593:'I have had the great advantage of a long interview with Dr. Mary Barton. She is a most co-operative individual, who answered all questions with frank directness, or with vigorous rebuttal if she did not agree with me (which was often the case); she is devoted to her practice and utterly convinced that she confers a great benefit and happiness on all her patients. At the end of our interview, which lasted an hour and a half and was conducted in the presence of two other doctors, I asked her to what extent, if at all, I might quote her. After a moment's consultation with the doctors as to whether to allow her name to be used might be unethical, she looked at me directly and said, "You can repeat as much as you like; I have nothing to hide,"—altogether a most engaging personality.' —Lord Blackford, 26 February 1958
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strong views, and made their moral objections clear, even when they admitted to having little factual knowledge. It is clear that more couples sought assistance than could be treated. Sometimes doctors reported intentionally intimidating those seeking help. The Royal
College of Surgeons of Edinburgh testified that "it is our intention to make the whole thing rather difficult". Those seeking and providing treatment - couples, donors, and doctors - were often pathologized.
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husband's brother; such situations often resulted in "emotional disturbance" for all involved. Donors were expected to remain separate from the families whose children they engendered. It was recommended that donors and recipients be kept unaware of each other's identities. An unfortunate result of such secrecy, pointed out by the Wand and
Feversham reports, was a lack of research on the impact on families, either positive or negative.
180:
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146:, is believed to have been in charge of recruiting sperm donors for Barton's clinic. He and a small number of other donors may have provided the majority of the sperm used, resulting in the birth of hundreds of half-siblings, most of whom had no knowledge of their conception. The clinic's patient records were destroyed, but
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characteristics appear in their children? The possibility of paying for sperm donation also raised concerns about the desirability of the possible donors. In contrast, obstetrician
Margaret Jackson argued that a sperm donor was likely preferable genetically to a random sexual encounter or "fling" with a "fancy man".
586:, who appealed to the House of Lords to "reject with horror this brain-wave of Beelzebub". Blackford had moved to make artificial insemination by donor illegal, as being a form of adultery, but in the end he withdrew his motion. He stated that his second objective, a full debate on the topic, had been achieved.
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Wiesner was responsible for recruiting donors for Barton's clinic. DNA evidence suggests that many of the babies were conceived using sperm from
Wiesner himself. His son, Jonathan Wiesner, underwent DNA testing in 2007 which provided a basis for identification. Some estimates suggest that of the more
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The
Feversham Committee's proceedings provide valuable indicators of how infertility and artificial insemination were viewed in Britain, by people holding a wide range of perspectives. Many of those who spoke to the commission had little experience in the practice of AID. Nonetheless, they often held
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In 1958, a government committee known as the
Feversham Committee was appointed "To enquire into the existing practice of human artificial insemination and its legal consequences; and to consider whether, taking account of the interests of the individuals involved and of society as a whole, any change
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Barriers to treatment for infertility were psychological, social, and also financial. It was extremely difficult for couples to find "an appropriate and sympathetic practitioner" who could carry out insemination. Couples were referred to London's clinics from all over
England, and as far away as Rome
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At the time, infertility was widely believed to be the woman's fault. Barton understood that both men and women could be infertile. Both the identification of the male as an infertile partner and the introduction of treatments that used "instrumental insemination" met with strong social disapproval.
