Mamluk - Knowledge

1003: 3511: 3490: 58: 1550: 1102: 1991: 459: 1414: 3535: 1448: 679:. Because of their isolated social status (no social ties or political affiliations) and their austere military training, they were trusted to be loyal to their rulers. When their training was completed, they were discharged, but remained attached to the patron who had purchased them. Mamluks relied on the help of their patron for career advancement, and likewise the patron's reputation and power depended on his recruits. A Mamluk was "bound by a strong esprit de corps to his peers in the same household". 2224: 660: 3455: 772: 7764: 498: 7774: 1618: 2432: 3474: 750: 4411:, providence restored the "glory and the unity" of the Islamic faith by sending the Mamluks: "loyal helpers, who were brought from the House of War to the House of Islam under the rule of slavery, which hides in itself a divine blessing." His expression of the idea that slavery, considered to be a degrading social condition to be avoided at all costs, might contain "a divine blessing", was the most articulate expression of 585:, which did not have specialized training and was based on pre-existing Central Asian hierarchies. Adult slaves and freemen both served as warriors in the Ghilman system. The Mamluk system developed later, after the return of the caliphate to Baghdad in the 870s. It included the systematic training of young slaves in military and martial skills. The Mamluk system is considered to have been a small-scale experiment of 7784: 482: 7794: 3443: 3551: 4423:'s reflections on the subject some five hundred years later. The great philosopher observed that, in many instances, it is the slave who ultimately gains the independent consciousness and power to become the actual master of his or her owner. The Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon is a good historical example of this paradox. 5488: 4560:, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the 1687:

According to Eric Chaney and Lisa Blades, the reliance on mamluks by Muslim rulers had a profound impact on the Arab world's political development. They argue that, because European rulers had to rely on local elites for military forces, lords and bourgeois acquired the necessary bargaining power to

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There were various places in which Mamluks gained political or military power as a self-replicating military community. Some examples of this can be seen in the Tripolitania region of Libya, where Mamluk governors instated their various policies under the Ottoman Empire until October 18, 1912, when

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also owned their own troops. Many Mamluks were appointed or promoted to high positions throughout the empire, including army command. At first their status was non-hereditary. Sons of Mamluks were prevented from following their father's role in life. However, over time, in places such as Egypt, the

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Muhammad Ali knew that he would have to deal with the Mamluks if he wanted to control Egypt. They were still the feudal owners of Egypt and their land was still the source of wealth and power. However, the economic strain of sustaining the military manpower necessary to defend the Mamluks's system

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The Mamluk Sultanate survived in Egypt until 1517, when Selim captured Cairo on 20 January. Although not in the same form as under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burji family succeeded in regaining much of their influence,

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was sent to Marseille to organize a squadron of 250 Mamluks. On 7 January 1802 the previous order was canceled and the squadron reduced to 150 men. The list of effectives on 21 April 1802 reveals three officers and 155 of other rank. By decree of 25 December 1803 the Mamluks were organized into a

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In 1805, the population of Cairo rebelled. This provided a chance for the Mamluks to seize power, but internal friction prevented them from exploiting this opportunity. In 1806, the Mamluks defeated the Turkish forces in several clashes. in June the rival parties concluded an agreement by which

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succeeded in securing control over the whole empire by defeating and killing or imprisoning his brothers and nephews in turn. With each victory, al-ʿĀdil incorporated the defeated Mamluk retinue into his own. This process was repeated at al-ʿĀdil's death in 1218, and at his son

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After this great triumph, Qutuz was assassinated by conspiring Mamluks. It was widely said that Baibars, who seized power, had been involved in the assassination plot. In the following centuries, the Mamluks ruled discontinuously, with an average span of seven years.

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Levanoni, Amalia (2010). "Part II: Egypt and Syria (Eleventh Century Until the Ottoman Conquest) – The Mamlūks in Egypt and Syria: the Turkish Mamlūk sultanate (648–784/1250–1382) and the Circassian Mamlūk sultanate (784–923/1382–1517)". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).

5452: 4222:. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel and 3510: 1609:, (appointed as governor of Egypt on 26 March 1806), was to be removed and authority returned to the Mamluks. However, they were again unable to capitalize on this opportunity due to discord between factions. Muhammad Ali retained his authority. 1372:

with giving the Persian envoys passage through Syria on their way to Venice and harboring refugees. To appease him, Al-Ghawri placed in confinement the Venetian merchants then in Syria and Egypt, but after a year released them.

