147:. He wrote: "Having lost faith that God revealed himself uniquely at one single point in history, we are relapsing into the essentially static or repetitive view of the time-process typical of antiquity and of the East" and "the Virgin Mother, undefiled yet productive, bearing Christ into the world by the action of the Spirit of God, is so perfect an analogue of the most intimate experience of the soul, that powerful myth has sustained dubious history; for, to the believer, myth and history have been one" and "Christianity above all other religions has rashly insisted that its myth really happened in time" and "we stand amid the debris of our inherited religious system." White held out hope for a Christianity that celebrated its myths and made no pretensions to history, and saw Catholicism as the most progressive in this respect.
214:"Technical determinism in historical studies has often been combined with adventurous speculations particularly attractive to those who like to have complex developments explained by simple causes. The technical determinism of Professor Lynn White Jr., however, is peculiar in that, instead of building new and provocative theories about general historical development on the basis of technical studies, he gives a misleadingly adventurist cast to old-fashioned platitudes by supporting them with a chain of obscure and dubious deductions from scanty evidence about the progress of technology."
140:. He concluded: "The chief glory of the later Middle Ages was not its cathedrals or its epics or its scholasticism: it was the building for the first time in history of a complex civilization which rested not on the backs of sweating slaves or coolies but primarily on non-human power" and he credited this as well as Western primacy in technology to Western theology's "activist" tradition and "implicit assumption of the infinite worth of even the most degraded human personality" and its "repugnance towards subjecting any man to monotonous drudgery."
304:" rather than dominion, and asks man to take care of the world's environment. Others, such as Lewis W. Montcrief, argue that our relation to the environment has been influenced by many more varied and complex cultural/historical phenomena, and that the result we see today cannot simply be reduced to the influence of the Judeo-Christian tradition. Later responses to his article include criticism not just of the central argument but also of the validity of his suggestion "I propose Francis as a patron saint for ecologists."
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Industrial
Revolution, that the earth was a resource for human consumption, was much older than the actuality of machinery, and has its roots in medieval Christianity and attitudes towards nature. He suggests that "what people do about their ecology depends on what they think about themselves in relation to things around them." Citing the Genesis creation story he argued that Judeo-Christian theology had swept away pagan
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the history of mankind as it was viewed by the small and specialized segments of our race which have had the habit of scribbling, they must take a fresh view of the records, ask new questions of them, and use all the resources of archaeology, iconography, and etymology to find answers when no answers can be discovered in contemporary writings."
275:" world. He concludes that applying more science and technology to the problem will not help, that it is humanity's fundamental ideas about nature that must change; we must abandon "superior, contemptuous" attitudes that makes us "willing to use it for our slightest whim." White suggests adopting St.
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is dedicated. White argued, "Since, until recent centuries, technology was chiefly the concern of groups which wrote little, the role which technological development plays in human affairs has been neglected," and declared, "If historians are to attempt to write the history of mankind, and not simply
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White's ideas set off an extended debate about the role of religion in creating and sustaining the West's destructive attitude towards the exploitation of the natural world. It also galvanized interest in the relationship between history, nature and the evolution of ideas, thus stimulating new fields
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to accelerate confiscation of church-held lands to distribute to his knights, who could then bear the cost of expensive horses themselves to support him in battle. Unfortunately this theory was based on a fundamental misunderstanding of how stirrups aid riders . In the second section of the book,
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as a fundamental turning point in our ecological history. He suggests that at this point the hypotheses of science were married to the possibilities of technology and our ability to destroy and exploit the environment was vastly increased. Nevertheless, he also suggests that the mentality of the
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Noettes was a retired French cavalry officer who made his hobby the history of horses. He wrote that the utilization of animals in antiquity was inefficient because the ancients were limited by the technologies of their period, specifically the lack of horseshoes and a bad harness design. White
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in 1962. This book revisited almost all the themes from "Technology and
Invention in the Middle Ages" 22 years earlier, but included a controversial theory about the stirrup. White contended in the first section of the book that the stirrup made
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White pointed to new methods of crop rotation and plowing and tied them to the rise of manor-based collective farming and the shift in
European prosperity and power from the Mediterranean to the North. White also touched on the
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White explained the shift in power from the
Mediterranean to Northern Europe as a result of increased productivity due to technological changes that produced a "heavy plow," better harnesses for horses to pull the
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239:. White's article was based on the premise that "all forms of life modify their context", i.e. every living organism in some way alters its environment or habitat. He believed man's relationship with the
296:. Equally, however, many saw his argument as a direct attack on Christianity and other commentators think his analysis of the impact of the Bible, and especially Genesis is misguided. They argue that
339:(Oxford University Press, 1962), his work refuted the assumption that the Middle Ages were too preoccupied with theology and/or chivalry to concern themselves with technology, the assumption behind
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2002 (vol 14 pp. 51–77) argues that the historical evidence for
Francis's status as such a patron saint is weak both in Francis' own writings and in the reliable sources about his life.