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Others who read the
Feversham Committee's report considered that, far from reflecting a full debate, it was lacking in necessary factual background, "vague", "superficial", "totally inadequate", and in the end "inconclusive". The committee clearly disliked the idea of AID. At the same time, they
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Mary Barton's clinic was one of the first in Great
Britain to offer artificial insemination. The clinic helped an unknown number of previously childless women to conceive babies. Estimates are that thousands of women were able to conceive as a result of artificial insemination with their husband's
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As Barton and others informed the
Feversham commission, it was difficult to find donors. They were often former patients, husbands of patients, members of the doctors' family, or acquaintances. In 1945, Barton warned of the emotional danger attendant on donation from a known individual such as a
634:"I matched race, coloring and stature and all donors were drawn from intelligent stock.... I wouldn't take a donor unless he was, if anything, a little above average. If you are going to do it deliberately, you have got to put the standards rather higher than normal." Mary Barton, 1958 Commission
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Actual treatment was not a simple matter. Barton was both a researcher and a clinician. She worked closely with each couple to diagnose and address possible causes of infertility. In cases where the husband was already diagnosed as sterile, AID could be considered as a possible option. Patients
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and the meetings were held privately. The committee requested oral and written testimony from 100 organizations and individuals in Great Britain and worldwide. The responses they received were predominantly religious, with some medical and very little legal representation. Its conclusions were
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in London. Matthews suggested that the psychological issues to be faced by AID children might be similar to those of adopted children. He also opposed the commission's interpretation of AID as adulterous, arguing that the "spiritual elements which constitute the sin of adultery are absent".
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Given both social taboos around the subject of infertility and the lack of legal regulation for such work at the time, Barton advised secrecy about the service she offered, telling the parents they should never let their children find out how they had been conceived or identify the donors.
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In choosing a donor for a couple, Barton tried to find a match who was physically similar to the parents, particularly the father. While emphasizing that there was no guarantee of a child's appearance, it was hoped that a resemblance would occur and make it easier for the family to connect
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underwent preliminary examinations to establish "whether the basic attributes of fecundity were present". Barton reported that upon examination, 76% of wives with infertile husbands themselves displayed factors relating to severe infertility. Two of the most prevalent factors in women were
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The question of whether donors should be anonymous continues to be contentious, and laws vary widely from country to country. Mary Barton and Bertold Wiesner likely believed that after the destruction of the clinic's records, the parentage of the children conceived at the clinic would be
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The Wand Report worried that donors might have "absurd and inflated opinions of own worth and ability", and be attracted by pride, personal power, and freedom from responsibility for progeny. Were those attracted likely to be "abnormal and unbalanced" or even "psychopaths"? Would such
430:. They could only considered for AID if these underlying problems could be addressed, which might require several months of preliminary treatment. Where AID was eventually attempted, the clinic's conception rates were relatively high, reported at 58% (1944-1954) and 67% (1955-1962).
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has regulated clinics in Britain. A sperm donor can donate for use by no more than ten families. Donor information must be kept on record and children born after 2005 can apply for that information once they are 18. Availability and quality of donor sperm continue to be concerns.
651:. Eugenicists were certainly interested in Barton's work, and their motivations went far beyond Barton's goal of helping childless women to conceive. The possible impact of sperm donation on the population of male offspring was much discussed (females received less attention).
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Barton, Mary; Browne, F. J.; Christie-Brown, R.; Dodds, Gladys; Graff, Greta; Green, A.; Green-Armytage, V. B.; Harvey, Clare; Jackson, M. H.; Johnstone, R. W.; Nixon, W. C. W.; Lane-Roberts, C.; Sharman, A.; Moore White, M.; Wiesner, B. P.; Walker, Kenneth (16 October 1943).
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without knowing that they were closely genetically related, with genetic risks to their offspring. Another fear was that preferential choice of male children might cause a gender imbalance in society. The commission called unsuccessfully for AID to be made a criminal offense.
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Artificial human insemination was seen as posing social and legal threats to the institution of marriage and the status of children, not least due to secrecy and deception around a child's paternity. The commission noted that children of donors might intermarry and commit
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In one of her research papers on fertility and conception, Barton reports successfully treating over 1,000 women using AID, 600 cases between 1944 and 1954 and another 431 women from 1955 to the end of December 1962. Thousands more women were treated at her clinic for AIH.
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Because these services were new, there were no medical or legal regulations governing them. While successful artificial insemination births were documented late in the 19th century, the practice was not widely accepted as ethical in Britain, even when used for the
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It is not surprising that the clinic records appear to have been destroyed, possibly when the London clinic closed in 1967 or after Wiesner's death in 1972. The issue of whether adoptees have a right to obtain information about donor parents is still hotly debated.
524:. Its purpose was "To consider the practice of human artificial insemination with special reference to its theological, moral, social, psychological, and legal implications." The commission published its report, sometimes referred to as the Wand Report, in 1948.
