Kurds in Syria - Knowledge

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6,000, leaving the remainder of 300,000 non-citizens Kurds living in Syria in a state of uncertainty. One newly nationalized Kurd has been reported as saying: ‘I’m pleased to have my ID card .... But not until the process is completed will I truly trust the intentions of this action. Before my card is activated, I must have an interview, no doubt full of interrogation and intimidation, with State Security. Citizenship should not be a privilege. It is my right.’ According to one researcher, the Kurdish street perceived the measure of providing citizenship as 'not well-intentioned, but simply an attempt to distance Kurds from the developing protest movement of the Syrian Revolution.'

278:, there was a large migration of Kurds to Syria's Jazira province. It is estimated that 25,000 Kurds fled at this time to Syria. The French official reports show the existence of 45 Kurdish villages in Jazira prior to 1927. A new wave of refugees arrived in 1929. The French authorities continued to allow Kurdish migration into the Mandate, and by 1939, the villages numbered between 700 and 800. The French geographers Fevret and Gibert estimated that in 1953 out of the total 146,000 inhabitants of Jazira, agriculturalist Kurds made up 60,000 (41%), nomad Arabs 50,000 (34%), and a quarter of the population were Christians. 987: 115: 823:; for all intents and purposes, these unregistered Kurds did not exist in the eyes of the state. They could not get jobs, become educated, own property or participate in politics. In some cases, classifications varied even within Kurdish families: parents had citizenship but not their children, a child could be a citizen but not his or her brothers and sisters. Those Kurds who lost their citizenship were often dispossessed of their lands, which were given by the state to Arab and Assyrian settlers. A media campaign was launched against the Kurds with slogans such as 578: 893:. Although Kurdish farmers were dispossessed of their lands, they refused to move and give up their houses. Among these Kurdish villagers, those who were designated as alien were not allowed to own property, to repair a crumbling house or to build a new one. In 1976 the further implementation of the arabization policy along the Turkish border was officially dropped by Hafez al Assad. The achieved demographic changes were not reverted, and in 1977 a ban on non-arabic place names was issued. 1183: 1053: 1327:, foreigners cannot be employed at government agencies and state-owned enterprises; they may not legally marry Syrian citizens. Kurds with foreigner status do not have the right to vote in elections or run for public office, and when they attend universities they are often persecuted and cannot be awarded with university degrees. non-citizens Kurds living in Syria are not awarded school certificates and are often unable to travel outside of their provinces. 926: 5459: 5591: 1306: 356: 622:). The mandatory authorities continued to encourage Kurdish immigration into Syria, and a new significant wave of refugees arrived in 1929. The number of Kurds settled in the Jazira province during the 1920s was estimated between 20,000 and 25,000. With the continuous intensive immigration the villages numbered between 700 and 800 in 1939. Consequently, Kurds became majority in the districts of Tigris (later renamed 570: 1323:

inaccuracy in the Syrian government's process; HRW also alleges that some of the Kurds who had served in the Syrian army lost citizenship while those who bribed officials kept theirs. Stateless Kurds also do not have the option of legally relocating to another country because they lack passports or other internationally recognized travel documents. In Syria, other than in the governorate of

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registrations of the citizens of Syria were included in the new civil registers. The remaining, which included 100,000 Kurds, were registered as foreigners (or "ajanib") in special registers. Many others did not participate in the census through choice or other circumstances; they are known as "maktoumeen", meaning "unrecorded". Since then, the number of stateless

963:. The international press reported that nine people were killed on 12 March. According to Amnesty International hundreds of people, mostly Kurds, were arrested after the riots. Kurdish detainees were reportedly tortured and ill-treated. Some Kurdish students were expelled from their universities, reportedly for participating in peaceful protests. 1026:, Syrian security forces fired into a crowd of more than 50,000 mourners, killing five people. According to Tammo's son, Fares Tammo, "My father's assassination is the screw in the regime's coffin. They made a big mistake by killing my father." Since then, Kurdish demonstrations became a routine part of the Syrian uprising. In June 2012, the 1302:

issue of the agricultural reform law, to benefit from land redistribution. However, according to Human Rights Watch, the Syrian government falsely claimed that many of the Kurds who were the original inhabitants of the land were foreigners, and in turn, violated their human rights by stripping them of their Syrian citizenship.

618:, who encouraged their immigration, and granted them Syrian citizenship. The French official reports show the existence of at most 45 Kurdish villages in Jazira prior to 1927. In 1927, Hadjo Agha, the chief of the powerful Kurdish tribe Havergan, arrived with more than 600 families in Qubour el-Bid (later renamed 736:, as they feared the nationalist Damascus government would replace minority officials by Muslim Arabs from the capital. The French authorities, although some in their ranks had earlier encouraged this anti-Damascus movement, refused to consider any new status of autonomy inside Syria and even annexed the 678:

bombarded Amuda. On 13 August 1937, in a revenge attack, Kurdish tribes sided with Damascus and about 500 men from the Dakkuri, Milan, and Kiki tribes led by the Kurdish tribal leader Sa'ed Agha al-Dakkuri attacked the then predominantly Christian Amuda and burned the town. The town was destroyed and

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In this atlas, French geographer Balanche suggests that "As of 2010, Syria’s population was roughly 65% Sunni Arab, 15% Kurdish, 10% Alawite, 5% Christian, 3% Druze, 1% Ismaili, and 1% Twelver Shia." (page 13) "The number of Kurds in Syria is often underestimated by analysts, who tend to cap them at

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and the possession of Kurdish publications or music was enough to be sent to be detained. KDPS was never legally recognized by the Syrian state and remains an underground organization, especially after a crackdown in 1960 during which several of its leaders were arrested, charged with separatism and

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Early demands for a Kurdish autonomy came from the Kurdish deputy Nuri Kandy of Kurd Dagh, who asked the authorities of the French mandate to grant an administrative autonomy to all the areas with a Kurdish majority in 1924. Also the Kurdish tribes of the Barazi Confederation demanded autonomy for

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in northwestern Syria. The Afrin Plateau northwest of Aleppo, just inside what is today Syria, was officially known as the "Sancak of the Kurds" in Ottoman documents. The Millis revolted against the Ottoman government after the death of their leader Ibrahim Pasa and some of them eventually settled

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In April 2011, the President signed Decree 49 which provides citizenship for Kurds who were registered as foreigners in Hasaka. However, a recent independent report has suggested that the actual number of non-citizens Kurds who obtained their national ID cards following the decree does not exceed

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until they accounted for the majority in some of these cities. The government also claims that many Kurds were capable of registering themselves illegally in the Syrian civil registers. The government further speculated that Kurds intended to settle down and acquire property, especially after the

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in the Jazira province among Kurds and Christians. The Kurdish leaders Hajo Agha, Kaddur Bey, and Khalil Bey Ibrahim Pasha. Hajo Agha was the Kurdish chief of the Heverkan tribal confederation and one of the leaders of the Kurdish nationalist party Xoybûn (Khoyboun). He established himself as the

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and have immigrated during the 20th century to escape the harsh repression of the Kurds in that country. Kurds were later joined in Syria by a new large group that drifted out of Turkey throughout the interwar period during which the Turkish campaign to assimilate its Kurdish population was at it

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The Kurdistan National Assembly of Syria was formed to represent Syrian Kurds based on two major conferences, one at the US Senate in March 2006 and the other at the EU parliament in Brussels in 2006. The Kurdistan National Assembly of Syria (KNAS) seeks democracy for Syria and supports granting

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According to the Human Rights Watch, by many accounts, the special census was carried out in an arbitrary manner separating members of the same families and classifying them differently. HRW claims that some Kurds in the same family became citizens while others became foreigners suggesting an

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and discovery of oilfields in the Kurdish inhabited areas of Syria. In June 1963, Syria took part in the Iraqi military campaign against the Kurds by providing aircraft, armoured vehicles and a force of 6,000 soldiers. Syrian troops crossed the Iraqi border and moved into the Kurdish town of

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In 1962, 20 percent of Syria's Kurdish population were stripped of their Syrian citizenship following a very highly controversial census raising concerns among human rights groups. According to the Syrian government, the reason for this enactment was due to groups of Kurds infiltrating the

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even though they were in possession of Syrian identity cards. The inhabitants who had Syrian identity cards were told to hand them over to the administration for renewal. However, many of those Kurds who submitted their cards received nothing in return. Many were arbitrarily categorized as

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has grown to more than 200,000. According to Refugees International, there are about 300,000 Kurdish non-citizens in Syria; however, Kurds dispute this number and estimate about 500,000. An independent report has confirmed that there are at least 300,000 non-citizen Kurds living in Syria.