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154:, including "Women's Colleges and the Male Dominance" (1947), "Unfitting Women for Life" (1949), "Educating Women in a Man's World" (1950), and "The Future of Women's Education" (1953).
825:"Die Bourgeoisie hat enthuellt, wie the brutale Kraftauesserung, die die Reaktion so sehr am Mittelalter bewundert, in der traegsten Baerenhaeuterei ihre passende Ergaenzung fand."
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P. H. Sawyer and R. H. Hilton, "Technical
Determinism: The Stirrup and the Plough Medieval Technology and Social Change by Lynn White, Review by: P. H. Sawyer and R. H. Hilton",
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expanded
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during the Norman Period but realized the coming conflict in Europe would interfere with his access to source materials. While at
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Christianity makes a distinction between man (formed in God's image) and the rest of creation, which has no "soul" or "reason" and is thus inferior.
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in the 20th century. He gave a lecture on
December 26, 1966, titled, "The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis" at the Washington meeting of the
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In 1942, White published a paper titled "Christian Myth and
Christian History" in which he wrote about the relationship between historians and
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and Dexter prize from SHOT in 1964 and 1970. He was president of the History of Science Society from 1971 to 1972. He was president of The
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as a model in imagining a "democracy" of creation in which all creatures are respected and man's rule over creation is delimited.
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scheme. In the third part of the book, he examined medieval machines that converted motion and energy. The most notable was the
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He posited that these beliefs have led to an indifference towards nature which continues to impact in an industrial, "
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Roland, Alex (2003). "Once More into the Stirrups: Lynn White Jr., "Medieval Technology and Social Change"".
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In 1967, White conjectured that the Christian influences in the Middle Ages were at the root of
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White began his career as a medieval historian focusing on the history of Latin monasticism in
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Nevertheless, the book remains in print and still stands as a seminal work in the field.
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33:(April 29, 1907 – March 30, 1987) was an American historian. He was a professor of
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was always a dynamic and interactive one, even in the Middle Ages, but marked the
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At UCLA, he used a set of lectures from 1957 to form his best-known work,
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The Bible asserts man's dominion over nature and establishes a trend of
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His work tied together that of many predecessors, above all that of
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White, Lynn (1940). "Technology and invention in the Middle Ages".
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White was an historian, but had also earned a master's degree at
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203:. The work elicited over 30 reviews, many of which were hostile.
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405:"The Society: Past Presidents of the History of Science Society"
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wrote the most scathing of the early reviews, beginning with:
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Hall, Bert S. (1989). "Lynn Townsend White Jr. (1907–1987)".
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White, Lynn (1942). "Christian myth and Christian history".
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possible, and therefore had a crucial role in shaping the
776:
Why is Francis of Assisi the patron saint of ecologists?
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64:(SHOT) and was president from 1960 to 1962. He won the
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White, Lynn (1970). "History and horseshoe nails". In
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for "Medieval Technology and Social Change" from the
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from 1958 until 1987. Lynn White helped to found the
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The historical roots of present-day ecologic crisis
1105:Shana Worthen, "The Influence of Lynn White Jr.'s
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3314:Presidents of the American Historical Association
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704:, article by Andrew Spencer dated March 28, 2022
1003:"The historical roots of our ecological crisis"
702:The Lynn White Thesis and American Christianity
3354:Members of the American Philosophical Society
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843:, Berlin, Dietz Verlag, 1969, vol. 4, p. 465.