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Regardless, as a scientist specialising in fertility (among other areas), Wiesner himself should have been aware that there were genetic risks created by his fathering so many children. Such risks were known and were identified in the Wand Report.
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Mary Barton was one of those who testified before the committee. At the time that the Feversham Committee surveyed the field, only six doctors in Britain regularly provided artificial insemination by donor, all in England: Bernard Sandler
406:. It is likely that this was a "clinic" shared with colleagues. Her private clinic, on the other hand, operated outside of the NHS. Barton's second husband, biologist and physiologist Bertold Wiesner, was associated with the
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as early as 1940, one of the first people to do so. She was a pioneer of artificial insemination by husband (AIH) and Artificial Insemination by Donor (AID) for married couples unable to conceive a child due to
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as a reason for using AID in her 1945 paper. However, the Wand Report noted that parents might wish to use AID when "the paternity of a man endowed with outstanding qualities is desired" and quoted from
334:. At the time, it was taboo to suggest that it might be the husband, and not the wife, who was infertile - not only on the Indian subcontinent but also in the United Kingdom.
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Crawshaw, Marilyn (11 July 2017). "Direct-to-consumer DNA testing: the fallout for individuals and their families unexpectedly learning of their donor conception origins".
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sperm. Possibly as many as 1,500 more women conceived using artificial insemination by donor. The majority of the sperm donations may have come from a few progenitors.
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than 1,000 successful AID pregnancies Barton reported, Wiesner may have been responsible for as many as 2/3, or 600 children. Another major donor was neuroscientist
343:, discussing "Sterility and Impaired Fertility" in both men and women. It was signed by many of the researchers active in the field in Great Britain at that time.
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It is unclear whether Barton knew that much of the sperm used came from her husband. She kept records of donors identified with code names. Documentary filmmaker
1848:"I just want more information about who I am": the search experience of sperm-donor offspring, searching for information about their donors and genetic heritage"
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A concern of both critics and proponents of artificial insemination was the quality of the donor sperm. Barton emphasized that donors should be free of disease (
1963:
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While Mary Barton's offices are frequently referred to as the "Barton Clinic", she practiced from a single consulting room, plus an office for her
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in Pakistan. The couple practised in a missionary hospital. They divorced in 1939; she retained his name for the rest of her professional career.
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In this context, Lord Blackford's comments on Mary Barton, who he identified as "a leading exponent in this field", are of particular interest.
671:, Barton and fellow authors Walker and Wiesner explained that they used a "small panel of donors" that they considered of "intelligent stock".
762:
Davis, Gayle (2017). "'A Tragedy as Old as History': Medical Responses to Infertility and Artificial Insemination by Donor in 1950s Britain".
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575:(all in London). Artificial insemination was much more widely used in other countries, particularly in the United States and Israel.
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Barton understood that both men and women could be infertile. As early as 16 October 1943, she was the lead author on an article in
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did not consider regulation practical, and feared to increase AID's visibility by giving it any form of official recognition.
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Pfeffer, N. (1987). "Artificial insemination, in-vitro fertilization and the stigma of infertility". In Stanworth, M. (ed.).
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has stated "it's possible he didn't tell his wife and she believed the donations were coming from a lot of different men".
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Redvaldsen, David (February 2015). "Eugenics, socialism and artificial insemination: the public career of Herbert Brewer".
372:. The practice was medically ground-breaking, helping women conceive 1,500 babies using AID and thousands more using AIH.
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707:. The increasing availability of consumer genetic tests has made the anonymity of sperm donation practically impossible.
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Mary Barton married Austrian physiologist Bertold Paul Wiesner in 1943. They had a son, Jonathan, and a daughter, Ruth.
1964:"The donor detective: how one woman made it her mission to help donor-conceived children find their biological fathers"
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1558:"To name or not to name? An overview of the social and ethical issues raised by removing anonymity from sperm donors"
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1913:"'There's no such thing as anonymity': With consumer DNA tests, sperm banks reconsider long-held promises to donors"
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This was true even when using the husband's sperm, a process known as artificial insemination by husband, or AIH.