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As a result of government claims of an increase in illegal immigration, the Syrian government decided to conduct a general census on 5 October 1962 in the governorate with claims that its sole purpose was to purify registers and eliminate the alien infiltrators. As a result, the verified

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Syria has several other ethnic groups, the Kurds... they make up an estimated 9 percent...Turkomen comprise around 4-5 percent of the total population. The rest of the ethnic mix of Syria is made of Assyrians (about 4 percent), Armenians (about 2 percent), and Circassians (about 1

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and were granted their victims' land as a reward. Kurds were responsible for most of the atrocities against Assyrians, and Kurdish expansion happened at the expense of Assyrians (due to factors like proximity). Kurdish as well as Circassian and Chechen tribes cooperated with the

955:, 65 people were killed and more than 160 were injured in days of clashes starting from 12 March. Kurdish sources indicated that Syrian security forces used live ammunition against civilians after clashes broke out at a football match between Kurdish fans of the local team and 4695: 503:

Those who have spread to the west of the Euphrates have come from the valleys of Kurdistan. They have gradually settled in and live alongside the Turks, Turkmen, Christians and Arabs, all of whose customs they have adopted to some

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10% of the population. In fact, they are closer to 15%."(page 16) The 2018 breakdown is 1% Sunni Arab, 16% Kurdish, 13% Alawite, 3% Christian, 4% Druze, 1% Ismaili, 1% Twelver Shia, 1% Turkmen (page 22) Balanche also refers to his

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names, are not permitted to build Kurdish private schools and are prohibited from publishing books and other materials written in Kurdish. In 1988 it was prohibited also to sing in non-arabic language at weddings or festivities.

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valley, subjugated the local tribes and brought the area under control of Milli confederation and attempted to set up an independent principality. In 1800, the Ottoman government appointed the Milli chief Timur as governor of

270:, where they were likely the majority. The extension of the railway and road to Nusaybin in 1918 intensified the immigration of Kurds southwards into the Syrian foothills and plains along rivers. In the 1920s after the failed 4779: 419:

in Turkey, and paid the governor of that city for the right of grazing their herds in the Syrian Jazira. These Kurdish tribes gradually settled in villages and cities and are still present in Jazira (modern Syria's

2198: 917:, three Kurds were killed during the Newroz demonstrations. After the protests, the Syrian government prohibited the Newroz festivities and established a new holiday on the same day, honoring the mothers. 331:

The Kurdish community's role in the military continued under the Ottomans. Kurdish soldiers and policeman from the city were tasked with both maintaining order and protecting the pilgrims’ route toward

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highest. The government has used the fact that some Kurds fled to Syria during the 1920s to claim that Kurds are not indigenous to the country and to justify its discriminatory policies against them.

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CIA estimates are as of June 2019 "Ethnic groups: Sunni Arab ~50%, Alawite ~15%, Kurd ~10%, Levantine ~10%, other ~15% (includes Druze, Ismaili, Imami, Nusairi, Assyrian, Turkoman, Armenian)"

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equal rights to Kurds and other Syrian minorities. They seek to transform Syria into a federal state, with a democratic system and structure for the federal government and provincial governments.

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the Kurdish regions within the French Mandate. But their requests were not fulfilled by the French at the time. Between December 1931 and January 1932, the first elections under the new

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The decree 768 of the year 2000, prohibited shops to sell cassettes or videos in Kurdish language. The decree also encouraged to implement older restrictions of the Kurdish language.

4305: 1252:, Kurds in Syria are not allowed to officially use the Kurdish language, are not allowed to register children with Kurdish names, are prohibited to start businesses that do not have 4765: 3376: 522:

of 10 August 1920. The treaty stipulated that Ottoman Kurdistan, which included Kurdish inhabited areas in southeastern Turkey and northern Iraq to be given autonomy within the new

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Some 15% to 17% of the Syrian population is Kurdish. Whether they can achieve statehood will depend on a reading of international law and on how the international community reacts.

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in Syria by activists through Facebook. Few turned out to protest, but among the few were Kurdish demonstrators in the northeast of the country. On 7 October 2011, Kurdish leader

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based on reports of illegal infiltration of tens of thousands of Turkish Kurds into Syria. As a result, around 120,000 Kurds in Jazira (20% of Syrian Kurds) were stripped of their

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Les territoires de marge de la Syrie mandataire : le mouvement autonomiste de la Haute Jazîra, paradoxes et ambiguïtés d’une intégration" nationale" inachevée (1936–1939)

2039:"Kurdish Regional Self-rule Administration in Syria: A new Model of Statehood and its Status in International Law Compared to the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Iraq" 1944:

Kurds are the largest ethnic minority in Syria, constituting around 10 per cent of the population – around 2 million of the pre-conflict population of around 22 million.

913:. Police warned them that Kurdish dress was prohibited and they fired on the crowd leaving one person dead. Around 40,000 Kurds took part in his funeral in Qamishli. Also in 3614:" (The territory margins of the Mandatory Syria : the autonomist movement in Upper Jazîra, paradoxs and ambiguities of an uncompleted "national" integration, 1936–39), 235:

and the permeability of the Syrian-Turkish border. The Kurdish population in Syria is relatively small in comparison to the Kurdish populations in nearby countries, such as

4844: 4429: 869:) in the Jazira region along the Turkish border. The cordon was along the Turkish-Syrian border and 10–15 kilometers wide, stretched from the Iraqi border in the east to 1114:

had also come under the control of the People's Protection Units. The only major cities with significant Kurdish populations that remained under government control were

315:. The Kurdish regiments that accompanied Salidin established self-ruled areas in and around Damascus. These settlements evolved into the Kurdish sections of Damascus of 5095: 776:

cultural rights, economic progress and democratic change. Following their demands for the recognition of the Kurdish cultural rights, the Party got suppressed by the

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who have crossed the border during different events in the 20th century. There are three major centers for the Kurdish population in Syrian, the northern part of the

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have intensified the Kurdish immigration from the Anatolian mountains to Syrian Jazirah. After that, massive waves of Kurds fled their homes in the mountains of

764:, were of Kurdish origin, but they didn't identify as Kurds nor did they speak Kurdish. Shishakli even initiated the policy of prohibiting the Kurdish culture. 1993: 4817: 4932: 2260: 5001: 4339: 1801: 1022:

was gunned down in his apartment by masked men widely believed to be government agents. During Tammo's funeral procession the next day in the town of

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When Maurice Abadie, a French general, was overseeing the French occupation of Syria, he made some observations on the settlements of Kurds in 1920:

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Le mouvement kurde de Turquie en exil: continuités et discontinuités du nationalisme kurde sous le mandat français en Syrie et au Liban (1925–1946)

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of the area such as village names were Arabized. According to the original plan, some 140,000 Kurds had to be deported to the southern desert near

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Syrian policies in the 1970s led to Arabs resettling in majority Kurdish areas. In 1965, the Syrian government decided to create an Arab cordon (

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as governors for the Ottomans from 1591 to 1607. At the beginning of the 17th century, Kurdish tribes were forcefully settled in the vicinity of

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of 24 July 1923, which made no mention of a future Kurdish state. The majority of Ottoman Kurdish territory was given to Turkey and the rest in

411:, who traveled to Jazira in 1764, recorded five nomadic Kurdish tribes (Dukurie, Kikie, Schechchanie, Mullie and Aschetie) and six Arab tribes ( 4991: 4986: 435:

span over parts of present day northeastern Syria. The demographics of this area underwent a huge shift in the early part of the 20th century.

