164:
such as boron, silicon, germanium, iron disulfide, iron oxide, iron trifluoride, manganese telluride, have been converted to 2D nanoplatelets when sonicated in appropriate solvents. This raises many open questions on the mechanism of liquid-phase exfoliation process. For layered materials, the energy required to break inter-plane (perdominately van der Waals) bonds forces is small compared to that required to break in-plane ionic or covalent bonds. Then, the exfoliation procedure results in the formation of 2D-nanosheets. However, for non-layered 3D-strongly bonded materials, with minimal difference in bonding between different atomic planes, there is no "easily exfoliated" direction and sonication should yield quasi spherical particles. Nevertheless, near isotropic materials such as silicon have been exfoliated to give high-aspect ratio platelets. Therefore, developing an understanding of the mechanisms by which non-layered materials are exfoliated will be important, in particular because the application scope of such nonlayered 2D-nanoplatelets is broad, ranging from biomedical applications to energy storage to opto-electronics.
306:
Kivioja, Jani; Marinelli, Claudio; Ryhänen, Tapani; Morpurgo, Alberto; Coleman, Jonathan N.; Nicolosi, Valeria; Colombo, Luigi; Fert, Albert; Garcia-Hernandez, Mar; Bachtold, Adrian; Schneider, Grégory F.; Guinea, Francisco; Dekker, Cees; Barbone, Matteo; Sun, Zhipei; Galiotis, Costas; Grigorenko, Alexander N.; Konstantatos, Gerasimos; Kis, Andras; Katsnelson, Mikhail; Vandersypen, Lieven; Loiseau, Annick; Morandi, Vittorio; Neumaier, Daniel; Treossi, Emanuele; Pellegrini, Vittorio; Polini, Marco; Tredicucci, Alessandro; Williams, Gareth M.; Hee Hong, Byung; Ahn, Jong-Hyun; Min Kim, Jong; Zirath, Herbert; van Wees, Bart J.; van der Zant, Herre; Occhipinti, Luigi; Di Matteo, Andrea; Kinloch, Ian A.; Seyller, Thomas; Quesnel, Etienne; Feng, Xinliang; Teo, Ken; Rupesinghe, Nalin; Hakonen, Pertti; Neil, Simon R. T.; Tannock, Quentin; Löfwander, Tomas; Kinaret, Jari (2015).
120:
1382:
John J.; Wang, Jing Jing; Donegan, John F.; Grunlan, Jaime C.; Moriarty, Gregory; Shmeliov, Aleksey; Nicholls, Rebecca J.; Perkins, James M.; Grieveson, Eleanor M.; Theuwissen, Koenraad; McComb, David W.; Nellist, Peter D.; Nicolosi, Valeria (4 February 2011). "Two-Dimensional
Nanosheets Produced by Liquid Exfoliation of Layered Materials".
244:
John J.; Wang, Jing Jing; Donegan, John F.; Grunlan, Jaime C.; Moriarty, Gregory; Shmeliov, Aleksey; Nicholls, Rebecca J.; Perkins, James M.; Grieveson, Eleanor M.; Theuwissen, Koenraad; McComb, David W.; Nellist, Peter D.; Nicolosi, Valeria (4 February 2011). "Two-Dimensional
Nanosheets Produced by Liquid Exfoliation of Layered Materials".