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By the end of the 9th century, such slave warriors had become the dominant element in the military. Conflict between the Ghilman and the population of Baghdad prompted the caliph al-Muʿtaṣim to move his capital to the city of

720:, and received frequent visits from their parents or other relatives. In addition, they sent gifts to family members or gave money to build useful structures (a defensive tower, or even a church) in their native villages. 4910:А.Ш.Кадырбаев, Сайф-ад-Дин Хайр-Бек – абхазский "король эмиров" Мамлюкского Египта (1517–1522), "Материалы первой международной научной конференции, посвященной 65-летию В.Г.Ардзинба". Сухум: АбИГИ, 2011, pp. 87–95 4196:. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and its 1085:

and began to drive them back east. In the process they consolidated their power over Syria, fortified the area, and formed mail routes and diplomatic connections among the local princes. Baibars' troops attacked

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Van Steenbergen, Jo, Patrick Wing, and Kristof D'hulster. "The Mamlukization of the Mamluk Sultanate? State Formation and the History of Fifteenth Century Egypt and Syria: Part I – Old Problems and New Trends."

1384:, as Egypt's vassal had stood aloof, and sent his head to Al-Ghawri. Now secure against Persia, in 1516 he formed a great army for the conquest of Egypt, but gave out that he intended further attacks on Persia. 4039:

to serve as soldiers in their armies. Mamlūk units formed an integral part of Muslim armies from the third/ninth century, and Mamlūk involvement in government became an increasingly familiar occurrence in the

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declared independence from the Ottomans. However, the Ottomans crushed the movement and retained their position after his defeat. By this time new slave recruits were introduced from Georgia in the Caucasus.

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On 1 March 1811, Muhammad Ali invited all of the leading Mamluks to his palace to celebrate the declaration of war against the Wahhabis in Arabia. Between 600 and 700 Mamluks paraded for this purpose in

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The last Mamluk sultan, Al-Ghawri, fitted out a fleet of 50 vessels. As Mamluks had little expertise in naval warfare, he sought help from the Ottomans to develop this naval enterprise. In 1508 at the

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During the following week an estimated 3,000 Mamluks and their relatives were killed throughout Egypt, by Muhammad's regular troops. In the citadel of Cairo alone more than 1,000 Mamluks died.

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or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the

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and held firm. Despite multiple victories and an initially successful expedition into Syria, mounting conflict in Europe and the earlier defeat of the supporting French fleet by the British

6007:"The Mamlukization of the Mamluk Sultanate? State Formation and the History of Fifteenth Century Egypt and Syria: Part II – Comparative Solutions and a New Research Agenda." 1769:, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order, and introduced a program of modernization of the economy and the military. In 1831 the Ottomans overthrew 604:

from their families to be trained as slave soldiers. They formed the bulk of their military, and the rulers selected prized slaves to serve in their administration. The powerful vizier

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and Central Asia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most are thought to have been

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dubbed the creation of the specific warrior class, was of great political importance; for one thing, it endured for nearly 1,000 years, from the 9th century to the early 19th century.

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sent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan, clear it of Mamluks, and reclaim it for Egypt. The Pasha's forces received the submission of the Kashif, dispersed the Dunqulah Mamluks, conquered

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While Mamluks were purchased as property, their status was above ordinary slaves, who were not allowed to carry weapons or perform certain tasks. In places such as Egypt, from the

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also turned for help to the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. They wanted a fleet to be armed in the Red Sea that could protect their important trading sea routes from Portuguese attacks.

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were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the

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After the fragmentation of the Abbasid Empire, military slaves, known as either Mamluks or Ghilman, were used throughout the Islamic world as the basis of military power. The

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A large linen closet used in every mamluk home, which stored pillows and sheets. (Related to the present Crimean Tatar word Yuqa, "to sleep". In modern Turkish: Yüklük.)

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as a base for their slave trading. In 1820, the sultan of Sennar informed Muhammad Ali that he was unable to comply with a demand to expel the Mamluks. In response, the

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did not believe they were true believers of Islam despite the fact that they were deployed for fighting in wars on behalf of several Islamic kingdoms as slave-soldiers.

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responsible for serving the wives of the sultan and supervising new Mamluks. Mamluk writers seem not to have consulted the eunuchs themselves about "their origins."

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consul-general, asking him to mediate with the Sultan to allow them to negotiate for a cease-fire, and a return to their homeland Georgia. The Russian ambassador in

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After the departure of French troops in 1801 the Mamluks continued their struggle for independence; this time against the Ottoman Empire. In 1803, Mamluk leaders

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in 1299. Soon after that the Mamluks defeated the Ilkhanate again in 1303/1304 and 1312. Finally, the Ilkhanids and the Mamluks signed a treaty of peace in 1323.