323:and was the son of a Calvinist professor of
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1169:President of the History of Science Society
329:Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages
3339:Fellows of the Medieval Academy of America
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503:American Academy of Arts & Sciences
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56:, from 1943 to 1958 and a professor at
48:from 1937 to 1943. He was president of
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1082:Lynn White Jr., "The Changing Past",
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357:Medieval Technology and Social Change
337:Medieval Technology and Social Change
175:Medieval Technology and Social Change
169:Medieval technology and social change
159:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
157:He was an elected member of both the
150:At Mills College, White published on
62:Society for the History of Technology
58:University of California, Los Angeles
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3329:American philosophers of technology
828:Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei
24:
3344:20th-century American male writers
3309:Leonardo da Vinci Medal recipients
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3349:Union Theological Seminary alumni
3289:American male non-fiction writers
254:exploitation of the natural world
3284:20th-century American historians
1121:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00615.x
1077:Medieval Religion and Technology
1063:. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
315:Medieval technology and religion
3359:20th-century American academics
1247:American Historical Association
1197:American Historical Association
950:Journal of the History of Ideas
861:
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403:The History of Science Society
347:White's view of writing history
82:American Historical Association
3299:American historians of science
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333:Dynamo and Virgin Reconsidered
300:provides man with a model of "
163:American Philosophical Society
27:American historian (1907–1987)
13:
1:
1032:10.1126/science.155.3767.1203
380:
375:Religion and environmentalism
282:
186:. He believed this motivated
3324:Princeton University faculty
1115:, 2009, Vol.7(4),1201–1217.
1095:, 2015, Vol.13(8), 396–410.
737:10.1126/science.170.3957.508
700:Ethics and Culture website,
309:Science and Christian Belief
98:Richard Lefebvre des Noëttes
87:
7:
3334:Stanford University faculty
3319:Presidents of Mills College
986:. Oxford University Press.
610:, No. 24 (Apr., 1963), 90.
363:
78:Medieval Academy of America
10:
3375:
2631:Charles Coulston Gillispie
2542:Charles Albert Browne, Jr.
2468:History of Science Society
1807:Robert Livingston Schuyler
1144:President of Mills College
414:, accessed 4 December 2013
321:Union Theological Seminary
70:History of Science Society
44:from 1933 to 1937, and at
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2482:Lawrence Joseph Henderson
2474:
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2017:
1879:Bernadotte Everly Schmitt
1798:
1724:Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.
1587:
1489:William Archibald Dunning
1393:Charles Francis Adams Jr.
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1086:, (November 1954), 29–34.
1075:Lynn Townsend White Jr.,
3304:Historians of technology
2649:Lynn Townsend White, Jr.
1772:Kenneth Scott Latourette
1465:Frederick Jackson Turner
1061:The Historian's Workshop
80:from 1972–1973, and the
2951:Derek J. de Solla Price
2851:Leonardo da Vinci Medal
2715:Sally Gregory Kohlstedt
2566:Louis Charles Karpinski
2536:Harvey Williams Cushing
1991:Lynn Townsend White Jr.
1740:William Linn Westermann
1716:James Westfall Thompson
1676:Charles Howard McIlwain
1473:William Milligan Sloane
1286:William Frederick Poole
1137:Aurelia Henry Reinhardt
816:, vol. 27, pp. 183–194.
74:Leonardo da Vinci Medal
31:Lynn Townsend White Jr.
2301:Laurel Thatcher Ulrich
1700:William Scott Ferguson
1577:Charles McLean Andrews
885:10.1353/tech.1989.0185
872:Technology and Culture
685:ResearchGate website,
641:10.1353/tech.2003.0131
629:Technology and Culture
3294:American medievalists
2981:Donald S. L. Cardwell
2578:Vilhjalmur Stefansson
2530:J. Playfair McMurrich
2186:Caroline Walker Bynum
2178:John Henry Coatsworth
1959:Robert Roswell Palmer
1764:Thomas J. Wertenbaker
1644:Herbert Eugene Bolton
1628:Evarts Boutell Greene
1620:James Harvey Robinson
1553:Charles Homer Haskins
1529:William Roscoe Thayer
1342:Richard Salter Storrs
1294:Charles Kendall Adams
499:"Lynn Townsend White"
331:of 1940, through his
290:environmental history
245:Industrial Revolution
3183:John M. Staudenmaier
3046:Edwin T. Layton, Jr.
2792:Angela N. H. Creager
2780:Paul Lawrence Farber
2584:John Farquhar Fulton
2488:James Henry Breasted
2293:Gabrielle M. Spiegel
2146:William Leuchtenburg
1927:Roy Franklin Nichols
1863:Walter Prescott Webb
1788:Samuel Eliot Morison
1612:James Henry Breasted
1561:Edward Potts Cheyney
1545:Jean Jules Jusserand
1497:Andrew C. McLaughlin
1457:Albert Bushnell Hart
1318:James Burrill Angell
1262:Andrew Dickson White
1001:White, Lynn (1967).