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https://search.lma.gov.uk/scripts/mwimain.dll/144/LMA_OPAC/web_detail?SESSIONSEARCH&exp=refd%20H72/SM/C/01/02
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330:, then still ruled by Britain. She witnessed the way in which women would be punished or even killed for being
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Artificial Human Insemination: The Report of a Commission Appointed by His Grace The Archbishop of Canterbury
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testing has identified groups of half-siblings. The Barton clinic has been the subject of the documentaries
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The Medical Directory 1958: London, Provinces, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Abroad, Navy, Army & Air Force
488:. There was strong social stigma about such work. It was argued that artificial insemination was a form of
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untraceable. They could not have foreseen the implications of contemporary research into the structure of
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https://search.lma.gov.uk/scripts/mwimain.dll/144/LMA_OPAC/web_detail?SESSIONSEARCH&exp=refd%20H72/SM
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established a religious commission on artificial human insemination in December 1945. It was chaired by
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1162:"Mary's Babies, Jermyn Street Theatre review - rollercoaster investigation of early fertility treatment"
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Church of England. Archbishop of Canterbury's Commission on Artificial Human Insemination (1948).
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Laws regulating human artificial insemination were eventually introduced, but not until Britain's
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MARY BARTON 10 Wimpole Street, London, WA (Received 9th March 1967, accepted 30th November 1967)
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Lane-Roberts, Cedric; Sharman, Albert; Walker, Kenneth; Wiesner, B. P.; Barton, Mary (1948).
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Secretly connected? Anonymous semen donation, genetics and meanings of kinship (Dissertation)
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Donor conception and the search for information : from secrecy and anonymity to openness
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91:(1 March 1905 – 1990) was a British obstetrician who, in the 1930s, founded one of the first
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That social stigma around artificial insemination was strong is illustrated by the words of
468:(painful intercourse). They also noted that donor sperm had been used in rare cases of male
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In 1945 Barton, Walker, and Wiesner published a paper about artificial insemination in the
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Reproduction by design : sex, robots, trees, and test-tube babies in interwar Britain
622:). Barton also stated that the donors for her clinic were perceived to be "above average"
452:. The main focus of the article was artificial insemination by husband, used in cases of
379:, Miss Gwen Jenkins, who worked with her for some 30 years. Barton's offices were in the
8:
2039:"17 British sperm donors have fathered more than 500 children between them, figures show"
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Bartholomew, G. W. (1960). "The report of the Feversham Committee — a sterile solution".
867:"Anonymity in donor-assisted conception and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child"
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Regulating creation : the law, ethics, and policy of assisted human reproduction
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Life, Death and the Law: Law and Christian Morals in England and the United States
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The Legitimacy of Medical Treatment : What Role for the Medical Exception?
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Lemmens, Trudo; Martin, Andrew Flavell; Milne, Cheryl; Lee, Ian B. (2017).
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Murphy, Gabrielle (August 2002). "Donor insemination: finding your roots".
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https://london.ac.uk/about-us/history-university-london/university-archives
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284:, in a family of several generations of surgeons and doctors. She attended
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BARTON, Mrs. Mary, 31, Portland Pl., London, W. 1 - M.B., B.S. Lond. 1929
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292:. She received her Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery from the
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107:. Her pioneering research and practice were inspired by experience as a
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The Stork and the Syringe: A Political History of Reproductive Medicine
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1080:. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 129–132.
831:. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Taylor & Francis. pp. 17–18.
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from 1915 to 1923, and in October 1923 she commenced studies at the
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1318:"In the Fifties, two doctors secretly pioneered donor insemination"
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1990:"Number of sperm donors rises despite removal of anonymity in UK"
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London Metropolitan Archives London School of Medicine records
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The great sperm heist: 'They were playing with people's lives'
1761:"British man 'fathered 600 children' at own fertility clinic"
1455:. London: J. & A. Churchill, Limited. 1958. p. 120.
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Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood, and Medicine
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in the law is necessary or desirable." It was chaired by
359:'s site in Gray's Inn Road, as Barton would have known it.