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in Baghdad after attempting a failed rebellion. When the later Abbasids regained military control over Iraq, they also relied on the Ghilman as their warriors.

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from 1250 to 1517. The name is derived from an Arabic word for slave. The use of Mamluks as a major component of Muslim armies became a distinct feature of

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who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, are revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the word

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Blaydes, Lisa, and Eric Chaney. "The feudal revolution and Europe's rise: Political divergence of the Christian west and the Muslim world before 1500 CE."

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2012 of de la Vaissière's book by Christopher Melchert: 'Still, de la Vaissière's dating of the Mamluk phenomenon herewith becomes the conventional wisdom'

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Courtiers of the sultan and most trusted royal mamluks who functioned as the Sultan's bodyguards/ A privileged group around a prominent Amir (from Persian

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push for representative government. Muslim rulers did not face the same pressures partly because the Mamluks allowed the Sultans to bypass local elites.

5260:"Relations of the Georgian Mamluks of Egypt with Their Homeland in the Last Decades of the Eighteenth Century." Daniel Crecelius and Gotcha Djaparidze. 4945:"Relations of the Georgian Mamluks of Egypt with Their Homeland in the Last Decades of the Eighteenth Century". Daniel Crecelius and Gotcha Djaparidze. 1186:. During Barsbay's reign, Egypt's population became greatly reduced from what it had been a few centuries before; it had one-fifth the number of towns. 7863: 7858: 7828: 1637:. Muhammad Ali's forces killed almost all of these near the Al-Azab gates in a narrow road down from Mukatam Hill. This ambush came to be known as the 1395:, Sultan Al-Ghawri was killed. Syria passed into Turkish possession, an event welcomed in many places as it was seen as deliverance from the Mameluks. 5713: 7883: 7168: 1969: 1043:. After taking Damascus, Hulagu demanded that Qutuz surrender Egypt. Qutuz had Hulagu's envoys killed and, with Baibars' help, mobilized his troops. 581:

Since the early 21st century, historians have suggested that there was a distinction between the Mamluk system and the (earlier) Ghilman system, in

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In 1515, Selim began the war which led to the conquest of Egypt and its dependencies. Mamluk cavalry proved no match for the Ottoman artillery and

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defeated Louis's troops. The king delayed his retreat too long and was captured by the Mamluks in March 1250. He agreed to pay a ransom of 400,000

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Yosef, Koby (2017). "Usages of Kinship Terminology during the Mamluk Sultanate and the Notion of the 'Mamlūk Family'". In Ben-Assat, Yuval (ed.).

1166:, who threatened to invade Syria. Timur invaded Syria, defeating the Mamluk army, and he sacked Aleppo and captured Damascus. The Ottoman sultan, 6415: 2168: 1954: 1939: 1888: 651:, lasted until the 17th century. Regimes based on Mamluk power thrived in such Ottoman provinces as the Levant and Egypt until the 19th century. 1529:

reorganized the company on 7 July 1800, forming three companies of 100 men each and renaming it the "Mamluks de la République". In 1801 General

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Freamon, Bernard K. (2019). "The 'Mamluk/Ghulam Phenomenon' – Slave Sultans, Soldiers, Eunuchs, and Concubines". In Freamon, Bernard K. (ed.).

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Franssen, Élise (2017). "What was there in a Mamluk Amīr's Library? Evidence from a Fifteenth-Century Manuscript". In Ben-Assat, Yuval (ed.).

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Amitai, Reuven (2017). "Post-Crusader Acre in Light of a Mamluk Inscription and a Fatwā Document from Damascus". In Ben-Assat, Yuval (ed.).

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Court of complaint. A court that heard cases of complaints of people against state officials. This court was headed by the sultan himself.

763: 470: 62: 4798: 4572:, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamluk 3454: 1002: 682:

Mamluks lived within their garrisons and mainly spent their time with each other. Their entertainments included sporting events such as

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was engaged in warfare in southern Europe when a new era of hostility with Egypt began in 1501. It arose out of the relations with the

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and its port were subjected, and above all for losing one of his ships. He vowed vengeance upon Portugal, first sending monks from the

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Meanwhile, historians agree that the massive implementation of a slave military class such as the Mamluks appears to have developed in

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skills at least once a week. The intensive and rigorous training of each new recruit helped ensure continuity of Mamluk practices.