978:White, Lynn (1962).
814:The American Scholar
527:search.amphilsoc.org
523:"APS Member History"
195:, and a three-field
3088:Ruth Schwartz Cowan
3034:Sidney M. Edelstein
2891:Cyril Stanley Smith
2872:Abbott Payson Usher
2866:Robert James Forbes
2667:Richard S. Westfall
2114:Natalie Zemon Davis
1823:Louis R. Gottschalk
1756:Sidney Bradshaw Fay
1748:Carlton J. H. Hayes
1668:Michael Rostovtzeff
1604:Henry Osborn Taylor
1596:Dana Carleton Munro
1521:Worthington C. Ford
1513:George Lincoln Burr
1449:George Burton Adams
1441:J. Franklin Jameson
1401:Alfred Thayer Mahan
1024:1967Sci...155.1203W
1018:(3767): 1203–1207.
831:, London, 1848, in
729:1970Sci...170..508M
241:natural environment
152:education and women
3159:David A. Hounshell
3094:Walter G. Vincenti
3052:Carroll W. Pursell
3028:Robert P. Multhauf
2957:Eugene S. Ferguson
2679:Frederic L. Holmes
2673:Robert P. Multhauf
2560:Richard H. Shryock
2494:David Eugene Smith
2466:Presidents of the
2309:Barbara D. Metcalf
2261:Jonathan D. Spence
2253:James M. McPherson
2098:William H. McNeill
2050:John Hope Franklin
2042:William J. Bouwsma
1943:John King Fairbank
1887:Samuel Flagg Bemis
1692:Laurence M. Larson
1481:Theodore Roosevelt
1425:John Bach McMaster
1358:George Park Fisher
1310:William Wirt Henry
1245:Presidents of the
1153:C. Easton Rothwell
1101:10.1111/hic3.12254
803:, pp. 141–156
607:Past & Present
465:, pp. 144–159
441:, pp. 153–156
410:2013-12-12 at the
355:, to whose memory
134:water-driven mills
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3195:Rosalind Williams
3070:Merritt Roe Smith
3040:R. Angus Buchanan
3022:Hugh G. J. Aitken
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2727:Frederick Gregory
2721:David C. Lindberg
2554:Henry E. Sigerist
2548:Chauncey D. Leake
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2026:Richard B. Morris
1983:Thomas C. Cochran
1855:William L. Langer
1505:H. Morse Stephens
1433:Simeon E. Baldwin
1409:Henry Charles Lea
1366:James Ford Rhodes
1213:
1212:
1204:Succeeded by
1189:Thomas C. Cochran
1176:Succeeded by
1151:Succeeded by
1129:Academic offices
1084:Harper’s Magazine
993:978-0-19-500266-9
723:(3957): 508–512.
277:Francis of Assisi
227:ecological crisis
16:(Redirected from
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2173:
2165:
2157:
2154:Frederic Wakeman
2149:
2141:
2133:
2125:
2117:
2109:
2101:
2093:
2085:
2082:Philip D. Curtin
2077:
2069:
2061:
2058:David H. Pinkney
2053:
2045:
2037:
2029:
2010:
2002:
1994:
1986:
1978:
1970:
1962:
1954:
1951:C. Vann Woodward
1946:
1938:
1930:
1922:
1919:Frederic C. Lane
1914:
1906:
1898:
1895:Carl Bridenbaugh
1890:
1882:
1874:
1866:
1858:
1850:
1842:
1834:
1826:
1818:
1815:James G. Randall
1810:
1791:
1783:
1775:
1767:
1759:
1751:
1743:
1735:
1727:
1719:
1711:
1703:
1695:
1687:
1684:Guy Stanton Ford
1679:
1671:
1663:
1655:
1652:Charles A. Beard
1647:
1639:
1631:
1623:
1615:
1607:
1599:
1580:
1572:
1564:
1556:
1548:
1540:
1532:
1524:
1516:
1508:
1500:
1492:
1484:
1476:
1468:
1460:
1452:
1444:
1436:
1428:
1420:
1412:
1404:
1396:
1377:
1374:Edward Eggleston
1369:
1361:
1353:
1345:
1337:
1329:
1321:
1313:
1305:
1297:
1289:
1281:
1273:
1265:
1239:
1232:
1225:
1216:
1215:
1186:Preceded by
1179:Erwin N. Hiebert
1159:Preceded by
1134:Preceded by
1126:
1125:
1064:
1057:L. P. Curtis Jr.