1011:
Hernandez, Yenny; Nicolosi, Valeria; Lotya, Mustafa; Blighe, Fiona M.; Sun, Zhenyu; De, Sukanta; McGovern, I. T.; Holland, Brendan; Byrne, Michele; Gun'Ko, Yurii K.; Boland, John J.; Niraj, Peter; Duesberg, Georg; Krishnamurthy, Satheesh; Goodhue, Robbie; Hutchison, John; Scardaci, Vittorio; Ferrari,
842:
Hernandez, Yenny; Nicolosi, Valeria; Lotya, Mustafa; Blighe, Fiona M.; Sun, Zhenyu; De, Sukanta; McGovern, I. T.; Holland, Brendan; Byrne, Michele; Gun'Ko, Yurii K.; Boland, John J.; Niraj, Peter; Duesberg, Georg; Krishnamurthy, Satheesh; Goodhue, Robbie; Hutchison, John; Scardaci, Vittorio; Ferrari,
788:
Hernandez, Yenny; Nicolosi, Valeria; Lotya, Mustafa; Blighe, Fiona M.; Sun, Zhenyu; De, Sukanta; McGovern, I. T.; Holland, Brendan; Byrne, Michele; Gun'Ko, Yurii K.; Boland, John J.; Niraj, Peter; Duesberg, Georg; Krishnamurthy, Satheesh; Goodhue, Robbie; Hutchison, John; Scardaci, Vittorio; Ferrari,
181:
Hernandez, Yenny; Nicolosi, Valeria; Lotya, Mustafa; Blighe, Fiona M.; Sun, Zhenyu; De, Sukanta; McGovern, I. T.; Holland, Brendan; Byrne, Michele; Gun'Ko, Yurii K.; Boland, John J.; Niraj, Peter; Duesberg, Georg; Krishnamurthy, Satheesh; Goodhue, Robbie; Hutchison, John; Scardaci, Vittorio; Ferrari,
163:
Recent work has shown that liquid phase exfoliation can be used to produce 2D-nanoplatelets from non-layered 3D-strongly bonded bulk materials. This is intuitively unexpected as these 3D-solid bulk crystals consists of strong bonds in all the three-directions. Nevertheless, many non-layered materials
127:
Liquid phase exfoliation was first described in detail in a paper by a research team in
Ireland in 2008, although a very short description of a similar process was published by the Manchester group around the same time. While other papers had previously described methods to exfoliate layered crystals
1132:
Del Rio
Castillo, A. E.; Pellegrini, V.; Ansaldo, A.; Ricciardella, F.; Sun, H.; Marasco, L.; Buha, J.; Dang, Z.; Gagliani, L.; Lago, E.; Curreli, N.; Gentiluomo, S.; Palazon, F.; Prato, M.; Oropesa-Nuñez, R.; Toth, P. S.; Mantero, E.; Crugliano, M.; Gamucci, A.; Tomadin, A.; Polini, M.; Bonaccorso,
685:
Del Rio
Castillo, A. E.; Pellegrini, V.; Ansaldo, A.; Ricciardella, F.; Sun, H.; Marasco, L.; Buha, J.; Dang, Z.; Gagliani, L.; Lago, E.; Curreli, N.; Gentiluomo, S.; Palazon, F.; Prato, M.; Oropesa-Nuñez, R.; Toth, P. S.; Mantero, E.; Crugliano, M.; Gamucci, A.; Tomadin, A.; Polini, M.; Bonaccorso,
1381:
Coleman, Jonathan N.; Lotya, Mustafa; O’Neill, Arlene; Bergin, Shane D.; King, Paul J.; Khan, Umar; Young, Karen; Gaucher, Alexandre; De, Sukanta; Smith, Ronan J.; Shvets, Igor V.; Arora, Sunil K.; Stanton, George; Kim, Hye-Young; Lee, Kangho; Kim, Gyu Tae; Duesberg, Georg S.; Hallam, Toby; Boland,
305:
Ferrari, Andrea C.; Bonaccorso, Francesco; Fal'ko, Vladimir; Novoselov, Konstantin S.; Roche, Stephan; Bøggild, Peter; Borini, Stefano; Koppens, Frank H. L.; Palermo, Vincenzo; Pugno, Nicola; Garrido, José A.; Sordan, Roman; Bianco, Alberto; Ballerini, Laura; Prato, Maurizio; Lidorikis, Elefterios;
243:
Coleman, Jonathan N.; Lotya, Mustafa; O’Neill, Arlene; Bergin, Shane D.; King, Paul J.; Khan, Umar; Young, Karen; Gaucher, Alexandre; De, Sukanta; Smith, Ronan J.; Shvets, Igor V.; Arora, Sunil K.; Stanton, George; Kim, Hye-Young; Lee, Kangho; Kim, Gyu Tae; Duesberg, Georg S.; Hallam, Toby; Boland,
154:
A very wide range of 2D materials have been produced by LPE. The first material to be exfoliated was graphene in 2008. This was followed in 2011 by the exfoliation of BN, MoS2 and WS2. Since, the a wide range of 2D materials have been exfoliated including molybdenum diselenide, tungsten diselenide,