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The Dom, The "Other" Asylum Seekers From Syria: Discrimination, Isolation and Social Exclusion: Syrian Dom Asylum Seekers in the Crossfire

4383: 3384: 1626: 4544: 1725: 733: 1293:, and crossed the Syrian border illegally. The government claims that these Kurds settled down, gradually, in the region in cities like 1170:

International and Kurdish human rights organizations have accused the Syrian government of discriminating against the Kurdish minority.

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Kurds are the largest ethnic minority in Syria, making up between 5 and 10 percent of the Syrian population of 21 million in 2011

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Winter, Stefan (2006). "The Other "Nahḍah": The Bedirxans, the Millîs and the Tribal Roots of Kurdish Nationalism in Syria".

2729: 2704: 2621: 2560: 2441: 2408: 2306: 619: 4673: 3152:

Winter, Stefan (2006). "The Other Nahdah: The Bedirxans, the Millîs, and the Tribal Roots of Kurdish Nationalism in Syria".

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Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Ländern. (Mit Kupferstichen u. Karten.) – Kopenhagen, Möller 1774–1837

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Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Ländern. (Mit Kupferstichen u. Karten.) – Kopenhagen, Möller 1774–1837

2473: 4822: 1130: 1098:. The KNC and PYD afterwards formed a joint leadership council to run the captured cities. By 24 July, the Syrian towns of 1060: 4215: 5121: 4837: 3640: 1421: 1142: 769: 720:

representative of the Kurds in Jazira maintaining the coalition with the Christian notables, who were represented by the

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Under the terms of the Syrian Constitution the Druze community is designated as a part of the Syrian Muslim community.

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Syria's war of ethnic cleansing: Kurds threatened with beheading by Turkey's allies if they don't convert to extremism

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authorities with the cooperation of Kurdish troops (and to a lesser degree, Circassian and Chechen tribes) persecuted

4726: 4416: 3923: 3873: 3787: 3333: 3077: 3010: 2983: 2953: 2871: 2593: 2524: 2216: 2101: 1709: 1348:(1869–1935), Ottoman municipal official and later a leader of a revolt against the French presence in northern Syria. 231:, and make up between 5 and 10 percent of the Syrian population. The estimates are diluted due to the effects of the 2179: 2006: 5441: 5167: 3290: 2089: 208:. Many Kurds also live in the large cities and metropolitan areas of the country, for example, in the neighborhood 176:

of routinely discriminating and harassing Syrian Kurds. Many Kurds seek political autonomy for what they regard as

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Winter, Stefan (2005). "Les Kurdes du Nord-Ouest syrien et l'État ottoman, 1690–1750". In Afifi, Mohammad (ed.).

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is the country's largest ethnic minority, usually estimated at around 10% of the Syrian population and 5% of the

4042: 5733: 5114: 3845: 3727: 3693: 3453: 3300: 3246: 3136: 2654: 2199:"Syrian President Bashar al-Assad accused of arming Kurdish separatists for attacks against Turkish government" 1923: 1068: 359:

The first licensed female doctors in India, Syria and Japan. Anandibai Joshee (Indian), Kei Okami (Japanese),

5317: 5189: 4757: 3985: 1603: 1588: 1502: 1086:(YPG) were created to control the Kurdish inhabited areas in Syria. On 19 July, the YPG captured the city of 472:, between 1914 and 1920, with further attacks on unarmed fleeing civilians conducted by local Arab militias. 181: 3580:

La France en Cilicie et en Haute-Mésopotamie: aux confins de la Turquie, de la Syrie et de l'Irak, 1919–1933

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area. They were given taxing authority and controlling other tribes in the region. In 1758, Milli chief and

5347: 5269: 4871: 4861: 1931: 1083: 1056: 995: 415:, Kaab, Baggara, Geheish, Diabat and Sherabeh). According to Niebuhr, the Kurdish tribes were settled near 37:

Estimates from 1.6 million to 2.5 million Kurds make up between 5% and 10% of Syria's population.

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and enjoyed considerable rights as the French Mandate authority encouraged minority autonomy as part of a

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Legislative Decree on Granting Syrian Nationality to People Registered in Registers of Hasaka Foreigners

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and Seruj by the Ottoman sultans. In the mid-18th century, Ottomans recognized Milli tribal leaders as

3237:(1. publ. ed.). London : Pluto Press, in association with Kurdish Human Rights Project. pp. 2645:(1. publ. ed.). London : Pluto Press, in association with Kurdish Human Rights Project. pp. 2584:(1. publ. ed.). London : Pluto Press, in association with Kurdish Human Rights Project. pp. 732:

municipality. The Kurdish-Christian Coalition wanted French troops to stay in the province in case of

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McDowall, David. Modern History of the Kurds, I. B. Tauris & Company, Limited, 2004. pp. 473–474.

3444:(1. publ. ed.). London : Pluto Press, in association with Kurdish Human Rights Project. p. 1076: 1011: 745: 281:

Even though some Kurdish communities have a long history in Syria, most Syrian Kurds originate from

5652: 5393: 5357: 5214: 5199: 5184: 4866: 4849: 4155: 1072: 700:(Khoyboun) party from the three different Kurdish enclaves in Syria: Khalil bey Ibn Ibrahim Pacha ( 352:, also joined these military units which caused an expansion of the Kurdish community in the city. 4160: 2156: 1145:

in early 2018. Between 150,000 and 200,000 people were displaced due to the Turkish intervention.

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in 1945. The Syrian government claims that the Kurds came from neighboring countries, especially

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Protests in the Kurdish inhabited areas of Syria evolved into armed clashes after the opposition

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On 23 August 1962, the government conducted a special population census only for the province of

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Over the course of the past century the Kurds have migrated and spread throughout northern Syria.

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Being Modern in the Middle East: Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class

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In other parts of the country during this period, Kurds became local chiefs and tax farmers in

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in the 1920s. Kurdish immigration waves to Syria's Jazira province started immediately after

515: 368: 3578: 3437: 3230: 2638: 2577: 2425: 994:(pictured above) and a series of other towns in the northeastern Syria were captured by the 986: 634:

district. Immigration from Turkey was not limited to the Jazira area. In the 1930s, Kurdish

5677: 5408: 5332: 5240: 5071: 5036: 4966: 1134: 948: 782: 777: 319:(the Kurdish quarter) and the Salhiyya districts located in the north-east of Damasacus on 55: 5426: 2801:

Winter, Stefan (2009). "Les Kurdes de Syrie dans les archives ottomanes (XVIIIe siècle)".

8: 5612: 5555: 5523: 5398: 5245: 4658: 3800:

Philip G. Kreyenbroek; Stefan Sperl (1992). "Chapter 8: The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon".

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were held. Among the deputies there were three members of the Syrian Kurdish nationalist

158: 3656: 3555: 2238: 519: 114: 5590: 5565: 5462: 5312: 5307: 5290: 5031: 5021: 4024: 2924: 2916: 2758: 2379: 2134: 1828:"Alawite Kurds in Syria: Ethnic discrimination and dectarian privileges. By Maya Ehmed" 1783: 1583: 1249: 815:('foreigners'), while others who did not participate in the census were categorized as 701: 607: 535: 488:

for the most part on the Syrian side of the newly drawn Turkish-Syrian border of 1922.