1051:
1007:
997:
985:
974:
943:
904:
856:
850:
844:
837:Friedrich Engels
823:
817:
810:
804:
798:
792:
786:
780:
771:
765:
764:
712:
706:
697:
691:
682:
676:
670:
661:
660:
624:
618:
602:
596:
590:
584:
578:
572:
566:
560:
554:
548:
543:
537:
536:
534:
533:
519:
513:
512:
510:
509:
495:
489:
483:
477:
472:
466:
460:
454:
448:
442:
436:
430:
424:
415:
401:
395:
390:
335:of 1958, to his
325:Christian ethics
262:anthropocentrism
21:
3374:
3373:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3213:Ronald R. Kline
3104:
3004:Louis C. Hunter
2991:
2945:Friedrich Klemm
2921:A. G. Drachmann
2853:
2848:
2818:
2813:
2738:
2697:William Coleman
2607:Dorothy Stimson
2589:
2524:Berthold Laufer
2470:
2464:
2434:
2429:
2422:Thavolia Glymph
2419:
2411:
2403:
2395:
2387:
2379:
2371:
2363:
2357:Patrick Manning
2355:
2347:
2339:
2331:
2323:
2317:Anthony Grafton
2315:
2307:
2299:
2291:
2283:
2277:Linda K. Kerber
2275:
2267:
2259:
2251:
2243:
2237:Wm. Roger Louis
2235:
2224:
2216:
2208:
2200:
2192:
2184:
2176:
2168:
2162:Louise A. Tilly
2160:
2152:
2144:
2136:
2130:Louis R. Harlan
2128:
2120:
2112:
2104:
2096:
2088:
2080:
2074:Gordon A. Craig
2072:
2064:
2056:
2048:
2040:
2032:
2024:
2013:
2005:
1997:
1989:
1981:
1973:
1967:David M. Potter
1965:
1957:
1949:
1941:
1933:
1925:
1917:
1909:
1901:
1893:
1885:
1877:
1869:
1861:
1853:
1845:
1837:
1829:
1821:
1813:
1805:
1794:
1786:
1778:
1770:
1762:
1754:
1746:
1738:
1730:
1722:
1714:
1706:
1698:
1690:
1682:
1674:
1666:
1658:
1650:
1642:
1634:
1626:
1618:
1610:
1602:
1594:
1583:
1575:
1567:
1559:
1551:
1543:
1537:Edward Channing
1535:
1527:
1519:
1511:
1503:
1495:
1487:
1479:
1471:
1463:
1455:
1447:
1439:
1431:
1423:
1415:
1407:
1399:
1391:
1380:
1372:
1364:
1356:
1348:
1340:
1332:
1324:
1316:
1308:
1300:
1292:
1284:
1276:
1270:George Bancroft
1268:
1260:
1249:
1243:
1209:
1200:
1191:
1181:
1172:
1164:
1154:
1147:
1139:
1112:History Compass
1092:History Compass
1072:
1070:Further reading
1067:
1005:
994:
963:10.2307/2707174
924:10.2307/2849046
864:
859:
851:
847:
824:
820:
811:
807:
799:
795:
787:
783:
772:
768:
713:
709:
698:
694:
683:
679:
671:
664:
625:
621:
603:
599:
591:
587:
579:
575:
567:
563:
555:
551:
544:
540:
531:
529:
521:
520:
516:
507:
505:
497:
496:
492:
484:
480:
473:
469:
461:
457:
449:
445:
437:
433:
425:
418:
412:Wayback Machine
402:
398:
391:
387:
383:
366:
349:
317:
285:
252:and normalized
223:
171:
161:(1956) and the
90:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3372:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3255:
3249:
3243:
3233:
3231:Francesca Bray
3227:
3221:
3215:
3209:
3203:
3201:Pamela O. Long
3197:
3191:
3185:
3179:
3173:
3167:
3161:
3155:
3149:
3143:
3137:
3131:
3125:
3123:Robert C. Post
3119:
3112:
3110:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3102:
3096:
3090:
3084:
3078:
3076:Bruce Sinclair
3072:
3066:
3064:W. David Lewis
3060:
3054:
3048:
3042:
3036:
3030:
3024:
3018:
3012:
3006:
2999:
2997:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2989:
2983:
2977:
2971:
2965:
2963:Torsten Althin
2959:
2953:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2933:Carl W. Condit
2929:
2923:
2917:
2915:Bertrand Gille
2911:
2905:
2903:Joseph Needham
2899:
2893:
2887:
2885:Maurice Daumas
2881:
2874:
2868:
2861:
2859:
2855:
2854:
2847:
2846:
2839:
2832:
2824:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2786:Lynn K. Nyhart
2783:
2777:
2771:
2765:
2759:
2753:
2750:Ronald Numbers
2746:
2744:
2740:
2739:
2737:
2736:
2730:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2700:
2694:
2688:
2682:
2676:
2670:
2664:
2661:John C. Greene
2658:
2652:
2646:
2640:
2637:C. D. O'Malley
2634:
2628:
2622:
2616:
2610:
2604:
2601:Harcourt Brown
2597:
2595:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2581:
2575:
2569:
2563:
2557:
2551:
2545:
2539:
2533:
2527:
2521:
2515:
2509:
2506:Lynn Thorndike
2503:
2497:
2491:
2485:
2478:
2476:
2472:
2471:
2463:
2462:
2455:
2448:
2440:
2431:
2430:
2428:
2427:
2417:
2409:
2405:James H. Sweet
2401:
2393:
2389:Mary Lindemann
2385:
2377:
2369:
2361:
2353:
2345:
2337:
2329:
2325:William Cronon
2321:
2313:
2305:
2297:
2289:
2281:
2273:
2265:
2257:
2249:
2241:
2232:
2230:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2222:
2214:
2210:Robert Darnton
2206:
2198:
2190:
2182:
2174:
2170:Thomas C. Holt
2166:
2158:
2150:
2142:
2134:
2126:
2118:
2110:
2106:Carl N. Degler
2102:
2094:
2090:Arthur S. Link
2086:
2078:
2070:
2066:Bernard Bailyn
2062:
2054:
2046:
2038:
2034:Charles Gibson
2030:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2003:
1995:
1987:
1979:
1975:Joseph Strayer
1971:
1963:
1955:
1947:
1939:
1931:
1923:
1915:
1911:Julian P. Boyd
1907:
1899:
1891:
1883:
1875:
1867:
1859:
1851:
1847:Dexter Perkins
1843:
1839:Lynn Thorndike
1835:
1827:
1819:
1811:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1792:
1784:
1776:
1768:
1760:
1752:
1744:
1736:
1732:Nellie Neilson
1728:
1720:
1712:
1704:
1696:
1688:
1680:
1672:
1664:
1656:
1648:
1640:
1636:Carl L. Becker
1632:
1624:
1616:
1608:
1600:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1581:
1573:
1569:Woodrow Wilson
1565:
1557:
1549:
1541:
1533:
1525:
1517:
1509:
1501:
1493:
1485:
1477:
1469:
1461:
1453:
1445:
1437:
1429:
1421:
1413:
1405:
1397:
1388:
1386:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1378:
1370:
1362:
1354:
1350:James Schouler
1346:
1338:
1334:George F. Hoar
1330:
1322:
1314:
1306:
1298:
1290:
1282:
1274:
1266:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1250:
1242:
1241:
1234:
1227:
1219:
1211:
1210:
1205:
1202:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1177:
1174:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1103:
1087:
1080:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1065:
1052:
998:
992:
975:
957:(2): 145–158.
944:
918:(2): 141–159.
905:
879:(1): 194–213.
865:
863:
860:
858:
857:
845:
818:
805:
793:
781:
766:
707:
692:
677:
675:, p. 1205
662:
635:(3): 574–585.