145:
The simplest stabilizing liquids are solvents with surface energy close to the layered crystal being exfoliated. In practice, liquids with surface tensions close to 70 mJ/m are used. In addition aqueous surfactant solutions are often used. Less common, but useful for certain applications, is using
43:
is often commonly used. The addition of energy causes a combination of fragmentation and exfoliation resulting in the removal of small nanosheets from the layered crystals. In this way graphite can be converted into large quantities of graphene nanosheets. In general, these nanosheets tend to be a
136:
LPE involves inserting layered crystals into appropriate stabilizing liquids and then adding energy to remove nanosheets from the layered crystals. A number of different methods have been used to supply energy to the liquid. The earliest and most common is ultrasonication. In order to scaleup the
48:
thick and of lateral sizes ranging from tens of nanometers to many microns. These dispersed nanosheets form quasi stable suspensions so long as solvents used have surface energies similar to that of the nanosheets. Dispersed concentrations of order 1 gram per litre can be achieved. In addition to
1073:
Paton, Keith R.; Varrla, Eswaraiah; Backes, Claudia; Smith, Ronan J.; Khan, Umar; O’Neill, Arlene; Boland, Conor; Lotya, Mustafa; Istrate, Oana M.; King, Paul; Higgins, Tom; Barwich, Sebastian; May, Peter; Puczkarski, Pawel; Ahmed, Iftikhar; Moebius, Matthias; Pettersson, Henrik; Long, Edmund;
383:
Paton, Keith R.; Varrla, Eswaraiah; Backes, Claudia; Smith, Ronan J.; Khan, Umar; O’Neill, Arlene; Boland, Conor; Lotya, Mustafa; Istrate, Oana M.; King, Paul; Higgins, Tom; Barwich, Sebastian; May, Peter; Puczkarski, Pawel; Ahmed, Iftikhar; Moebius, Matthias; Pettersson, Henrik; Long, Edmund;
1646:
Backes, Claudia; Campi, Davide; Szydlowska, Beata M.; Synnatschke, Kevin; Ojala, Ezgi; Rashvand, Farnia; Harvey, Andrew; Griffin, Aideen; Sofer, Zdenek; Marzari, Nicola; Coleman, Jonathan N.; O’Regan, David D. (25 June 2019). "Equipartition of Energy
Defines the Size–Thickness Relationship in
1592:
Li, Zheling; Young, Robert J.; Backes, Claudia; Zhao, Wen; Zhang, Xun; Zhukov, Alexander A.; Tillotson, Evan; Conlan, Aidan P.; Ding, Feng; Haigh, Sarah J.; Novoselov, Kostya S.; Coleman, Jonathan N. (22 September 2020). "Mechanisms of Liquid-Phase
Exfoliation for the Production of Graphene".
537:
Backes, Claudia; Campi, Davide; Szydlowska, Beata M.; Synnatschke, Kevin; Ojala, Ezgi; Rashvand, Farnia; Harvey, Andrew; Griffin, Aideen; Sofer, Zdenek; Marzari, Nicola; Coleman, Jonathan N.; O’Regan, David D. (25 June 2019). "Equipartition of Energy
Defines the Size–Thickness Relationship in
442:
Li, Zheling; Young, Robert J.; Backes, Claudia; Zhao, Wen; Zhang, Xun; Zhukov, Alexander A.; Tillotson, Evan; Conlan, Aidan P.; Ding, Feng; Haigh, Sarah J.; Novoselov, Kostya S.; Coleman, Jonathan N. (22 September 2020). "Mechanisms of Liquid-Phase
Exfoliation for the Production of Graphene".
1214:
Lotya, Mustafa; Hernandez, Yenny; King, Paul J.; Smith, Ronan J.; Nicolosi, Valeria; Karlsson, Lisa S.; Blighe, Fiona M.; De, Sukanta; Wang, Zhiming; McGovern, I. T.; Duesberg, Georg S.; Coleman, Jonathan N. (18 March 2009). "Liquid Phase
Production of Graphene by Exfoliation of Graphite in
27:
in large quantities. It is currently one of the pillar methods for producing 2D nanosheets. According to IDTechEx, the family of exfoliation techniques which are directly or indirectly descended from LPE now make up over 60% of global graphene production capacity.