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It is estimated that at the beginning of the 20th century around 12,000 Kurds lived in

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started bombarding Kurdish-controlled regions of Syria for a planned invasion called

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Under the French Mandate of Syria, newly-arriving Kurds were granted citizenship by

5682: 5642: 5637: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5604: 5560: 5528: 5518: 5274: 5056: 5041: 4976: 4696:

The Stateless Kurds of Syria: Ethnic Identity and National I.D., Thomas McGee, 2014

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Waves of Kurdish Tribes and their families arrived into Syria originally came from

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also reported that Kurdish human rights activists are mistreated and persecuted.

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strategy and recruited heavily from the Kurds and other minority groups, such as

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Statelet of Survivors: The Making of a Semi-Autonomous Region in Northeast Syria

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the Christian population, about 300 families, fled to the towns of Qamishli and

598:. After the war, the construction of road networks and the railway extension to 204:

Syrian Kurds live mainly in three Kurdish pockets in northern Syria adjacent to

5545: 5362: 5260: 5235: 5026: 4223: 1960: 1570: 1533: 1381: 1351: 1345: 1261: 773: 761: 543: 476: 457: 453: 436: 432: 221: 51: 4787: 3165: 2904: 2754: 2366: 2349: 2090:"Ethnonational Minorities in the Middle East Berbers, Kurds, and Palestinians" 2055: 2038: 5722: 5495: 5483: 5337: 5226: 4971: 4901: 4509: 2912: 2889:""Nationalism" and Kurdish Notables in the Late Ottoman–Early Republican Era" 2375: 2130: 2064: 1779: 1640: 1558: 1488: 1475: 1427: 1107: 1019: 737: 591: 577: 559: 320: 244: 240: 3478: 3102: 2489: 2424:

Jordi Tejel, translated from the French by Emily Welle; Welle, Jane (2009).

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In March 1986, a few thousand Kurds wearing Kurdish costume gathered in the

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Muslim-Christian Relations and Inter-Christian Rivalries in the Middle East

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Krieg und Revolution in Syrisch-Kurdistan: Analysen und Stimmen aus Rojava

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Krieg und Revolution in Syrisch-Kurdistan: Analysen und Stimmen aus Rojava

1457: 1360:(1877–1951), Prime Minister of Syria (1936) and President of Syria (1943). 573:

Provisions of the Treaty of Sèvres for an independent Kurdistan (in 1920).

3406: 2519:(3. revised and upd. ed., repr. ed.). London : Tauris. p. 469. 1593: 1527: 1521: 1492: 1463: 1391: 1111: 960: 860: 765: 547: 94: 5106: 4596: 4488: 2762: 2383: 2138: 2118: 1787: 1755: 1182: 1052: 3362: 3029:. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2010, 2007, pp. 237–77, 293–294. 1552: 1546: 1444: 1417: 1354:(1909–1964), Syrian military leader and President of Syria (1953–1954). 341: 340:

corps in Damascus. Later, Kurdish migrants from diverse areas, such as

209: 102: 2920: 2888: 1075:(KNC) signed a cooperation agreement on 12 July 2012 that created the 614:. It is estimated that 25,000 Kurds fled at this time to Syria, under 118:

A map of religious and ethnic communities of Syria and Lebanon (1935).

4378:"Kurdish Organization for Human Rights in Austria," 14 December 2010 3918:, Edited by P.G. Kreyenbroek, S. Sperl, Chapter 8, Routledge, 1992, 3868:, Edited by P.G. Kreyenbroek, S. Sperl, Chapter 8, Routledge, 1992, 3722:. San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press. pp. 137–138. 3002:

On the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights

2671:"Community Post: 5 Trailblazing Medical Students Of The 19th Century" 1832: 902: 882: 709: 705: 542:. Two small pockets with Kurdish majority at the border with Turkey ( 384: 376: 337: 263: 259: 251:, a Kurdish dialect spoken in Turkey and northeastern Iraq and Iran. 185: 5458: 3782:, Edited by P.G. Kreyenbroek, S. Sperl, Chapter 8, Routledge, 1992, 2180:"Syrian human rights record unchanged under Assad, report says]" 1087: 925: 834:

These policies in the Jazira region coincided with the beginning of

697: 299:

In the 12th century, Kurdish and other Muslim regiments accompanied

220:(Kurdish Quarter), and the Aleppo neighborhoods of al Ashrafiya and 150: 4543:, Kırkayak Kültür Sanat ve Doğa Derneği, p. 21, archived from 1862: 1675: 1298: 1119: 1023: 952: 906: 886: 768:

and Hamza Diweran along with some Kurdish politicians, founded the

729: 647: 627: 599: 527: 355: 312: 255: 248: 213: 166: 98: 72: 4216:"More Kurdish Cities Liberated As Syrian Army Withdraws from Area" 4064:

Syria Funeral Shooting: Forces Open Fire On Mashaal Tammo Mourners

3181:

The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone

2998: 5300: 5295: 5016: 4384:"Mesopotamische Gesellschaft « Memorandum of KURDS IN SYRIA" 3799: 1895: 1420:(1921–2010), Kurdish political leader and former chairman of the 1305: 1186:

Geographic distribution of the Kurdish languages spoken by Kurds

878: 680: 667: 631: 484: 480: 300: 4183:"Syrian Kurdish Official: Now Kurds are in Charge of their Fate" 3840:. San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press. p. 139. 3688:. San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press. p. 137. 3357:(First ed.). London: Oxford University Press. p. 458. 3027:

Genocide in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire, Iraq, and Sudan

569: 5066: 4854: 3611: 2324:"Who Are the Kurds, and Why Is Turkey Attacking Them in Syria?" 2261:"The Kurds are creating a state of their own in northern Syria" 1956:"Who Are the Kurds, and Why Is Turkey Attacking Them in Syria?" 1290: 1253: 1238: 1149: 1115: 1082:

Under the administration of the Kurdish Supreme Committee, the

910: 603: 523: 428: 416: 372: 349: 304: 282: 205: 162: 2027:(Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2011), p. 36." 1394:(born 1952), Kurdish politician and one of the leaders of the 530:

victory in Turkey and subsequent territorial gains during the

307:, on his conquest of the Middle East and establishment of the 5141: 4752: 2697:

A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered

2142: 1496: 1315: 1294: 1248:

in public, unless all those present do not. According to the

1091: 956: 848: 671: 635: 388: 345: 333: 228: 127: 123: 4747: 2350:"Kurdish Women in Rojava: From Resistance to Reconstruction" 933:

is banned in Syria, but it has begun to be flown during the

336:. Many Kurds from Syria's rural hinterland joined the local 5456: 4742: 4682: 526:, with the choice for full independence within a year. The 412: 4340:"Tens of thousands flee as Turkey presses Syria offensive" 4276:"Girke Lege Becomes Sixth Kurdish City Liberated in Syria" 3488: 1366:(1897–1949), Prime Minister and President of Syria (1949). 724:

Patriarch Ignatius Gabriel I Tappouni and Michel Dôme the

4246:"Armed Kurds Surround Syrian Security Forces in Qamishli" 4028: 2967: 2965: 1430:(1958–2011), Kurdish Political leader and founder of the 772:(KDPS) in 1957. The objectives of KDPS were promotion of 595: 5476: 3412:

Displacement and Dispossession in the Modern Middle East

3315: 509: 161:, and there are also substantial Kurdish communities in 4103:"Syrian Forces Shell Cities as Opposition Picks Leader" 1908:

Kurds make up between 7% and 10% of Syria's population.

1726:"Syria rejects Russian proposal for Kurdish federation" 1665: 1663: 1309:

The flag of the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria

1079:

as the governing body of all Kurdish controlled areas.