619:
597:
585:
573:
561:
549:
538:
514:
490:
478:
467:
455:
443:
431:
416:
396:
384:
382:
379:
378:
377:
372:
365:
362:
348:
345:
316:
313:
288:of study like
284:
281:
273:post-Christian
269:
268:
265:
222:
219:
201:compound crank
188:Charles Martel
170:
167:
126:spinning wheel
89:
86:
72:(HSS) and the
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3371:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3254:
3250:
3248:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3226:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3214:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3202:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3190:
3186:
3184:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3172:
3168:
3166:
3162:
3160:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3148:
3144:
3142:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3118:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3107:
3101:
3097:
3095:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3077:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3053:
3049:
3047:
3043:
3041:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3029:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3011:
3010:Brooke Hindle
3007:
3005:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2988:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2976:
2975:John Bell Rae
2972:
2970:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2946:
2942:
2940:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2928:
2927:Ladislao Reti
2924:
2922:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2910:
2909:Lewis Mumford
2906:
2904:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2878:Lynn T. White
2875:
2873:
2869:
2867:
2863:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2845:
2840:
2838:
2833:
2831:
2826:
2825:
2822:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2799:
2796:
2793:
2790:
2787:
2784:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2769:
2766:
2763:
2762:Michael Sokal
2760:
2757:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2741:
2734:
2731:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2704:
2701:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2685:Gerald Holton
2683:
2680:
2677:
2674:
2671:
2668:
2665:
2662:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2650:
2647:
2644:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2629:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2613:Henry Guerlac
2611:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2572:Isaiah Bowman
2570:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2540:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2522:
2519:
2516:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2461:
2456:
2454:
2449:
2447:
2442:
2441:
2438:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2381:J. R. McNeill
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2349:Vicki L. Ruiz
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2194:Joyce Appleby
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2138:David Herlihy
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2007:Gordon Wright
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1903:Crane Brinton
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1417:Goldwin Smith
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1383:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1278:Justin Winsor
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1240:
1235:
1233:
1228:
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1208:
1199:
1198:
1195:President of
1190:
1184:
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1171:
1170:
1163:
1157:
1146:
1145:
1138:
1132:
1127:
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1098:
1094:
1093:
1088:
1085:
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1021:
1017:
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1004:
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995:
989:
984:
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976:
972:
968:
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945:
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830:
829:
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815:
809:
802:
797:
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762:
758:
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746:
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738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
711:
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674:
669:
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658:
654:
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646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
623:
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613:
609:
608:
601:
595:, p. 103
594:
589:
583:, p. 155
582:
577:
570:
565:
558:
553:
547:
542:
528:
524:
518:
504:
500:
494:
488:, p. 202
487:
482:
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464:
459:
453:, p. 154
452:
447:
440:
435:
429:, p. 196
428:
423:
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394:
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385:
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197:crop rotation
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184:feudal system
181:
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155:
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148:
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67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
50:Mills College
47:
43:
39:
36:
32:
19:
18:Lynn T. White
3247:Suzanne Moon
3219:Arnold Pacey
3189:Wiebe Bijker
3165:Joel A. Tarr
3147:David E. Nye