904:
Blake, Peter; Brimicombe, Paul D.; Nair, Rahul R.; Booth, Tim J.; Jiang, Da; Schedin, Fred; Ponomarenko, Leonid A.; Morozov, Sergey V.; Gleeson, Helen F.; Hill, Ernie W.; Geim, Andre K.; Novoselov, Kostya S. (1 June 2008). "Graphene-Based Liquid Crystal Device".
137:
process, high shear mixing was introduced in 2014. This method proved extremely useful and inspired a number of other methods of generating shear in the suspension, including wet ball milling, homogenization, microfluidization and wet jet milling.
49:
solvents, it is also possible to use molecular stabilizers, for example surfactants or polymers to coat the nanosheets and stabilise them against regaggregation. This has the advantage that it allows nanosheets to be suspended in water.
1353:
May, Peter; Khan, Umar; Hughes, J. Marguerite; Coleman, Jonathan N. (24 May 2012). "Role of Solubility Parameters in Understanding the Steric Stabilization of Exfoliated Two-Dimensional Nanosheets by Adsorbed Polymers".
1074:
Coelho, João; O’Brien, Sean E.; McGuire, Eva K.; Sanchez, Beatriz Mendoza; Duesberg, Georg S.; McEvoy, Niall; Pennycook, Timothy J.; Downing, Clive; Crossley, Alison; Nicolosi, Valeria; Coleman, Jonathan N. (June 2014).
384:
Coelho, João; O’Brien, Sean E.; McGuire, Eva K.; Sanchez, Beatriz Mendoza; Duesberg, Georg S.; McEvoy, Niall; Pennycook, Timothy J.; Downing, Clive; Crossley, Alison; Nicolosi, Valeria; Coleman, Jonathan N. (June 2014).
634:
Torrisi, Felice; Hasan, Tawfique; Wu, Weiping; Sun, Zhipei; Lombardo, Antonio; Kulmala, Tero S.; Hsieh, Gen-Wen; Jung, Sungjune; Bonaccorso, Francesco; Paul, Philip J.; Chu, Daping; Ferrari, Andrea C. (24 April 2012).
80:. The liquid suspensions produced by liquid phase exfoliation can be used to create a range of functional structures. For example, they can be printed into thin films and networks using standard techniques such as
1178:
Hernandez, Yenny; Lotya, Mustafa; Rickard, David; Bergin, Shane D.; Coleman, Jonathan N. (2 March 2010). "Measurement of Multicomponent Solubility Parameters for Graphene Facilitates Solvent Discovery".
107:, because it is much less destructive, leaving minimal defects in the basal planes of the nanosheets. It has recently emerged that LPE can also be used to convert non-layered crystals into quasi-2D
1075:
385:
52:
Although this method was first applied to exfoliate graphite to yield graphene nanosheets, it has since been used to produce a wide range of 2D materials including
966:
Nicolosi, Valeria; Chhowalla, Manish; Kanatzidis, Mercouri G.; Strano, Michael S.; Coleman, Jonathan N. (21 June 2013). "Liquid Exfoliation of Layered Materials".
123:
One of the earliest transmission electron microscope images of a graphene nanosheet produced by liquid phase exfoliation (exfoliated by the Dublin group in 2007).
1443:
Hu, Chen-Xia; Shin, Yuyoung; Read, Oliver; Casiraghi, Cinzia (2021). "Dispersant-assisted liquid-phase exfoliation of 2D materials beyond graphene".
591:
Hu, Chen-Xia; Shin, Yuyoung; Read, Oliver; Casiraghi, Cinzia (2021). "Dispersant-assisted liquid-phase exfoliation of 2D materials beyond graphene".
108:
1804:
Kaur, Harneet; Coleman, Jonathan N. (September 2022). "Liquid-Phase Exfoliation of Nonlayered Non-Van-Der-Waals Crystals into Nanoplatelets".