2962: 2423: 4077:

Thousands of Kurds could awaken against Syrian regime

4000:"With A Dose Of Caution, Kurds Oppose Syrian Regime" 3793: 3583:(in French). Paris: Editions Karthala. p. 354. 3295:(Hardcover ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 475. 3042:

The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies

2945:

The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies

1660: 1159: 4323:

Displaced Kurds from Afrin need help, activist says

4025:

Syria: Address Grievances Underlying Kurdish Unrest

3635:. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 95. 3552:The 1930 Constitution is integrally reproduced in: 3342: 3288: 2780:(1. publ. ed.). London: Routledge. p. 9. 2471: 1237:is the second most spoken language in Syria, after 3801: 3657:"The Kurdish Democratic Party in Syria (al-Parti)" 3350: 3317: 2855: 1754:Vanly, Ismet Chérif; Vanly, Ismet Cheriff (1977). 184:in Iraq, or to be part of an independent state of 4789:Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria 3207:Türk Verdünü, Gaziantep: Antep'in dört muhasarası 2432:(1. publ. ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 2217:"Syrian Kurdish moves ring alarm bells in Turkey" 1891:"Turkey's Syria offensive explained in four maps" 1466:(1905–1993), Kurdish poet, writer and journalist. 1460:(1903–1984), influential Kurdish writer and poet. 1414:(born 1941), Prime Minister of Syria (2000–2003). 1048:Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria 194:Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria 5720: 4631:"Documentary On The non-citizens Kurds of Syria" 4591: 4589: 3616:Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 3556:"Le costituzioni degli stati del vicino oriente" 3515: 3415:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 230–232. 1988: 1408:(born 1932), Prime Minister of Syria (1972–1976) 1372:(1895–1975), Prime Minister of Syria (1942–1943) 819:('unregistered'), an even lower status than the 4457:Encyclopedia of Arabic language and linguistics 4411:Yehuda Zvi Blum, Associated University Presse, 2836: 2819: 2699:. University of California Press. p. 154. 2474:"La Djezireh syrienne et son réveil économique" 959:supporters of a visiting team from the city of 686: 3440:The Kurds in Syria : the forgotten people 3316:Kreyenbroek, Philip G.; Sperl, Stefan (1992). 3233:The Kurds in Syria : the forgotten people 2971: 2641:The Kurds in Syria : the forgotten people 5442: 5122: 4773: 4586: 3292:A companion to the history of the Middle East 3268:(in German). Mandelbaum Verlag. p. 160. 3210:. Aintab: Gaziantep Kültür Derneği. p. 5 2301:(in German). Mandelbaum Verlag. p. 160. 2094:A Companion to the History of the Middle East 2003:The Washington Institute for Near East Policy 1802:"Syrian Kurds celebrate Kurdish Language Day" 4719:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 4570:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 4210: 4208: 3966:. Archived from the original on 14 July 2006 3939:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 3888:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 3471:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 3309: 3095:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 3069:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 3039:Hovannisian, Richard G. (31 December 2011). 3005:. Institut d'Estudis Catalans. p. 199. 2893:International Journal of Middle East Studies 2854:Stefan Sperl, Philip G. Kreyenbroek (1992). 2853: 2778:Syria's Kurds: history, politics and society 2722:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 2552:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 2428:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 2400:Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society 1756:"Coup d'oeil sur la culture nationale Kurde" 1378:(1904–1949), Prime Minister of Syria (1949). 1030:(SNC), the main opposition group, announced 172:Human rights organizations have accused the 137:The majority of Syrian Kurds are originally 4483: 4481: 4479: 4151:"Syria: Massive protests in Qamishli, Homs" 4100: 3501:. Princeton University Press. p. 270. 3405: 3369: 3261: 3038: 2999:Joan A. Argenter, R. McKenna Brown (2004). 2941: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2294: 2239:"Kurds seek autonomy in a democratic Syria" 1984: 1982: 1621: 1619: 1511:(1876–1953), historian and literary critic. 1334: 1268:and call themselves Kurds in some regions. 1208: Southern Kurdish (Gorani is included) 966: 518:and the defeated Ottoman Empire signed the 479:(Lebanon) and the Qusayr highlands between 266:region; and an unknown number lived in the 5449: 5435: 5129: 5115: 4780: 4766: 4597:"Syria Silenced Kurds, Human Rights Watch" 4527: 4448: 4238: 4091:, Guardian, By Thomas McGee, 26 April 2012 4040: 3835: 3717: 3683: 3494: 3399: 3222: 1753: 674:, for its local armed forces. n 1936, the 585: 363:(Kurdish Jew from Syria) – 10 October 1885 258:; an unknown number of Kurds lived in the 5136: 4625: 4623: 4621: 4619: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4454: 4268: 4205: 2544: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2453: 2365: 2177: 2149: 2096:. Utrecht: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 475. 2054: 1631:(Online ed.). Langley, Virginia: US 1505:(1929–2013), influential Islamic scholar. 311:(1171–1341), which was administered from 227:Kurds are the largest ethnic minority in 5739:Kurdish people by country of citizenship 4476: 3576: 3570: 3553: 3546: 3429: 2847: 2580:The Kurds in Syria: The Forgotten People 2514: 2503: 2321: 2116: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2077: 1979: 1953: 1616: 1304: 1181: 1051: 985: 924: 576: 568: 354: 113: 3353:The Refugee Problem: Report of a Survey 3348: 3183:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 3019: 2569: 2472:Fevret, Maurice; Gibert, André (1953). 1852: 1850: 1749: 1747: 1536:(born 1976), actress of Kurdish origin. 1400:Popular Front for Change and Liberation 1384:(1912–1995), leader (1936–1995) of the 1034:, an ethnic Kurd, as their new leader. 881:Arabs were brought in and resettled in 873:in the west. The implementation of the 792: 630:, while Arabs remained the majority in 5721: 4610: 4533: 4089:Syria's Kurds: part of the revolution? 4070: 3630: 3435: 3228: 3203: 3151: 3126: 2978:. Gorgias Press, LLC. pp. 24–25. 2886: 2800: 2744: 2694: 2636: 2630: 2611: 2575: 2533: 2450: 2417: 2390: 2196: 2159:. Human Rights Watch. 26 November 2009 2036: 1918: 1916: 1599:National Organization of Kurdish Youth 1472:(born 1978), Novelists and Journalist. 