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She married Douglas Barton, a doctor who was based in
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1291:"We are family… Mary's Babies, Jermyn Street Theatre"
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204:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
16:Obstetrician, founded a fertility clinic in London
1883:. University of Toronto Press. pp. 147–148.
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363:Mary Barton returned to London and established a
2120:People educated at Norwich High School for Girls
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910:. In Fovargue, Sara; Mullock, Alexandra (eds.).
908:"What do we mean by 'proper' medical treatment?"
571:), Mary Barton, Philip Bloom, Reynold Boyd, and
404:the newly formed National Health Service in 1948
394:Barton also worked at a fertility clinic at the
1039:"Sperm donor found to have fathered 600 babies"
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765:The Palgrave Handbook of Infertility in History
111:in India, where she saw the harsh treatment of
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871:The International Journal of Children's Rights
68:Obstetrics, Fertility, Artificial insemination
1787:"British sperm donor 'fathered 600 children'"
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1942:Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority
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1499:Barton, M.; Walker, K.; Wiesner, B. (1945).
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1204:Student Files for London School of Medicine
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492:. Donor-conceived children were considered
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771:. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 359–382.
307:'s Northwest Frontier Province, and is now
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1727:"ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION OF MARRIED WOMEN"
1641:. Cambridge: Polity Press. pp. 81–97.
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142:Barton's second husband, sex researcher
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1911:Keshavan, Meghana (11 September 2019).
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1475:(2nd ed.). New York: P. B. Hoeber
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135:. This led to practices of secrecy.
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1725:Blackford, Lord (26 February 1958).
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202:adding citations to reliable sources
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290:London School of Medicine for Women
276:Mary (née Worthington) was born in
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1556:Burr, Jennifer A. (12 July 2010).
1345:"Sterility and Impaired Fertility"
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1759:Smith, Rebecca (10 August 2016).
1186:Dromgoole, Maud (21 March 2019).
508:In response to Barton's article,
1962:Marsh, Stefanie (3 April 2019).
1472:Sterility and Impaired Fertility
1160:Neill, Heather (26 March 2019).
1000:St. John-Stevas, Norman (2002).
825:Allan, Sonia (14 October 2016).
410:, as was genito-urinary surgeon
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121:Artificial insemination by donor
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1785:Dowling, Kevin (8 April 2012).
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1037:Mandal, Ananya (9 April 2012).
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213:"Mary Barton" obstetrician
189:needs additional citations for
1208:University of London Archives
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906:Frith, Lucy (2 October 2015).
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2105:20th-century women scientists
2100:English women medical doctors
2037:Knapton, Sarah (6 May 2018).
1825:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09617-4
1261:10.1080/14647273.2017.1339127
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286:Norwich High School for Girls
1988:Day, Michael (12 May 2007).
1435:Speirs, Jennifer M. (2007).
1129:Offspring (Documentary Film)
1006:. Beard Books. p. 119.
953:"Fertility in married women"
777:10.1057/978-1-137-52080-7_19
542:Dean of St. Paul's Cathedral
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2006:10.1136/bmj.39206.514132.DB
1505:The British Medical Journal
1349:The British Medical Journal
1190:. Nick Hern Books, Limited.
667:In their 1945 paper in the
340:The British Medical Journal
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2125:20th-century English women
1846:Cushing, Amber L. (2010).
1562:Asian Journal of Andrology
1441:. University of Edinburgh.
1316:Cook, Emma (4 July 1999).
1147:Bio-Dad (Documentary Film)
1043:News Medical Life Sciences
303:, a city in what was then
1737:. UK Parliament: 926–1016
1501:"Artificial insemination"
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714:of 1990. Since 1991 the
559:published in July 1960.
514:Archbishop of Canterbury
170:Early life and marriages
1994:British Medical Journal
1652:Pfeffer, Naomi (1993).
1624:10.1111/1468-2281.12074
1074:McLaren, Angus (2012).