1700:
Kaur, Harneet; Coleman, Jonathan N. (September 2022). "Liquid-Phase Exfoliation of Nonlayered Non-Van-Der-Waals Crystals into Nanoplatelets".
1539:
Kaur, Harneet; Coleman, Jonathan N. (September 2022). "Liquid-Phase Exfoliation of Nonlayered Non-Van-Der-Waals Crystals into Nanoplatelets".
1486:
Kaur, Harneet; Coleman, Jonathan N. (September 2022). "Liquid-Phase Exfoliation of Nonlayered Non-Van-Der-Waals Crystals into Nanoplatelets".
128:
in liquids, these papers were the first to describe exfoliation in liquids without any previous ion intercalation or chemical treatment.
365:
1012:
Andrea C.; Coleman, Jonathan N. (September 2008). "High-yield production of graphene by liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite".
843:
Andrea C.; Coleman, Jonathan N. (September 2008). "High-yield production of graphene by liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite".
789:
Andrea C.; Coleman, Jonathan N. (September 2008). "High-yield production of graphene by liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite".
182:
Andrea C.; Coleman, Jonathan N. (September 2008). "High-yield production of graphene by liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite".
636:
155:
gallium sulphide, molybdemum trioxide, nickel(II) hydroxide, germanium monosulfide, SnP3, black phosphorus etc.
87:
Printed structures have been used in a range of applications in areas included printed electronics, sensors and
1868:
103:. Liquid phase exfoliation is different from other liquid exfoliation methods, for example the production of
1076:"Scalable production of large quantities of defect-free few-layer graphene by shear exfoliation in liquids"
386:"Scalable production of large quantities of defect-free few-layer graphene by shear exfoliation in liquids"
1269:
1270:"Supramolecular Approaches to Graphene: From Self-Assembly to Molecule-Assisted Liquid-Phase Exfoliation"
498:"RevisiĂłn sobre la sĂntesis de grafeno por exfoliaciĂłn en fase lĂquida: Mecanismos, factores y tĂ©cnicas"
1863:
23:(LPE) is a solution-processing method which is used to convert layered crystals into two-dimensional
1318:
Ciesielski, Artur; Samorì, Paolo (2014). "Grapheneviasonication assisted liquid-phase exfoliation".
308:"Science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems"
31:
This method involves adding powdered layered crystals, for example of graphite, to appropriate
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1755:"Liquid-Phase Exfoliated Silicon Nanosheets: Saturable Absorber for Solid-State Lasers"
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Galindo-Uribe, Carlos Daniel; Calaminici, Patrizia; Solorza-Feria, Omar (1 June 2022).
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733:"Liquid-Phase Exfoliation of Nonlayered Non-Van-Der-Waals Crystals into Nanoplatelets"
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Wang, Mengxia; Zhang, Fang; Wang, Zhengping; Xu, Xinguang (9 January 2019).
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molecular or polymeric additives to stabilise the exfoliated nanosheets.
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F. (2018). "High-yield production of 2D crystals by wet-jet milling".
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F. (2018). "High-yield production of 2D crystals by wet-jet milling".
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Kaur, Harneet; Coleman, Jonathan N. (September 29, 2022).
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1268:Ciesielski, Artur; Samorì, Paolo (August 2016).
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158:
366:"China to dominate graphene commercialization"
91:. Related methods include exfoliation by wet
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1217:Journal of the American Chemical Society
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1856:
131:
637:"Inkjet-Printed Graphene Electronics"
1356:The Journal of Physical Chemistry C
150:LPE of 2D materials beyond graphene
13:
14:
1880:
1797:
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1647:Liquid-Exfoliated Nanosheets".
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538:Liquid-Exfoliated Nanosheets".
35:and inserting energy, often by
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489:
435:
376:
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236:
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1:
1215:Surfactant/Water Solutions".
