(1988) 10446:(1987) 10371:(2001) 10270:(2013). 10242:(2000) 10232:(1995) 10201:(1940) 10191:(1952) 10139:(2000) 10101:(1953) 10065:Surveys 9627:2702049 8714:9 April 8141:2601740 7583:. 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The 4330:Stalin 4304:Munich 3981:Morale 3824:, and 3607:, and 3550:Tonkin 3546:Fuzhou 3353:. The 2916:Capt. 2770:· 2768: 2666:Topics 2378:Valois 2319: 2257: 2218:France 2209:on the 2115:laїque 2104:. The 2011:Senate 1863:. 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