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110:) to pressure the colonial authorities. In December 1957, Baluba candidates won a number of municipal elections in Luluabourg, raising fears from Lulua elites that they were being displaced. Mobilizing politically around their Lulua identity, Lulua leaders swept the 1960 legislative elections for the provincial parliament. The Lulua led administration then proposed a plan to evict 100,000 ethnic Baluba farmers back to South Kasai. Ethnic based riots broke out in response on 11 October and escalated. This violence fed into already brewing political split between Lumumba's Congo nationalist MNC versus regionalists
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external conflict. Nineteenth century
European missionaries and travelers contributed to this process of ethnic differentiation from the Luba, defining these small communities in contradistinction to the states of their neighbors. Father A. Van Zandijcke, a Belgian missionary, reported that until 1870 there was no agreed collective name for the Lulua, with each kinship group or chieftaincy identifying themselves independently. By the first decade of the 20th century, the coming of Belgian colonialism along with pressure from the Luba empire and other neighbors, began to develop a Lulua collective identity.
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106:, later Kananga. From the 1920s, Baluba farmers from South Kasi began relocating again into more fertile Lulua lands in Kananga. Following the Second World War, Belgium began to grant some limited forms of local self-government to the Congolese. At the same time, educated Lulua, concerned by the relative political power of the Luba/Baluba ruling classes led by Sylvian Mangole Kalamba, formed an ethnic educational and political group called The Lulua Brothers (
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secession of the Congo Crisis. In Lulua territories, central government troops and United Nation peacekeepers were rushed in to quell violence. These areas became the frontline for government forces, sandwiched as it was between both the South Kasai and the
Katanga secessionist states. When order was
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Land disputes with neighbors helped lend a both a collective identity as well as feeding ethnic conflict, as did the
Belgian colonial policy of formalising a "kingship", in the style of their neighbors, for the Lulua. The tensions of the late colonial period finally culminated it what has been called
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in the 18th century helped push these small Luba hunting groups into their present home, according to oral sources, coming from the west. Their collective identity was limited to the institution of the "Kalamba", a judge and war leader to whom these small groups turned to in times of internal or
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In the 19th century, the Chokwe—another related group—identified a disparate collection of neighboring farming and hunting groups in the area between the Upper and Lower Kasai and Lulua Rivers as the "Beena Luluwa" (singular, "Mwena Luluwa") meaning "people by the Luluwa." The powerful
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at independence, there were violent conflicts with other ethnic groups, especially in the area of
Kananga/Luluabourg's large self identified Lulua community. In the late 19th century, Baluba demographic pressures drove Lulua groups into what became the Belgian colonial area of
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Lulua arts are highly prized in the international collectors market. Lulua carved wood figures are identified with distinctive and extensive portrayal of scarification patterns (despite the fact that Lulua scarification traditions largely died out in the 19th century).
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In fact, the Lulua share language, matrilineal inheritance, and many other cultural traits with the Luba people and the Kondji or Luntu peoples. All three have been considered subgroups of the Luba, tracing their origins back to the Luba empire based in
Katanga.
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Leonce
Ndikumana, Kisangani F. Emizet. The Economics of Civil War: The Case of the Democratic Republic of Congo. pp.63-88 in Understanding civil war: evidence and analysis, Volume 1. World Bank Publications 2009.
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Carved figures serve a number of spiritual and decorative roles and are known for their refined artistry, while Lulua wooden masks are confined to secret society rituals and are made to be disposed after use.
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finally reestablished in the Lulua majority area in
February 1962, some 3000 to 7000 were dead in both communal violence and military action. The Congo Crisis would burn on until November 1966.
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The name Lulua seems to have appeared in the last quarter of the 19th century, previously these groups simply being ethnically Luba people outside the Luba (or Baluba) political structure.
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Lulua lands are bordered on the south by other small ethnic groups, including the
Mbagani, Lwalwa, Southern Kete, and the Salampasu. Rural Lulua remain mostly farmers.
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There is no better example of the invention of ethnicity or, in other words, of how artificial ethnic identities can be than the Lulua--Baluba conflict.
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Eugeen
Roosens (ed). Creating ethnicity: the process of ethnogenesis. Volume 5 of Frontiers of anthropology. Sage Publications, 1989.
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Constantijn
Petridis. Art and power in the Central African Savanna: Luba, Songye, Chokwe, Luluwa. Mercatorfonds, 2008.
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44:. The Lulua are in fact a collection of small groups whose home bordered by the larger Luba state and the related
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The Continuum Encyclopedia of Native Art: Worldview, Symbolism, and Culture in Africa, Oceania, and North America
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William McCutchan Morrison, Presbyterian Church in the U.S. American Presbyterian Congo Mission.
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the "Lulua--Baluba War", as communal violence exploded on 11 October 1959.
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A 19th century statue of a Lulua war chief, Ethnologisches Museum Berlin.
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Peace operations and intrastate conflict: the sword or the olive branch?
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Baluba et Lulua : une ethnie Ă la recherche d'un nouvel Ă©quilibre
52:, with whom they share a very similar culture, history, and language.
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The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: a people's history. 2002.
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Ethnic groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Ethnic groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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Ethnographische Notizen aus den Jahren 1905 und 1906
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Congo-Kinshasa: La fin du conflit Lulua-Luba (1961)
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Grammar and dictionary of the Buluba-Lulua language
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59:History of Lulua identity
65:Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja
36:valley in south central
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452:at Wikimedia Commons
385:Thomas R. Mockaitis.
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93:The Lulua–Baluba War
376:le Potentiel, 2009
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406:Hope B. Werness.
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172:Statuette (
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82:Luba empire
34:Lulua River
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494:Indigenous
364:pp.118-123
205:References
104:Luluabourg
40:province,
925:Europeans
759:Mongo Twa
156:Tambour (
729:Mangbetu
627:Iyaelima
617:Holoholo
397:pp.17-18
294:pp.485-6
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547:Bemba
532:Banda
418:p.185
181:]
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114:from
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682:Luba
677:Logo
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612:Hema
562:Budu
522:Baka
512:Amba
502:Alur
412:ISBN
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342:ISBN
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229:ISBN
135:Arts
118:and
48:and
24:The
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557:Boa
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179:fr
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