1059:'s female units were fighting against 751: 514:Following World War I, the victorious 5430: 5110: 4761: 4716: 4567: 4079:, By Adrian Blomfield, 9 October 2011 3935: 3885: 3838:Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 3831: 3829: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3720:Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 3686:Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan 3679: 3677: 3626: 3624: 3262:Schmidinger, Thomas (22 March 2017). 3178: 3065: 2775: 2769: 2719: 2616:(in French). Peter Lang. p. 41. 2607: 2605: 2548: 2396: 2322:Kingsley, Patrick (14 October 2019). 2295:Schmidinger, Thomas (22 March 2017). 2171: 2087: 2074: 2043:Japanese Journal of Political Science 1954:Kingsley, Patrick (14 October 2019). 1856: 1697: 510:Treaty of Sèvres and colonial borders 247:. The majority of Syrian Kurds speak 4121:"Syrian Kurds Try to Maintain Unity" 4056: 2347: 1847: 1744: 1188: 1037: 909:to celebrate the spring festival of 715:In the mid-1930s, there arose a new 566:, did not receive their own state. 42:Regions with significant populations 4637:. 26 September 2011. Archived from 3558:(in French). Istituto per l’Oriente 2001:(Online ed.). Washington, DC: 1947: 1913: 1422:Kurdistan Democratic Party of Syria 1143:Turkish military operation in Afrin 975: 770:Kurdistan Democratic Party of Syria 13: 4703: 4455:Behnstedt, Peter (2008), "Syria", 4101:MacFarquhar, Neil (10 June 2012). 3916:The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview 3866:The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview 3826: 3804:The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview 3780:The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview 3736: 3674: 3621: 3320:The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview 2602: 2555:. London: Routledge. p. 144. 1924:"Who are Syria's minority groups?" 1679:(Online ed.). 31 October 2017 990:On 22 July 2012, the Arab town of 896: 581:Provisions of the Treaty of Sèvres 460:) authorities in the massacres of 262:region; 16,000 Kurds lived in the 14: 5755: 4736: 4534:Tarlan, Kemal Vural, ed. (2017), 3131:. Cairo: IFAO. pp. 243–258. 2858:The Kurds a Contemporary Overview 2197:Morris, Loveday (9 August 2012). 2157:"Syria: End Persecution of Kurds" 2037:Radpey, Loqman (September 2016). 1995:Sectarianism in Syria's Civil War 1160:Mistreatment by Syrian government 920: 851:in pursuit of Barzani's fighters 783:Syrian political union with Egypt 781:imprisoned. After the failure of 653: 427:In the mid 1800s, the Emirate of 326: 294: 5589: 5457: 5168:Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch 4689: 4664: 4645: 4561: 4502: 4422: 4402: 4372: 4350: 4332: 4315: 4298: 3618:, 126, November 2009, p. 205-222 3495:Watenpaugh, Keith David (2014). 3477:. pp. 25–29. Archived from 3101:. pp. 25–29. Archived from 2942:Hovannisian, Richard G. (2011). 2403:. London: Routledge. p. 8. 2241:. BBC World News. 16 August 2012 1857:Shoup, John A. (2018), "Syria", 797: 638:who fled the persecution of the 153:and in the west the area around 4748:The Alliance for Kurdish Rights 4568:Tejel, Jordi (29 August 2008). 4175: 4143: 4113: 4094: 4082: 4043:"Syria: 'A kingdom of silence'" 4034: 4018: 3992: 3956: 3936:Tejel, Jordi (29 August 2008). 3929: 3904: 3886:Tejel, Jordi (29 August 2008). 3879: 3854: 3768: 3759: 3750: 3747:Gunter, Michael M. (2016), p.97 3711: 3702: 3649: 3604: 3537: 3528: 3462: 3282: 3255: 3197: 3172: 3145: 3120: 3086: 3059: 3032: 2992: 2935: 2880: 2830: 2813: 2794: 2738: 2713: 2688: 2663: 2341: 2315: 2288: 2279: 2253: 2231: 2209: 2190: 2110: 2030: 1698:Darke, Diana (1 January 2010). 1573:(born 1989), Syrian footballer. 1567:(born 1985), Syrian footballer. 1561:(1976–2002), Syrian footballer. 1555:(born 1984), Syrian footballer. 1549:(born 1982), Syrian footballer. 1478:(born 1951), Novelist and poet. 1139:Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army 785:in 1961, Syria was declared an 199: 4358:""Support Kurds", 14 May 2010" 4282:. 24 July 2012. Archived from 4252:. 22 July 2012. Archived from 4222:. 20 July 2012. Archived from 4189:. 27 July 2012. Archived from 4127:. 17 July 2012. Archived from 3912:The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon 3862:The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon 3776:The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon 3324:. London: Routledge. pp. 2862:. London: Routledge. pp. 1883: 1820: 1794: 1718: 1691: 1339: 1279: 1069:Kurdish Democratic Union Party 854: 216:, which was formerly known as 1: 5318:Black people of Yarmouk Basin 5190:Melkite Greek Catholic Church 4572:. Routledge. pp. 63–64. 4159:. 19 May 2011. Archived from 2517:A Modern History of the Kurds 1610: 1604:A Modern History of the Kurds 1589:History of the Kurdish people 1503:Mohamed Said Ramadan Al-Bouti 1271: 935:Syrian uprising and civil war 789:in the interim constitution. 182:Kurdistan Regional Government 4380:Memorandum of Kurds in syria 3289:Youssef M. Choueiri (2005). 2975:The Tragedy of the Assyrians 2612:Gorgas, Jordi Tejel (2007). 1932:Special Broadcasting Service 1447:(born 1957), Kurdish singer. 1090:, and the next day captured 687:Kurdish demands for autonomy 7: 5222:Assyrian Church of the East 4709:Holmes, Amy Austin (2024). 4510:"Syria, The silenced Kurds" 3661:Carnegie Middle East Center 3633:The Kurds: A Modern History 3631:Gunter, Michael M. (2016). 3349:Simpson, John Hope (1939). 2478:Revue de géographie de Lyon 2025:Atlas du ProcheOrient Arabe 1772:10.1163/22138617-0570910007 1633:Central Intelligence Agency 1577: 1482: 1177: 704:), Mustafa bey Ibn Shahin ( 532:Turkish War of Independence 10: 5760: 5363:Turkmens/Turkomans (Turks) 4753:The Kurdish Social Network 4713:. Oxford University Press. 4067:, Huffington Post, 10/8/11 3129:Sociétés rurales ottomanes 3045:. Transaction Publishers. 2948:. Transaction Publishers. 2178:Ian Black (16 July 2010). 1451: 1438: 1244:The Kurds often speak the 1163: 1041: 979: 940: 858: 660:French Mandate authorities 616:French Mandate authorities 395:Mahmud bin Kalash entered 289: 157:. All of these are on the 5695: 5598: 5587: 5477:Traditional Kurdish areas 5469: 5417: 5371: 5283: 5148: 5091: 5062:North Mesopotamian Arabic 4952: 4945: 4928: 4921: 4872:People's Protection Units 4803: 4796: 4657:14 September 2008 at the 3984:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 3890:. Routledge. p. 65. 3836:Hassanpour, Amir (1992). 3718:Hassanpour, Amir (1992). 3684:Hassanpour, Amir (1992). 3166:10.1163/22138617-08603003 2905:10.1017/S0020743801003038 2843:(in German). p. 389. 2826:(in German). p. 419. 2755:10.1163/22138617-08603003 2724:. Routledge. p. 10. 2695:Salibi, Kamal S. (1990). 2367:10.1163/15700607-05734p07 2119:"The future of Kurdistan" 2056:10.1017/S1468109916000190 1540: 1515: 1499:authority in the country. 1495:(1964–2004), the highest 1222: mixed dialect areas 1084:People's Protection Units 1077:Kurdish Supreme Committee 996:People's Protection Units 829:Fight the Kurdish Menace! 