589:, to combine the slaves' efficiency as warriors with improved reliability. This recent interpretation seems to have been accepted. 7908: 6939: 6673: 5957:

Schultz, Warren C. (2017). "Mamluk Coins, Mamluk Politics and the Limits of the Numismatic Evidence". In Ben-Assat, Yuval (ed.).

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Christians. After they were taken from their families, they became renegades. Because Egyptian Mamluks were enslaved Christians,

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Daniel Pipes argued that the first indication of the Mamluk military class was rooted in the practice of early Muslims such as

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authorised a campaign in "The Orient" to protect French trade interests and undermine Britain's access to India. To this end,

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and guards continued to be used and even took high offices. This increasing level of influence among the Mamluks worried the

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Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo, Mamluks were purchased while still young males. They were raised in the barracks of the

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from the Chicago Online Bibliography of Mamluk Studies and the Chicago Online Encyclopedia of Mamluk Studies Review, at the

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refused however to intervene, because of nationalist unrest in Georgia that might have been encouraged by a Mamluk return.

7413: 7224: 6964: 6850: 5453:"The Feudal Revolution and Europe's Rise: Political Divergence of the Christian West and the Muslim World before 1500 CE" 1981: 1641:. According to contemporary reports, only one Mamluk, whose name is given variously as Amim (also Amyn), or Heshjukur (a 5532: 2620:

Commander in chief (literally "father-lord," originally meaning an appointed step-father for a non-Mamluk minor prince)

7677: 7608: 7487: 7109: 6986: 6653: 6534: 6461: 6449: 6410: 4548:, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the 2124: 1948: 1638: 1460: 1442: 562:(another broadly synonymous term for slaves) and were bought by the Abbasid caliphs, especially al-Muʿtaṣim (833–842). 875:'s death in 1238. The Ayyubids became increasingly surrounded by the Mamluks, who acted semi-autonomously as regional 700:

Mamluk forces became linked to existing power structures and gained significant amounts of influence on those powers.

7212: 6741: 5858: 4657:. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Vol. 10. London & New York: 3473: 2479: 435:, mamluks were considered to be "true lords" and "true warriors", with social status above the general population in 5900: 2461: 1651:

Despite Muhammad Ali's destruction of the Mamluks in Egypt, a party of them escaped and fled south into what is now

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and the Ayyubids of Egypt, the power of the Mamluks increased and they claimed the sultanate in 1250, ruling as the

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of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlike

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Frenkel, Yehoshua (2017). "Slave Girls and Learned Teachers: Women in Mamluk Sources". In Ben-Assat, Yuval (ed.).

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translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing in

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Mamluk-Syrian glassware vessel from the 14th century; in the course of trade, the middle vase shown ended up in

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The Breaking of a Thousand Swords: A History of the Turkish Military of Samarra (A.H. 200–275/815–889 C.E.)

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the Mamluk Sultanate formally expelled the last Crusaders from the Levant, ending the era of the Crusades.

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The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2: The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries

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and the Red Sea were protected. But the fleets in the Indian Ocean were still at the mercy of the enemy.

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was affronted at the attacks around the Red Sea, the loss of tolls and traffic, the indignities to which

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The Mamluk-Ottoman Transition. Continuity and Change in Egypt and Bilād al-Shām in the Sixteenth Century

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and other places within Egyptian territory, but was eventually defeated. Qaitbay also tried to help the

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in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including the

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Fay, Mary Ann. "Women and waqf: Toward a reconsideration of women's place in the Mamluk household."

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This article is about the class of slave-soldiers. For the medieval kingdom centered in Egypt, see

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Blaydes, Lisa. "Mamluks, Property Rights, and Economic Development: Lessons from Medieval Egypt."

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Winter, Michael (2017). "Sultan Selīm's Obsession with Mamluk Egypt according to Evliyā Çelebi's

4173: 3351: 2453: 2446: 1028: 911:. After the Egyptian troops retreated at first, the sultan had more than 50 commanders hanged as 530: 380:, and India, mamluks held political and military power. In some cases, they attained the rank of 237: 35: 5269: 4954: 2857:

Title of the Vice-sultan (Guardian of the Prince of Command of the Dignified Islamic Kingdoms)

1570: 1514: 1463:, the Mamluks could trace their lineage of service to the Ottomans back to the mid-13th century. 1364:

via Syria, inviting Venice to ally with Persia and recover its territory taken by the Ottomans.

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when the Mamlūk establishment gained military and political domination during the reign of the

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who were assigned high-ranking military and administrative duties, serving the ruling Arab and

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Oualdi, M'hamed. "Mamluks in Ottoman Tunisia: A Category Connecting State and Social Forces."