669:British Medical Journal
638:Barton did not mention
449:British Medical Journal
408:Royal Northern Hospital
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2110:People from Lowestoft
2090:English obstetricians
1938:"Donating your sperm"
1517:10.1136/bmj.1.4384.40
970:10.1530/jrf.0.0160327
951:Barton, Mary (1968).
722:Barton died in 1990.
645:The Uniqueness of Man
632:
591:
567:), Margaret Jackson (
402:which became part of
354:
1852:Information Researcn
1145:Stevens, B. (2009).
1127:Stevens, B. (2001).
424:cervical dysfunction
387:in the 1950s and in
324:medical missionaries
294:University of London
198:improve this article
95:in England to offer
2076:, 25 September 2021
1612:Historical Research
1575:10.1038/aja.2010.60
549:Feversham Committee
418:and South Africa.
396:Royal Free Hospital
383:area of London, in
357:Royal Free Hospital
328:pre-partition India
77:Royal Free Hospital
2095:Fertility medicine
1108:. 5 September 2001
1102:"Offspring (2001)"
663:Identity of donors
474:hereditary disease
361:
309:Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
109:medical missionary
97:donor insemination
838:978-1-4094-4639-2
794:978-1-137-52080-7
400:teaching hospital
377:medical secretary
347:The Barton Clinic
274:
273:
266:
248:
162:and of a play by
93:fertility clinics
86:
85:
59:Scientific career
2137:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2017:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1934:
1928:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1791:The Sunday Times
1782:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1756:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1722:
1713:
1712:
1692:
1673:
1672:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1618:(239): 138–160.
1607:
1598:
1597:
1587:
1577:
1553:
1547:
1546:
1536:
1496:
1485:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1432:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1295:ITHANKYOUTHEATRE
1287:
1281:
1280:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1218:
1212:
1198:
1192:
1191:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1142:
1133:
1132:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1071:
1054:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1034:
1025:
1024:
1022:
1020:
997:
986:
985:
972:
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933:
932:
930:
928:
903:
894:
893:
891:
889:
862:
851:
850:
822:
807:
806:
770:
759:
602:Choice of donors
522:Bishop of London
428:pelvic infection
398:, a significant
370:male infertility
365:fertility clinic
301:Dera Ismail Khan
269:
262:
258:
255:
249:
247:
206:
182:
174:
40:
38:
21:
20:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2080:
2079:
2066:Jenny Kleeman,
2063:
2061:Further reading
2058:
2057:
2047:
2045:
2035:
2031:
1986:
1982:
1972:
1970:
1960:
1956:
1946:
1944:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1921:
1919:
1909:
1905:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1875:
1871:
1861:
1859:
1844:
1840:
1809:
1805:
1795:
1793:
1783:
1779:
1769:
1767:
1757:
1750:
1740:
1738:
1723:
1716:
1693:
1676:
1665:
1661:
1656:. Polity Press.
1650:
1646:
1635:
1631:
1608:
1601:
1554:
1550:
1511:(4384): 40–43.
1497:
1488:
1478:
1476:
1467:
1463:
1451:
1450:
1446:
1433:
1378:
1340:
1336:
1326:
1324:
1322:The Independent
1314:
1310:
1300:
1298:
1297:. 24 March 2019
1289:
1288:
1284:
1249:Human Fertility
1245:
1241:
1231:
1229:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1199:
1195:
1184:
1180:
1170:
1168:
1158:
1154:
1143:
1136:
1125:
1121:
1111:
1109:
1100:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1072:
1057:
1047:
1045:
1035:
1028:
1018:
1016:
1014:
998:
989:
949:
936:
926:
924:
922:
904:
897:
887:
885:
863:
854:
839:
823:
810:
795:
768:
760:
733:
728:
696:
665:
604:
551:
538:Walter Matthews
510:Geoffrey Fisher
506:
444:
349:
320:
270:
259:
253:
250:
207:
205:
195:
183:
172:
144:Bertold Wiesner
45:
42:
36:
34:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2143:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2078:
2077:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2029:
1980:
1954:
1929:
1903:
1890:978-1442614574
1889:
1869:
1838:
1803:
1777:
1748:
1714:
1703:(2): 201–225.