92: 87: 66: 61: 46: 41: 36: 31: 5215:Chaldean Catholic Church 5200:Armenian Catholic Church 5185:Catholic Church in Syria 5178:Armenian Orthodox Church 4877:Women's Protection Units 4867:Syrian Democratic Forces 3204:Abadie, Maurice (1959). 2837:Carsten Niebuhr (1778). 2820:Carsten Niebuhr (1778). 2749:. 25 (86) (3): 461–474. 2515:McDowell, David (2005). 2117:Krajeski, Jenna (2016). 1335:Influential Syrian Kurds 1073:Kurdish National Council 967:KNAS (Kurdnas) formation 554:who, in contrast to the 534:led to the renegotiated 192:, Kurds established the 188:. In the context of the 5163:Eastern Orthodox Church 4907:Afrin Liberation Forces 4897:Army of Revolutionaries 4887:Syriac Military Council 3577:Tachjian, Vahé (2004). 2972:R. S. Stafford (2006). 2490:10.3406/geoca.1953.1294 2219:. Reuters. 24 July 2012 1704:. Bradt Travel Guides. 1432:Kurdish Future Movement 1028:Syrian National Council 947:After an incident in a 877:plan began in 1973 and 825:Save Arabism in Jazira! 586:Immigration from Turkey 550:) were included in the 540:British Mandate of Iraq 367:The Kurdish dynasty of 5744:Ethnic groups in Syria 5195:Syriac Catholic Church 5173:Syriac Orthodox Church 4957:Flag of Northern Syria 4743:Support Kurds in Syria 4676:5 October 2011 at the 3808:. Routledge. pp. 3436:Yildiz, Kerim (2005). 3229:Yildiz, Kerim (2005). 2887:Özoğlu, Hakan (2001). 2637:Yildiz, Kerim (2005). 2576:Yildiz, Kerim (2005). 1386:Syrian Communist Party 1310: 1287:Al-Hasakah Governorate 1264:" (gypsies) who speak 1230: 1196: Northern Kurdish 1154:Operation Peace Spring 1064: 1010:, 4 February 2011 was 999: 938: 756:Two early presidents, 582: 574: 507: 499: 364: 303:, who was a Kurd from 119: 81:Modern Standard Arabic 77:North Levantine Arabic 5734:Syrian Kurdish people 4882:SDF military councils 4808:Libertarian socialism 4721:. London: Routledge. 4717:Tejel, Jordi (2009). 3610:Jordi Tejel Gorgas, " 3554:Giannini, A. (1931). 3179:Klein, Janet (2011). 3066:Tejel, Jordi (2008). 2776:Tejel, Jordi (2008). 2720:Tejel, Jordi (2008). 2549:Tejel, Jordi (2009). 2397:Tejel, Jordi (2009). 1524:(born 1942), actress. 1412:Muhammad Mustafa Mero 1308: 1260:There are also some " 1202: Central Kurdish 1185: 1172:Amnesty International 1166:Human rights in Syria 1055: 989: 928: 580: 572: 500: 493: 358: 117: 5072:Assyrian Neo-Aramaic 2348:Tank, Pinar (2017). 2088:Storm, Lise (2005). 1859:The History of Syria 1671:"Who are the Kurds?" 1135:Turkish Armed Forces 793:Syrian Arab Republic 778:United Arab Republic 708:) and Hassan Aouni ( 371:ruled the region of 4862:Self-Defense Forces 4659:Library of Congress 4286:on 29 November 2012 2354:Die Welt des Islams 1934:. 11 September 2015 1930:(Online ed.). 1530:(1939–2012), actor. 1396:People's Will Party 1148:On 9 October 2019, 1008:Egyptian Revolution 1004:Tunisian Revolution 943:2004 Qamishli riots 752:Syrian independence 734:Syrian independence 717:autonomist movement 694:Syrian constitution 422:Hasakah Governorate 159:Syria-Turkey border 28: 5463:Kurdish population 4514:Human Rights Watch 4346:. 10 October 2019. 4327:The Jerusalem Post 4107:The New York Times 3876:, pp.157, 158, 161 3025:Travis, Hannibal. 2675:BuzzFeed Community 2285:Tejel (2009) p.100 1584:Al-Jazira province 1311: 1250:Human Rights Watch 1231: 1125:Kurdish-inhabited 1065: 1000: 939: 808:Syrian citizenship 608:Kurdish rebellions 583: 575: 536:Treaty of Lausanne 407:The Danish writer 365: 272:Kurdish rebellions 132:Kurdish population 120: 48:Northeastern Syria 26: 5716: 5715: 5514: 5513: 5424: 5423: 5372:Foreign nationals 5338:Dom/Nawar (Gypsy) 5104: 5103: 5087: 5086: 4941: 4940: 4917: 4916: 4892:Al-Sanadid Forces 4838:Political parties 4828:Foreign Relations 4579:978-1-134-09643-5 4470:978-90-04-14476-7 3949:978-1-134-09643-5 3897:978-1-134-09643-5 3819:978-0-415-07265-6 3590:978-2-84586-441-2 3508:978-1-4008-6666-3 3422:978-1-139-48693-4 3275:978-3-85476-665-0 3190:978-0-8047-7570-0 3052:978-1-4128-3592-3 2787:978-0-415-42440-0 2731:978-1-134-09643-5 2706:978-0-520-07196-4 2623:978-3-03911-209-8 2562:978-0-203-89211-4 2443:978-0-203-89211-4 2410:978-0-203-89211-4 2308:978-3-85476-665-0 1964:(Online ed.) 1732:. 24 October 2016 1606:by David McDowall 1509:Muhammad Kurd Ali 1406:Mahmoud al-Ayyubi 1358:Ata Bey al-Ayyubi 1228: 1227: 1044:Rojava Revolution 1038:Kurdish rebellion 931:flag of Kurdistan 762:Adib Al Shishakli 742:Jabal Druze State 728:president of the 726:Armenian Catholic 606:after the failed 470:Upper Mesopotamia 449:Upper Mesopotamia 180:, similar to the 178:Western Kurdistan 174:Syrian government 112: 111: 5751: 5593: 5474: 5473: 5461: 5451: 5444: 5437: 5428: 5427: 5131: 5124: 5117: 5108: 5107: 5057:Northern Kurdish 4950: 4949: 4926: 4925: 4801: 4800: 4782: 4775: 4768: 4759: 4758: 4732: 4698: 4693: 4687: 4668: 4662: 4649: 4643: 4642: 4627: 4608: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4593: 4584: 4583: 4565: 4559: 4558: 4557: 4555: 4549: 4542: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4522: 4520: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4497: 4495: 4485: 4474: 4473: 4461:Brill Publishers 4452: 4446: 4445: 4443: 4441: 4436:on 10 March 2007 4432:. Archived from 4430:"amnestyusa.org" 4426: 4420: 4406: 4400: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4390:on 21 March 2012 4386:. Archived from 4376: 4370: 4369: 4367: 4365: 4354: 4348: 4347: 4336: 4330: 4329:. 26 March 2018. 4319: 4313: 4312:. 12 March 2018. 4302: 4296: 4295: 4293: 4291: 4272: 4266: 4265: 4263: 4261: 4242: 4236: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4212: 4203: 4202: 4200: 4198: 4193:on 1 August 2012 4179: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4168: 4147: 4141: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4117: 4111: 4110: 4098: 4092: 4086: 4080: 4074: 4068: 4060: 4054: 4053: 4051: 4049: 4041:Cajsa Wikstrom. 4038: 4032: 4031:, 19 March 2004. 4022: 4016: 4015: 4013: 4011: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3983: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3933: 3927: 3908: 3902: 3901: 3883: 3877: 3858: 3852: 3851: 3833: 3824: 3823: 3807: 3797: 3791: 3772: 3766: 3763: 3757: 3754: 3748: 3745: 3734: 3733: 3715: 3709: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3681: 3672: 3671: 3669: 3667: 3653: 3647: 3646: 3628: 3619: 3608: 3602: 3601: 3599: 3597: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3550: 3544: 3541: 3535: 3532: 3526: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3492: 3486: 3485: 3484:on 4 March 2016. 3483: 3476: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3443: 3433: 3427: 3426: 3403: 3397: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3383:. 