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159:LPE of non-layered materials
19:First demonstrated in 2008,
7:
10:
1885:
114:
16:Solution-processing method
21:liquid-phase exfoliation
1671:10.1021/acsnano.9b02234
1607:10.1021/acsnano.0c03916
1404:10.1126/science.1194975
980:10.1126/science.1226419
562:10.1021/acsnano.9b02234
457:10.1021/acsnano.0c03916
266:10.1126/science.1194975
1818:10.1002/adma.202202164
1714:10.1002/adma.202202164
1553:10.1002/adma.202202164
1500:10.1002/adma.202202164
1289:10.1002/adma.201505371
1044:10.1038/nnano.2008.215
875:10.1038/nnano.2008.215
813:10.1038/nnano.2008.215
749:10.1002/adma.202202164
214:10.1038/nnano.2008.215
124:
1869:Laboratory techniques
1014:Nature Nanotechnology
845:Nature Nanotechnology
791:Nature Nanotechnology
184:Nature Nanotechnology
122:
70:germanium monosulfide
66:nickel(II) hydroxide
54:molybdenum disulfide
1396:2011Sci...331..568C
1362:(20): 11393–11400.
1095:2014NatMa..13..624P
1036:2008NatNa...3..563H
929:2008NanoL...8.1704B
867:2008NatNa...3..563H
515:10.15359/ru.36-1.35
405:2014NatMa..13..624P
324:2015Nanos...7.4598F
258:2011Sci...331..568C
206:2008NatNa...3..563H
132:Exfoliation methods
58:tungsten diselenide
1806:Advanced Materials
1772:10.3390/ma12020201
1702:Advanced Materials
1601:(9): 10976–10985.
1541:Advanced Materials
1488:Advanced Materials
1457:10.1039/d0nr05514j
1332:10.1039/c3cs60217f
1277:Advanced Materials
1157:10.1039/c8mh00487k
1135:Materials Horizons
737:Advanced Materials
710:10.1039/c8mh00487k
688:Materials Horizons
605:10.1039/d0nr05514j
451:(9): 10976–10985.
372:. 18 January 2018.
333:10.1039/C4NR01600A
125:
95:, homogenization,
1390:(6017): 568–571.
1368:10.1021/jp302365w
1283:(29): 6030–6051.
1239:10.1021/ja807449u
1223:(10): 3611–3620.
1193:10.1021/la903188a
974:(6139): 1226419.
937:10.1021/nl080649i
656:10.1021/nn2044609
318:(11): 4598–4810.
252:(6017): 568–571.
97:microfluidization
41:high-shear mixing
1876:
1864:Chemical physics
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1655:(6): 7050–7061.
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1187:(5): 3208–3213.
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1089:(6): 624–630.
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1723:2262/101345
1562:2262/101345
1509:2262/101345
758:2262/101345
508:(1): 1–14.
141:Stabilisers
101:jet milling
39:, although
1858:Categories
1765:(2): 201.
1662:2006.14909
1616:2262/93628
1413:2262/66458
1148:1804.10688
989:2262/69769
701:1804.10688
553:2006.14909
502:Uniciencia
466:2262/93628
343:2117/27112
275:2262/66458
168:References
46:monolayers
25:nanosheets
1844:248390135
1759:Materials
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1687:189813507
1633:220269811
1579:248390135
1526:248390135
1473:230784148
1445:Nanoscale
1305:205266229
1230:0809.2690
1060:205443620
1027:0805.2850
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920:0803.3031
891:205443620
858:0805.2850
829:205443620
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775:248390135
621:230784148
593:Nanoscale
578:189813507
524:249696830
483:220269811
312:Nanoscale
230:205443620
197:0805.2850
1836:35470487
1791:30634424
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1649:ACS Nano
1625:32598132
1595:ACS Nano
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1430:23576676
1422:21292974
1340:24002478
1297:26928750
1255:16624132
1247:19227978
1201:19883090
1181:Langmuir
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1111:24747780
1052:18772919
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821:18772919
767:35470487
718:96459022
664:22449258
644:ACS Nano
613:33404043
570:31199123
540:ACS Nano
475:32598132
445:ACS Nano
429:43256835
421:24747780
370:IDTechEx
352:25707682
292:23576676
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222:18772919
99:and wet
33:solvents
1782:6356386
1392:Bibcode
1384:Science
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1522:S2CID
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1273:(PDF)
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192:arXiv
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566:PMID
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348:PMID
280:PMID
218:PMID
44:few
1822:hdl
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1777:PMC
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