1674:
1659:
1644:
1629:
1599:
1568:(6): 801–806.
1548:
1486:
1461:
1444:
1376:
1334:
1308:
1282:
1255:(4): 225–228.
1239:
1213:
1193:
1178:
1152:
1134:
1119:
1093:
1087:978-0226560694
1086:
1055:
1026:
1012:
987:
963:(3): 327–331.
934:
920:
895:
852:
837:
808:
793:
730:
729:
727:
724:
695:
692:
664:
661:
603:
600:
584:Lord Blackford
550:
547:
505:
502:
443:
440:
412:Kenneth Walker
391:in the 1960s.
389:Wimpole Street
385:Portland Place
348:
345:
319:
316:
272:
271:
186:
184:
177:
171:
168:
164:Maud Dromgoole
84:
83:
80:
79:
74:
70:
69:
66:
62:
61:
55:
54:
51:
47:
46:
43:
32:
28:
27:
24:
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9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2131:
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2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2115:British India
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2064:
2044:
2043:The Telegraph
2040:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2003:
2000:(7601): 971.
1999:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1943:
1939:
1933:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1892:
1886:
1882:
1881:
1873:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1819:(9330): 419.
1818:
1814:
1807:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1766:
1765:The Telegraph
1762:
1755:
1753:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1719:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1671:. S. P. C. K.
1670:
1663:
1655:
1648:
1640:
1633:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1606:
1604:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1552:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1530:
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1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1474:
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1465:
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1431:
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1427:
1425:
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1413:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1355:(4319): 493.
1354:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1296:
1292:
1286:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1243:
1227:
1223:
1222:"Index entry"
1217:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1197:
1189:
1188:Mary's Babies
1182:
1167:
1166:The Arts Desk
1163:
1156:
1148:
1141:
1139:
1130:
1123:
1107:
1103:
1097:
1089:
1083:
1079:
1078:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1044:
1040:
1033:
1031:
1015:
1013:9781258192587
1009:
1005:
1004:
996:
994:
992:
984:
980:
976:
971:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
945:
943:
941:
939:
923:
921:9781138819634
917:
913:
909:
902:
900:
884:
880:
877:(2): 89–104.
876:
872:
868:
861:
859:
857:
848:
844:
840:
834:
830:
829:
821:
819:
817:
815:
813:
804:
800:
796:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
767:
766:
758:
756:
754:
752:
750:
748:
746:
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
731:
723:
720:
717:
713:
708:
706:
700:
691:
687:
685:
684:Barry Stevens
680:
678:
677:Derek Richter
672:
670:
660:
656:
652:
650:
649:Julian Huxley
646:
641:
635:
631:
630:emotionally.
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
608:transmissible
599:
594:
590:
587:
585:
580:
576:
574:
573:Eleanor Mears
570:
566:
560:
557:
546:
543:
539:
534:
531:
525:
523:
519:
515:
511:
501:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
477:
475:
471:
467:
464:, and female
463:
459:
456:, failure to
455:
451:
450:
439:
435:
431:
429:
425:
419:
415:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
392:
390:
386:
382:
381:Harley Street
378:
373:
371:
366:
358:
353:
344:
342:
341:
335:
333:
329:
325:
315:
312:
310:
306:
305:British India
302:
297:
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287:
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279:
268:
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257:
254:February 2020
246:
243:
239:
236:
232:
229:
225:
222:
218:
215: –
214:
210:
209:Find sources:
203:
199:
193:
192:
187:This article
185:
181:
176:
175:
167:
165:
161:
160:Barry Stevens
157:
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71:
67:
63:
60:
56:
52:
48:
33:
29:
22:
19:
2073:The Guardian
2071:
2046:. Retrieved
2042:
2032:
1997:
1993:
1983:
1971:. Retrieved
1967:
1957:
1945:. Retrieved
1941:
1932:
1920:. Retrieved
1916:
1906:
1894:. Retrieved
1879:
1872:
1860:. Retrieved
1855:
1851:
1841:
1816:
1812:
1806:
1794:. Retrieved
1790:
1780:
1768:. Retrieved
1764:
1739:. Retrieved
1734:
1730:
1700:
1696:
1668:
1662:
1653:
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1638:
1632:
1615:
1611:
1565:
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1477:. Retrieved
1471:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1437:
1352:
1348:
1337:
1325:. Retrieved
1321:
1311:
1299:. Retrieved
1294:
1285:
1252:
1248:
1242:
1230:. Retrieved
1225:
1216:
1196:
1187:
1181:
1169:. Retrieved
1165:
1155:
1146:
1128:
1122:
1110:. Retrieved
1105:
1096:
1076:
1046:. Retrieved
1042:
1017:. Retrieved
1002:
982:
960:
956:
925:. Retrieved
911:
886:. Retrieved
874:
870:
827:
764:
721:
709:
701:
697:
688:
681:
673:
668:
666:
657:
653:
644:
637:
633:
628:
624:intelligence
605:
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592:
588:
581:
577:
561:
552:
535:
526:
507:
494:illegitimate
486:farm animals
478:
472:or to avoid
447:
445:
436:
432:
420:
416:
393:
374:
362:
338:
336:
321:
318:Early career
313:
298:
275:
260:
251:
241:
234:
227:
220:
208:
196:Please help
191:verification
188:
155:
151:
141:
137:
129:illegitimacy
117:
88:
87:
73:Institutions
58:
41:1 March 1905
18:
620:criminality
504:Wand Report
466:dyspareunia
462:intercourse
154:(2001) and
101:infertility
89:Mary Barton
25:Mary Barton
2084:Categories
1813:The Lancet
726:References
616:alcoholism
612:hereditary
565:Manchester
224:newspapers
158:(2009) by
105:conception
37:1905-03-01
847:949922911
470:sterility
458:ejaculate
454:impotence
332:childless
296:in 1929.
278:Lowestoft
152:Offspring
113:childless
44:Lowestoft
2048:18 March
2024:17493999
1973:18 March
1968:Prospect
1947:18 March
1922:18 March
1896:18 March
1862:18 March
1833:54392398
1796:16 March
1770:16 March
1741:19 March
1709:24874840
1594:20622888
1543:20785841
1525:20347431
1479:18 March
1327:18 March
1301:18 March
1277:31597256
1269:28697325
1232:2 August
1171:15 March
1112:18 March
1048:16 March
1019:18 March
927:18 March
888:18 March
803:30354044
640:eugenics
490:adultery
482:breeding
125:adultery
2015:1867873
1731:Hansard
1585:3739075
1534:2056529
1370:2285157
1226:FreeBMD
979:5691790
512:, then
498:perjury
460:during
282:Suffolk
238:scholar
156:Bio-Dad
133:perjury
115:women.
2022:
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1887:
1831:
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1275:
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835:
801:
791:
694:Legacy
569:Exeter
540:, the
530:incest
520:, the
240:
233:
226:
219:
211:
131:, and
65:Fields
1829:S2CID
1705:JSTOR
1521:JSTOR
1273:S2CID
1228:. ONS
769:(PDF)
245:JSTOR
231:books
2050:2020
2020:PMID
1975:2020
1949:2020
1924:2020
1917:Stat
1898:2020
1885:ISBN
1864:2020
1798:2020
1772:2020
1743:2020
1590:PMID
1539:PMID
1481:2020
1329:2020
1303:2020
1265:PMID
1234:2021
1173:2020
1114:2020
1082:ISBN
1050:2020
1021:2020
1008:ISBN
975:PMID
929:2020
916:ISBN
890:2020
843:OCLC
833:ISBN
799:PMID
789:ISBN
618:and
426:and
355:The
217:news
103:and
53:1990
50:Died
31:Born
2070:in
2010:PMC
2002:doi
1998:334
1858:(2)
1821:doi
1817:360
1735:207
1620:doi
1580:PMC
1570:doi
1529:PMC
1513:doi
1365:PMC
1357:doi
1257:doi
965:doi
879:doi
781:hdl
773:doi
705:DNA
647:by
610:or
484:of
326:in
200:by
148:DNA
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