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Archived from 2000: 1990:Fabrice Balanche 1986: 1977: 1976: 1971: 1969: 1951: 1945: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1920: 1911: 1910: 1905: 1903: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1854: 1845: 1844: 1842: 1840: 1824: 1818: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1798: 1792: 1791: 1751: 1742: 1741: 1739: 1737: 1722: 1716: 1715: 1695: 1689: 1688: 1686: 1684: 1667: 1658: 1656: 1654: 1652: 1643:. Archived from 1623: 1565:Muhammad Albicho 1376:Muhsin al-Barazi 1246:Kurdish language 1235:Kurdish language 1221: 1215: 1207: 1201: 1195: 1189: 1032:Abdulbaset Sieda 982:Syrian Civil War 976:Syrian Civil War 524:Turkish Republic 520:Treaty of Sèvres 361:Sabat Islambooly 233:Syrian civil war 190:Syrian Civil War 147:Euphrates Region 75:); also Arabic ( 32:Total population 29: 25: 5759: 5758: 5754: 5753: 5752: 5750: 5749: 5748: 5719: 5718: 5717: 5712: 5691: 5594: 5585: 5510: 5465: 5455: 5425: 5420: 5413: 5367: 5279: 5205:Maronite Church 5144: 5135: 5105: 5100: 5083: 4937: 4913: 4792: 4786: 4739: 4729: 4706: 4704:Further reading 4701: 4694: 4690: 4678:Wayback Machine 4669: 4665: 4650: 4646: 4641:on 11 May 2012. 4629: 4628: 4611: 4601: 4599: 4595: 4594: 4587: 4580: 4566: 4562: 4553: 4551: 4550:on 18 June 2018 4547: 4540: 4532: 4528: 4518: 4516: 4508: 4507: 4503: 4493: 4491: 4487: 4486: 4477: 4471: 4463:, p. 402, 4459:, vol. 4, 4453: 4449: 4439: 4437: 4428: 4427: 4423: 4409:For Zion's sake 4407: 4403: 4393: 4391: 4382: 4377: 4373: 4363: 4361: 4356: 4355: 4351: 4344:The Irish Times 4338: 4337: 4333: 4320: 4316: 4310:The Independent 4303: 4299: 4289: 4287: 4274: 4273: 4269: 4259: 4257: 4256:on 24 July 2012 4244: 4243: 4239: 4229: 4227: 4226:on 21 July 2012 4214: 4213: 4206: 4196: 4194: 4181: 4180: 4176: 4166: 4164: 4149: 4148: 4144: 4134: 4132: 4131:on 23 July 2012 4119: 4118: 4114: 4099: 4095: 4087: 4083: 4075: 4071: 4061: 4057: 4047: 4045: 4039: 4035: 4023: 4019: 4009: 4007: 3998: 3997: 3993: 3977: 3976: 3969: 3967: 3964:"www.amude.com" 3962: 3961: 3957: 3950: 3934: 3930: 3909: 3905: 3898: 3884: 3880: 3859: 3855: 3848: 3834: 3827: 3820: 3798: 3794: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3760: 3755: 3751: 3746: 3737: 3730: 3716: 3712: 3707: 3703: 3696: 3682: 3675: 3665: 3663: 3655: 3654: 3650: 3643: 3642:978-1-558766150 3629: 3622: 3609: 3605: 3595: 3593: 3591: 3575: 3571: 3561: 3559: 3551: 3547: 3542: 3538: 3534:Tejel, pp.27–28 3533: 3529: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3493: 3489: 3481: 3474: 3468: 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Decisions 2115: 2111: 2104: 2086: 2075: 2035: 2031: 2015: 2013: 2012:on 26 June 2019 2009: 1998: 1987: 1980: 1967: 1965: 1952: 1948: 1937: 1935: 1922: 1921: 1914: 1901: 1899: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1873: 1855: 1848: 1838: 1836: 1826: 1825: 1821: 1811: 1809: 1800: 1799: 1795: 1760:Oriente Moderno 1752: 1745: 1735: 1733: 1724: 1723: 1719: 1712: 1696: 1692: 1682: 1680: 1669: 1668: 1661: 1650: 1648: 1625: 1624: 1617: 1613: 1580: 1543: 1518: 1485: 1470:Haitham Hussein 1454: 1441: 1370:Husni al-Barazi 1342: 1337: 1282: 1274: 1229: 1223: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1180: 1168: 1162: 1050: 1042:Main articles: 1040: 984: 978: 969: 945: 923: 899: 897:Newroz protests 863: 857: 844:Iraqi Kurdistan 800: 795: 754: 746:Syrian Republic 722:Syriac Catholic 702:Jazira province 689: 664:divide and rule 656: 644:Dersim massacre 612:Kemalist Turkey 588: 552:State of Aleppo 512: 409:Carsten Niebuhr 385:sedentarization 329: 309:Ayyubid dynasty 297: 292: 276:Kemalist Turkey 268:Jazira province 202: 169:further south. 24: 19: 12: 11: 5: 5757: 5747: 5746: 5741: 5736: 5731: 5729:Kurds in Syria 5714: 5713: 5711: 5710: 5705: 5699: 5697: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5688:United Kingdom 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5607: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5595: 5588: 5586: 5584: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5542: 5541: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5492: 5491: 5480: 5478: 5471: 5467: 5466: 5454: 5453: 5446: 5439: 5431: 5422: 5421: 5418: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5375: 5373: 5369: 5368: 5366: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5304: 5303: 5293: 5287: 5285: 5281: 5280: 5278: 5277: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5264: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5232: 5231: 5230: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5218: 5217: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5182: 5181: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5154: 5152: 5146: 5145: 5134: 5133: 5126: 5119: 5111: 5102: 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3701: 3694: 3673: 3648: 3641: 3620: 3603: 3589: 3569: 3545: 3536: 3527: 3514: 3507: 3487: 3461: 3454: 3428: 3421: 3398: 3387:on 6 July 2022 3368: 3341: 3334: 3308: 3301: 3281: 3274: 3254: 3247: 3221: 3196: 3189: 3171: 3160:(3): 461–474. 3144: 3137: 3119: 3085: 3078: 3058: 3051: 3031: 3018: 3011: 2991: 2984: 2961: 2954: 2934: 2879: 2872: 2846: 2829: 2812: 2793: 2786: 2768: 2737: 2730: 2712: 2705: 2687: 2662: 2655: 2629: 2622: 2601: 2594: 2568: 2561: 2532: 2525: 2502: 2449: 2442: 2416: 2409: 2389: 2340: 2328:New York Times 2314: 2307: 2287: 2278: 2252: 2230: 2208: 2189: 2170: 2148: 2109: 2102: 2073: 2049:(3): 468–488. 2029: 1978: 1961:New York Times 1946: 1912: 1882: 1872:978-1440858352 1871: 1846: 1819: 1793: 1743: 1717: 1710: 1690: 1659: 1647:on 1 June 2007 1628:World Factbook 1614: 1612: 1609: 1608: 1607: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1579: 1576: 1575: 1574: 1571:Ahmad Al Salih 1568: 1562: 1556: 1550: 1542: 1539: 1538: 1537: 1534:Caresse Bashar 1531: 1525: 1517: 1514: 1513: 1512: 1506: 1500: 1484: 1481: 1480: 1479: 1473: 1467: 1461: 1453: 1450: 1449: 1448: 1440: 1437: 1436: 1435: 1425: 1415: 1409: 1403: 1389: 1382:Khalid Bakdash 1379: 1373: 1367: 1364:Husni al-Za'im 1361: 1355: 1352:Adib Shishakli 1349: 1346:Ibrahim Hananu 1341: 1338: 1336: 1333: 1281: 1278: 1273: 1270: 1226: 1225: 1218: 1212: 1210: 1204: 1198: 1192: 1187: 1179: 1176: 1161: 1158: 1039: 1036: 1002:Following the 980:Main article: 977: 974: 968: 965: 941:Main article: 922: 921:Qamishli riots 919: 898: 895: 859:Main article: 856: 853: 799: 796: 794: 791: 753: 750: 688: 685: 655: 654:French Mandate 652: 587: 584: 511: 508: 468:Christians in 447:Christians in 433:Bedir Khan Beg 328: 327:Ottoman period 325: 296: 295:Ayyubid period 293: 291: 288: 222:Sheikh Maqsood 201: 198: 145:, the central 126:population of 110: 109: 90: 89: 85: 84: 64: 63: 59: 58: 44: 43: 39: 38: 34: 33: 27:Kurds in Syria 22: 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5756: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5726: 5724: 5709: 5708:United States 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