3141:David Landes
3099:
2986:
2809:Jan Golinski
2798:Janet Browne
2743:2000–present
2691:Edward Grant
2420:
2229:2001–present
1990:
1935:Hajo Holborn
1871:Allan Nevins
1780:Conyers Read
1660:William Dodd
1194:
1167:
1142:
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1090:
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862:Bibliography
853:White (1962)
848:
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801:White (1940)
796:
791:, p. 60
789:White (1970)
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720:
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710:
701:
695:
686:
680:
673:White (1967)
632:
628:
622:
605:
600:
593:White (1962)
588:
581:White (1962)
576:
571:, p. 38
569:White (1962)
564:
557:White (1962)
552:
546:White (1962)
541:
530:. Retrieved
526:
517:
506:. Retrieved
502:
493:
481:
475:White (1942)
470:
463:White (1940)
458:
451:White (1940)
446:
439:White (1940)
434:
399:
388:
370:Deep ecology
356:
350:
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332:
328:
318:
308:
306:
286:
270:
234:
224:
216:
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209:R. H. Hilton
205:P. H. Sawyer
180:shock combat
174:
172:
156:
149:
145:Christianity
142:
122:wheel barrow
110:
106:
91:
66:Pfizer Award
30:
29:
3279:1987 deaths
3274:1907 births
3207:Johan Schot
3135:Bart Hacker
3100:not awarded
2987:not awarded
2969:John U. Nef
2939:Bern Dibner
2800:(2016–2017)
2794:(2014–2015)
2788:(2012–2013)
2782:(2010–2011)
2776:(2008–2009)
2770:(2006–2007)
2768:Joan Cadden
2764:(2004–2005)
2758:(2002–2003)
2756:John Servos
2752:(2000–2001)
2735:(1998–1999)
2729:(1996–1997)
2723:(1994–1995)
2717:(1992–1993)
2711:(1990–1991)
2705:(1988–1989)
2703:Mary Jo Nye
2693:(1985–1986)
2687:(1983–1984)
2681:(1981–1982)
2675:(1979–1980)
2669:(1977-1978)
2663:(1975–1976)
2657:(1973–1974)
2651:(1971–1972)
2645:(1969–1970)
2643:Thomas Kuhn
2639:(1967–1968)
2633:(1965–1966)
2627:(1963–1964)
2621:(1961–1962)
2615:(1957–1960)
2609:(1953–1956)
2603:(1951–1952)
2586:(1947–1950)
2580:(1945–1946)
2568:(1943–1944)
2562:(1940–1942)
2550:(1937–1938)
2544:(1935–1936)
2484:(1924–1925)
2413:Edward Muir
2122:Akira Iriye
1999:Lewis Hanke
1831:Merle Curti
1708:Max Farrand
1579:(1924–1925)
1531:(1918–1919)
1328:(1893–1894)
1326:Henry Adams
1320:(1892–1893)
1264:(1884–1885)
1207:Lewis Hanke
1162:Thomas Kuhn
559:, p. 2
486:Hall (1989)
427:Hall (1989)
393:Hall (1989)
341:Henry Adams
302:stewardship
294:ecotheology
3268:Categories
2512:Henry Crew
2218:Eric Foner
1173:1971–1972
1148:1943–1958
532:2022-09-16
508:2022-09-16
381:References
353:Marc Bloch
283:The debate
138:wind mills
130:hand crank
120:sail, the
102:Marc Bloch
3058:Otto Mayr
2996:1983–1999
2858:1962–1982
2594:1950–1999
2475:1924–1949
2245:Lynn Hunt
2018:1976–2000
1799:1951–1975
1588:1926–1950
1385:1901–1925
1254:1884–1900
940:162675109
901:258965209
855:, Preface
833:Karl Marx
745:0036-8075
657:109653660
256:because:
88:Biography
84:in 1973.
42:Princeton
3225:Joy Parr
3129:Leo Marx
1302:John Jay
1040:17847526
911:Speculum
761:44773384
408:Archived
364:See also
165:(1968).
46:Stanford
35:medieval
1059:(ed.).
1048:8076858
1020:Bibcode
1011:Science
971:2707174
932:2849046
893:3105471
753:4918765
725:Bibcode
717:Science
649:5148163
298:Genesis
250:animism
236:Science
114:stirrup
54:Oakland
38:history
3251:2022:
3245:2021:
3235:2020:
3229:2019:
3223:2018:
3217:2017:
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3050:1991:
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3032:1988:
3026:1987:
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3014:1985:
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2919:1971:
2913:1970:
2907:1969:
2901:1968:
2895:1967:
2889:1966:
2883:1965:
2876:1964:
2870:1963:
2864:1962:
2699:(1987)
2574:(1944)
2556:(1939)
2538:(1934)
2532:(1933)
2526:(1932)
2520:(1931)
2514:(1930)
2508:(1929)
2502:(1928)
2496:(1927)
2490:(1926)
2425:(2024)
2415:(2023)
2407:(2022)
2399:(2021)
2391:(2020)
2383:(2019)
2375:(2018)
2367:(2017)
2359:(2016)
2351:(2015)
2343:(2014)
2335:(2013)
2327:(2012)
2319:(2011)
2311:(2010)
2303:(2009)
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2068:(1981)
2060:(1980)
2052:(1979)
2044:(1978)
2036:(1977)
2028:(1976)
2009:(1975)
2001:(1974)
1993:(1973)
1985:(1972)
1977:(1971)
1969:(1971)
1961:(1970)
1953:(1969)
1945:(1968)
1937:(1967)
1929:(1966)
1921:(1965)
1913:(1964)
1905:(1963)
1897:(1962)
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1873:(1959)
1865:(1958)
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1403:(1902)
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1344:(1896)
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990:
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614:
128:, the
124:, the
118:lateen
116:, the
100:, and
94:Sicily
3109:2000-
3098:1999
2985:1982
2880:, Jr.
1201:1973
1044:S2CID
1006:(PDF)
967:JSTOR
936:S2CID
928:JSTOR
897:S2CID
889:JSTOR
841:Werke
757:S2CID
653:S2CID
645:JSTOR
616:49846
612:JSTOR
3239:and
1036:PMID
988:ISBN
749:PMID
741:ISSN
292:and
231:AAAS
207:and
193:plow
136:and
1117:doi
1109:",
1097:doi
1028:doi
1016:155
959:doi
920:doi
881:doi
812:In
733:doi
721:170
637:doi
40:at
3270::
1042:.
1034:.
1026:.
1014:.
1008:.
965:.
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934:.
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916:15
914:.
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719:.
665:^
651:.
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633:44
631:.
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419:^
132:,
52:,
2843:e
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942:.
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20:)
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