4829: 1306: 1182:, but the Egyptians forced the Cypriotes to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Egyptian sultan 7731: 7623: 7593: 7482: 7462: 7408: 7320: 6959: 6917: 6912: 6890: 6698: 6688: 6473: 6352: 6320: 6202: 6189: 6169: 5553: 5188: 5186: 4969: 4870: 4860: 4772: 4650: 4537: 3625: 3166:

Mamluks who moved to the service of a new Sultan or from the service of an Amir to a sultan.

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Head-covering worn by a Mamluk during the ceremony of inauguration to the position of Amir.

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in 1702. From 1747 to 1831 Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by Mamluk officers of

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Marks of the Caucasian Tribes and Some Stories and Notable Events Related to Their Leaders

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and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly on

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came to power in 1453. He had friendly relations with the Ottoman Empire, which captured

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later that year, causing great rejoicings in Muslim Egypt. However, under the reign of

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Piterberg, Gabriel. "The Formation of an Ottoman Egyptian Elite in the 18th Century."

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Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures

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An emblem that distinguished the rank and position of a Mamluk (probably from Persian

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The first Mamluk dynasty was named Bahri after the name of one of the regiments, the

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Thomas Philipp, Ulrich Haarmann (1998). The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society

5008: 2500:(the latter composed of Turkish, Arabic, and Persian words and grammar structures). 1629:

from the Europeans and Turks would eventually weaken them to the point of collapse.

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Napoleon left with his personal guard in late 1799. His successor in Egypt, General

7838: 7818: 7628: 7585: 7555: 7403: 7185: 7114: 7056: 6771: 6766: 6746: 6668: 6483: 6384: 6315: 6298: 6239: 6129: 6125: 6066: 6062: 5970: 5966: 5834: 5805: 5801: 5762: 5758: 5638: 5634: 5464: 5293: 4996: 4662: 4483: 4479: 4377: 4373: 4330: 4326: 4213: 4156:). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of the 4032: 4028: 3994: 3927: 3923: 3813: 3809: 3753: 3749: 2493: 2289: 2118: 1867: 1468: 1456: 1429: 1413: 1279:

in his depredations on the Indian Sea, he would destroy all Christian holy places.

1101: 245: 165: 117: 31: 7440: 3998: 2990:

Mamluks still attending training classes and who still live at the Tebaq (campus)

552:. Until the 1990s, it was widely believed that the earliest Mamluks were known as 420:

in 1154–1169 and 1213–1221, effectively driving them out of Egypt and the Levant.

7618: 7435: 7386: 7288: 7104: 6840: 6823: 6454: 6379: 6107: 5923: 5897:

The Ottomans and the Mamluks: Imperial Diplomacy and Warfare in the Islamic World

5879: 5717: 5669: 5536: 5376: 5347: 4593: 4541: 4322: 4209: 4049: 3703:, and "Ghulam" (sing. of "Ghilman") to refer to military slaves elsewhere in the 3673: 3220: 1834: 1762: 1728: 1499: 1349: 1135:

By the late fourteenth century, the majority of the Mamluk ranks were made up of

900: 836: 832: 824: 820: 428: 295: 264: 195: 113: 105: 5369:

A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War

4862:

A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War

4407:

argued that in the midst of the decadence that became the hallmark of the later

1494:. The Mamluks relied on massed cavalry charges, changed only by the addition of 1447: 1143:

region, whose young males had been frequently captured for slavery. In 1382 the

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Marmon, Shaun Elizabeth; Marmon, Assistant Professor of Religion Shaun (1995).

4890: 4338: 4161: 4021: 3909: 3860: 3795: 3735: 3731: 3653: 3561: 2529:

The mark or signature of the Sultan put on his decrees, letters and documents.

2063: 1803: 1799: 1716:

In 1206, the Mamluk commander of the Muslim forces in the Indian subcontinent,

1594: 1272: 1217: 1213: 1193: 1171: 1140: 954: 931: 927: 919: 805: 761:

archers and Mamluk cavalry; 14th-century illustration from a manuscript of the

664: 640: 625: 617: 605: 597: 549: 533:, son of Zubayr, used these freed slave retainers during the second civil war. 369: 291: 241: 233: 121: 81: 6133: 6070: 5974: 5809: 5766: 5642: 5529: 5468: 5000: 4666: 4381: 3259:

Storehouse for drinks, medicines and glass-wares of the sultan. (from Persian

3007:

Mamluks of the sultan; to distinguish from the Mamluks of the Amirs (princes)

1047: 7812: 7650: 7638: 7633: 7313: 6403: 6118: