647:. Because the command had come from On High, he ordered them all to assemble together and to unite in faith. Abandoning the reverence of vain things, they turned toward the living God, who had appeared to their father, Abraham. Muhammad legislated that they were not to eat carrion, not to drink wine, not to speak falsehoods, and not to commit adultery. He said: "God promised that country to Abraham and to his son after him, for eternity. And what had been promised was fulfilled during that time when loved Israel. Now, however, you are the sons of Abraham, and God shall fulfill the promise made to Abraham and his son on you. Only love the God of Abraham, and go and take the country which God gave to your father, Abraham. No one can successfully resist you in war, since God is with you.
768:
1300:
1079:
701:
questioned him saying "O Jesus, did you say that 'I am Son of God, and God'?" And Jesus, they say, answered: "Be merciful to me, Lord; you know that I did not say so, nor will I boast that I am your servant; but men who have gone astray wrote that I said this and they said lies concerning me and they have been in error". And although there are included in this scripture many more absurdities worthy of laughter, he insists that this was brought down to him by God.
1221:, is to characterize the Orient as alien and to incorporate it schematically on a theatrical stage whose audience, manager, and actors are only for Europe. Hence the vacillation between the familiar and the alien; Mohammed is always the imposter (familiar, because he pretends to be like the Jesus we know) and always the Oriental (alien, because although he is in some ways "like" Jesus, he is after all not like him).
357:
901:, the "devil incarnate". Others usually confirmed to pious Christians that Muhammad had come to a bad end. According to one version after falling into a drunken stupor he had been eaten by a herd of swine, and this was ascribed as the reason why Muslims proscribed consumption of alcohol and pork. In another account of the alcohol ban, Muhammad learns about the Bible from a Jew and a heretical
809:
1335:, which was notable by implication for its similarity to the common rendition of Muhammad's name used by Christian writers of the time, Mahomet. All these and other variations on the theme were all set in the "temper of the times" of what was seen as a Muslim-Christian conflict as Medieval Europe was building a concept of "the great enemy" in the wake of the quickfire success of the
369:
966:, a best-seller in its day containing a collection of hagiographies, describes "Magometh, Mahumeth (Mahomet, Muhammad)" as "a false prophet and sorcerer", detailing his early life and travels as a merchant through his marriage to the widow, Khadija and goes on to suggest his "visions" came as a result of epileptic seizures and the interventions of a renegade
927:), as against the Jewish (Saturday) and the Christian (Sunday), to his followers' depravity as reflected in their multiplicity of wives. A highly negative depiction of Muhammad as a heretic, false prophet, renegade cardinal or founder of a violent religion also found its way into many other works of European literature, such as the
700:
And the Jews, having themselves violated the Law, wanted to crucify him, but having arrested him they crucified his shadow. But Christ, it is said, was not crucified, nor did he die; for God took him up to himself because of his love for him. And he says this, that when Christ went up to heaven God
1802:
accused
Muhammad of seducing people by promises of carnal pleasure, uttering truths mingled with many fables and announcing utterly false decisions that had no divine inspiration. Those who followed Muhammad were regarded by Aquinas as brutal, ignorant "beast-like men" and desert wanderers. Through
1041:
In medieval romances such as the French
Arthurian cycle, pagans such as the ancient Britons or the inhabitants of "Sarras" before the conversion of King Evelake, who presumably lived well before the birth of Muhammad, are often described as worshipping the same array of gods and as identical to the
1319:
is also relatively positive, though with many inaccurate and mythical features. It is said that
Muslims are easily converted to Christianity because their beliefs are already so similar in many ways, and that they believe that only the Christian revelation will last until the end of the world. The
590:?, …ou will discover nothing true from the said prophet except human bloodshed". Though Muhammad is never called by his name, the author seems to know of his existence and represents both Jews and Christians as viewing him in a negative light. Other contemporary sources, such as the writings of
2334:
Spicilegium romanum ...: Patrum ecclesiasticorum
Serapionis, Ioh. Chrysostomi, Cyrilli Alex., Theodori Mopsuesteni, Procli, Diadochi, Sophronii, Ioh. Monachi, Paulini, Claudii, Petri Damiani scripta varia. Item ex Nicetae Thesauro excerpta, biographi sacri veteres, et Asclepiodoti militare
1194:, "medieval Christians viewed the historical Muḥammad as a frankly theatrical character." One common allegation laid against Muhammad was that he was an impostor who, in order to satisfy his ambition and his lust, propagated religious teachings that he knew to be false.
881:. The fact that Muhammad was unlettered, that he married a wealthy widow, that in his later life he had several wives, that he was involved in several wars, and that he died like an ordinary person in contrast to the Christian belief in the supernatural end of
1214:
Empirical data about the Orient count for very little ; what matters and is decisive is by no means confined to the professional scholar, but rather the common possession of all who have thought about the Orient in the West . What Dante tried to do in the
1066:
sent by God to bring
Christianity to the region. This mission however failed when Muhammad's pride caused him to alter God's wishes, thereby deceiving his followers. Nevertheless, Muhammad's religion is portrayed as being greatly superior to paganism.
892:
wrote that
Muhammad was frequently calumniated and made a subject of legends taught by preachers as fact. For example, in order to show that Muhammad was the anti-Christ, it was asserted that Muhammad died not in the year 632 but in the year 666 – the
897:– in another variation on the theme the number "666" was also used to represent the period of time Muslims would hold sway of the land. A verbal expression of Christian contempt for Islam was expressed in turning his name from Muhammad to
725:("Letters of a Saracen") written by an Oriental Christian and translated into Latin from Arabic. From the 9th century onwards, highly negative biographies of Muhammad were written in Latin. The first two were produced in Spain, the
1259:. It is not surprising that he would have been surrounded by anti-Islam rhetoric and have seen Muslims as the general enemy. For example, he shows his admiration for the crusaders when he writes about his great-great-grandfather
643:, a merchant, became prominent. A sermon about the Way of Truth, supposedly at God's command, was revealed to them, and taught them to recognize the God of Abraham, especially since he was informed and knowledgeable about
635:, about whom the quotation from Scripture was fully and truthfully fulfilled: "His hands will be at everyone, and everyone will have their hands at him."... In that period a certain one of them, a man of the sons of
905:
monk. Muhammad and the monk get drunk and fall asleep. The Jew kills the monk with
Muhammad's sword. He then blames Muhammad, who, believing he has committed the crime in a drunken rage, bans alcohol.
1142:
As I stared at him he looked back And with his hands pulled his chest open, Saying, "See how I split open the crack in myself! See how twisted and broken
Mohammed is! Before me walks
1984:), were popular for rendering of the Arabic name Muhammad, borne by the founder of the religion of Islam (died 633). In literary use now superseded by the more correct form Mohammed.
911:
is another example of such a story. In this version, as a child
Muhammad was taught the black arts by a heretical Christian villain who escaped imprisonment by the
1136:
No barrel, not even one where the hoops and staves go Every which way, was ever split open like a frayed Sinner I saw, ripped from chin to where we fart below.
737:
in the 9th or 10th century. In the latter, Muhammad is presented as a young
Christian monk duped by a demon into spreading a false religion. Another Spaniard,
1139:
His guts hung between his legs and displayed His vital organs, including that wretched sack Which converts to shit whatever gets conveyed down the gullet.
2307:
1355:
721:
17:
1347:
1124:(ditch) among the sowers of discord and schism. Muhammad is portrayed as split in half, with his entrails hanging out, representing his status as a
1191:
594:, do not characterize Saracens as having their own prophet or faith, only remarking that the Saracen attacks must be a punishment for Christian
2055:
1007:
represent Muslims worshiping Muhammad (spelt e.g. 'Mahom' and 'Mahumet') as a god, and depict them worshiping various deities in the form of "
1190:
In his depiction of Muhammad, Dante draws inspiration from medieval Christian views and misconceptions on Muhammad. As stated by historian
3060:
2443:
2240:
Wolf, Kenneth Baxter (2014). "Counterhistory in the Earliest Latin Lives of Muhammad". In Christiane J. Gruber; Avinoam Shalem (eds.).
2242:
The Image of the Prophet between Ideal and Ideology: A Scholarly Investigation – The Image of the Prophet Between Ideal and Ideology
1320:
moral behaviour of Muslims at the time is shown as superior to that of Christians, and as a standing reproach to Christian society.
861:
During the 13th century, European biographers completed their work on the life of Muhammad in a series of works by scholars such as
3070:
824:, a Jew who had converted to Christianity, was another Mozarab source of information on Muhammad. Later during the 12th century
75:
1803:
them Muhammad, who asserted he was "sent in the power of arms", forced others to become followers by violence and armed power.
3040:
2826:
2614:
2560:
2386:
2257:
2177:
2123:
1788:, regarded Islam as a Christian heresy and Muhammad as a sexually self-indulgent and a murderer. However, he called for the
1698:
1594:
1062:, the author says that most residents of the Middle East were pagans until the coming of Muhammad, who is shown as a true
2153:
John of Damascus and Islam: Christian Heresiology and the Intellectual Background to Earliest Christian-Muslim Relations
671:
453:
2984:
2926:
2895:
2427:
1827:
1652:
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imagined (Termagant-worshipping) Muslims in every respect. A more positive interpretation appears in the 13th-century
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2014:
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2673:"The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri"
842:) and the collection of information on Muhammad so that Islamic teachings could be refuted by Christian scholars.
3075:
2404:
Religion und Integration im Moskauer Russland: Konzepte und Praktiken, Potentiale und Grenzen 14.-17. Jahrhundert
2108:
Christ in Islam and Christianity: The Representation of Jesus in the Qur'an and the Classical Muslim Commentaries
767:
459:
449:
1569:
1235:. However, Dante's relation to Islam is more nuanced than what this canto would suggest. Dante lived during the
719:, Christian knowledge of Muhammad's life "was nearly always used abusively". Another influential source was the
1769:
1243:
and would have been brought up around the idea that it is righteous to war against Muslims—namely, against the
212:
146:
2530:
762:
578:, one participant writes that his brother "wrote to saying that a deceiving prophet has appeared amidst the
122:
888:
Medieval scholars and churchmen held that Islam was the work of Muhammad who in turn was inspired by Satan.
1874:
East Meets West in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times: Transcultural Experiences in the Premodern World
2835:
Shalem, Avinoam. Constructing the Image of Muhammad in Europe. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin and Boston, 2013.
998:
starts by describing the Muslims but ends by including every person who is neither a Christian nor a Jew.
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and his alleged substitution on the cross, attributing the origin of these doctrines to Muhammad himself:
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266:
179:
117:
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1815:
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1956:
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1941:, Vol. 94, 1864, cols 763–73. An English translation by the Reverend John W. Voorhis appeared in
1765:
1644:
1509:
781:
688:
591:
525:
324:
226:
1273:. However, this narrative is complicated by Dante's intellectual admiration for some Muslims in
1038:(“The Ladder of Muhammad”) by the court physician of Alfonso X of Castile and León and his son.
3080:
2509:
1401:
1381:
1336:
919:; as an adult he set up a false religion by selectively choosing and perverting texts from the
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392:
244:
207:
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2737:
The Pseudo-historical Image of the Prophet Muhammad in Medieval Latin Literature: A Repertory
2151:
1810:
1798:
1632:
1547:
Buhl, F.; Ehlert, Trude; Noth, A.; Schimmel, Annemarie; Welch, A. T. (2012) . "Muḥammad". In
1164:
679:
541:
513:
231:
161:
1464:"Muhammad." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 10 January 2007,
3012:
F. Buhl; A.T. Welch; Annemarie Schimmel; A. Noth; Trude Ehlert (eds.). "Various articles".
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1811:
Orientalism and Islam: European Thinkers on Oriental Despotism in the Middle East and India
1733:
1340:
991:
135:
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sources, written shortly after Muhammad's death in 632 CE. In the anti-Jewish polemic the
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8:
1777:
1305:
1299:
1055:
894:
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317:
82:
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2632:"Christians and Muslims in the Middle Ages: From Muhammad to Dante By Michael Frassetto"
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2129:
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1749:
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1120:, designed for those who have committed fraud; specifically, he is placed in the ninth
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727:
675:
516:, moving from the classification as a heretic to depiction of Muhammad as a servant of
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329:
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68:
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to create Islam. It also ascribed the Muslim holiday of Friday "dies Veneris" (day of
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in one of his works. Christendom also gained some knowledge of Muhammad through the
683:
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413:
385:
202:
58:
34:
2209:
1681:
Goddard, Hugh (2000). "The First Age of Christian-Muslim Interaction (c. 830/215)".
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The Christian Encounter with Muhammad: How Theologians have Interpreted the Prophet
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1027:
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509:
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341:
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849:" in Byzantine and post-Byzantine religious and historic texts, as for example by
529:
2604:
2461:
Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation,
2356:
2332:
2311:
2280:
1732:
Criticism by Christians was voiced soon after the advent of Islam starting with
1324:
1315:
1274:
1226:
1217:
1197:
1103:
1098:
821:
785:
776:
713:" in referring to Muhammad, became known in the Christian West. According to the
620:
548:, after the Islamic empires ceased to be an acute military threat to Europe (see
86:
2684:
1184:
1083:
2672:
1785:
1386:
1244:
1236:
1051:
889:
668:
644:
505:
486:
1893:
1343:, as well as the lack of real information in the West of the mysterious East.
586:
replies about Muhammad: "He is deceiving. For do prophets come with sword and
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3024:
2914:
2883:
2790:
2766:
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2655:
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1977:
1911:
1819:
1640:
1478:
1240:
1180:
1176:
1159:
1108:
1088:
1030:
began to appear from the 13th century onward, such as in Alexandre du Pont's
962:
937:
862:
789:
545:
1954:
Walter Emil Kaegi, Jr., "Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest",
2814:
2570:
2550:
2514:
2068:
1548:
1078:
967:
942:
828:, who saw Muhammad as the precursor to the Antichrist and the successor of
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361:
256:
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482:
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2600:
1741:
1465:
1406:
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1248:
1201:
870:
656:
651:
Knowledge of Muhammad in Medieval Christendom became available after the
616:
549:
421:
417:
271:
2448:
2744:
2402:
Bushkovich, Paul, "Orthodoxy and Islam in Russia", Steindorff, L. (ed)
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1351:
1125:
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to symbolize his role as a "schismatic", since Islam was considered a
627:
I shall discuss the line of the son of Abraham: not the one born of a
1761:
1686:
1416:
1113:
1020:
612:
605:
1960:, Vol. 38, No. 2 (June, 1969), p. 139–149, p. 139–142, quoting from
1752:, the "Other" was the infidel, the Muslim. Theological disputes in
2919:
Ecstatic Transformation: On the Uses of Alterity in the Middle Ages
1876:. Fundamentals of Medieval and Early Modern Culture. Vol. 14.
1757:
1376:
1332:
1284:
1280:
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902:
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depicts Muhammad pulling his chest open which has been sliced by a
746:
640:
579:
537:
533:
497:
433:
42:
2187:
1633:"The Prophet as Antichrist and Arab Lucifer (Early Times to 1600)"
1981:
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1411:
1391:
1288:
1232:
1168:
1063:
1016:
1012:
987:
979:
898:
636:
587:
532:. By the Late Middle Ages, Islam was more typically grouped with
289:
251:
2089:. Edited by Adrian Hastings, Alistair Mason, Hugh Pyper. Pg 330.
560:
The earliest written Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from
2720:
still is the Polish and French word for the English "Muhammad".
2157:
1881:
1877:
1574:
1363:
1328:
1256:
1155:
1150:
This graphic scene is frequently shown in illustrations of the
878:
816:– an incident unattested in Islamic accounts of Muhammad's life
608:
601:
544:. A more relaxed or benign view of Islam only developed in the
416:, the Christian views on him stayed highly negative during the
299:
94:
63:
2749:
Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World
1776:
to continue seeing Islam as a threat. In the twelfth century,
1740:", Muhammad. Rivalry, and often enmity, continued between the
1637:
The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought
885:' earthly life were all arguments used to discredit Muhammad.
3035:(Rev ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated. 2005.
1932:
1781:
920:
882:
874:
833:
829:
771:
632:
628:
517:
425:
142:
808:
2987:
Muslim-Christian Encounters. Perceptions and Misperceptions
2819:
Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making
2379:
Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making
2156:. The History of Christian-Muslim Relations. Vol. 34.
1231:
28 is generally interpreted as showing Dante’s disdain for
1117:
978:
Medieval European literature often referred to Muslims as "
575:
489:, criticized Muhammad's promises of carnal pleasure in the
477:, as he was frequently seen in Christendom as a heretic or
294:
1358:
from 1480, the demon Machmet appears to the mother of the
2357:
Western Hostility to Islam and Prophecies of Turkish Doom
2281:
Western Hostility to Islam and Prophecies of Turkish Doom
1143:
595:
1862:"Wolfram's Islam: The Beliefs of the Muslim Pagans in
1792:, not the extermination, of Muslims. A century later,
1546:
1146:, his face Cleft from chin to crown, grief–stricken."
873:
in which Muhammad was depicted as an Antichrist while
454:
Muhammad and the Bible § Christian interpretation
1331:
reference was often made to their worship of a demon
812:"Mohammed and the Murdered Monk", 1508 engraving by
27:
Overview of the Medieval Christian views on Muhammad
2959:
2935:
2860:
2838:
2072:
An account of the rise and progress of Mahometanism
1508:
1163:by Giovanni da Modena and drawing on Dante, in the
512:, the Christian reception of Muhammad became more
3052:
2510:"Al-Qaida plot to blow up Bologna church fresco"
2145:
2143:
2097:
2095:
1019:, but ascribing to them a chief deity known as "
473:, deplorable man, a false prophet, and even the
450:Criticism of Muhammad § Christian criticism
1918:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1736:in the late seventh century, who wrote of "the
2913:
2789:
2765:
2480:
1477:
524:, who will be eternally suffering tortures in
2813:
2507:
2376:
2140:
2092:
1760:, in the eighth to the tenth century, and in
1676:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1460:
1458:
856:
393:
2528:
1836:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1716:
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1712:
1710:
1626:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1082:Mohammed suffering punishment in Hell. From
2888:Saracens: Islam in the European imagination
2882:
2743:
2590:Oxford University Press, 1961. From p. 229.
1624:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1606:
2459:Lacy, Norris J. (Ed.) (December 1, 1992).
2054:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1661:
1542:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1154:Muhammad is represented in a 15th-century
686:, reported in his heresiological treatise
400:
386:
2734:
2522:
2419:The Golden Legend: Readings on the Saints
2351:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2275:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2210:"St. John of Damascus: Critique of Islam"
2104:"The Crucifixion - Non-Muslim Approaches"
2087:The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought
2039:
1707:
1435:
1210:regarding Dante's depiction of Muhammad:
982:" or "pagans", in sobriquets such as the
2415:
2406:, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010, p.128.
2149:
2101:
1859:
1603:
1298:
1077:
807:
766:
2904:
2890:. Columbia University Press, New York.
2667:
2665:
2582:
2580:
2444:Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable
2321:
1683:A History of Christian-Muslim Relations
1680:
1533:
986:. In the same vein, the definition of "
784:, reflecting his negative image in the
709:, where he explicitly used the phrase "
653:early expansion of the Islamic religion
14:
3053:
2751:. University of North Carolina Press.
2699:
2629:
2531:"What's behind Muslim cartoon outrage"
2501:
2355:Kenneth Meyer Setton (July 1, 1992). "
2342:
2279:Kenneth Meyer Setton (July 1, 1992). "
2266:
1570:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
1294:
1026:Depictions of Muhammad in the form of
2338:. typis Collegii urbani. p. 304.
1630:
1034:, the translation of the Mi'raj, the
615:, wrote shortly after the end of the
420:for over a millennium. At this time,
2796:The Islamic Threat: Myth Or Reality?
2662:
2599:
2577:
2239:
1350:, a prose preface to the manuscript
1070:
973:
952:
694:Islamic denial of Jesus' crucifixion
555:
2416:Voragine, Jacobus de (2012-04-22).
2327:
1255:, an area on the northern coast of
1225:Dante's representation of Muhammad
756:
24:
18:Medieval Christian view of Muhammad
3061:Religious perspectives on Muhammad
2706:The Travels of Sir John Mandeville
2623:
2555:. Fordham University Press. 2015.
2463:Volume 1 of 5. New York: Garland.
2222:Source: "The Fountain of Wisdom" (
1001:These depictions such as those in
749:of Spain, such as the 9th-century
731:in the 8th or 9th century and the
25:
3092:
2226:), part II: "Concerning Heresy" (
1764:up to the fourteenth century led
832:, ordered the translation of the
2679:. s3-XII (290): 59. 1867-07-20.
2588:Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman.
2044:. New York. pp. Chapter 30.
1587:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0780
1251:who ruled the Medieval province
741:, proclaimed Muhammad to be the
705:Later, the Latin translation of
536:, and Muhammad was viewed as an
367:
355:
3071:Christianity in the Middle Ages
3033:The New Encyclopædia Britannica
2966:Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman
2942:Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman
2866:Mystische Dimensionen des Islam
2711:
2593:
2543:
2474:
2453:
2436:
2409:
2396:
2370:
2294:
2233:
2216:
2202:
2080:
2062:
2033:
2019:
2005:
1996:
1987:
1967:
1962:Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati
1948:
1515:Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman
1054:. In describing the travels of
2484:The Inferno of Dante Alighieri
2422:. Princeton University Press.
2314:, lines 22-63; translation by
2244:. De Gruyter. pp. 13–26.
1872:. In Classen, Albrecht (ed.).
1502:
1471:
1339:shortly after the fall of the
1312:The depiction of Islam in the
845:Muhammad is characterized as "
582:". Another participant in the
570:, a dialogue between a recent
13:
1:
3019:. Brill Academic Publishers.
2735:Di Cesare, Michelina (2012).
2609:. Vintage Books. p. 68.
2002:Kaegi p. 139–149, p. 139–141,
1423:
1046:, the first book in the vast
763:Latin biographies of Muhammad
2508:Philip Willan (2002-06-24).
1993:Kaegi p. 139–149, p. 139–142
1428:
877:was shown to be a Christian
619:concerning Muhammad and his
469:considered Muhammad to be a
412:In contrast to the views of
7:
2969:. Oxford University Press.
2945:. Oxford University Press.
2799:. Oxford University Press.
2775:. Oxford University Press.
2630:Berend, Nora (2020-01-01).
2529:Ayesha Akram (2006-02-11).
1945:, October 1954, pp. 392–98.
1518:. Oxford University Press.
1487:. Oxford University Press.
1369:
1171:, as well as in artwork by
504:, and the wars against the
443:
267:Hadith of the pen and paper
10:
3097:
2997:Mahomet and his successors
2727:
2636:Journal of Islamic Studies
2487:. iUniverse. p. 191.
2316:Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
2040:Bedrosian, Robert (1985).
1816:Cambridge University Press
1691:Edinburgh University Press
867:Riccoldo da Monte di Croce
857:Medieval lives of Muhammad
839:Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete
760:
692:("Concerning Heresy") the
447:
2985:William Montgomery Watt,
2905:Tieszen, Charles (2021).
2685:10.1093/nq/s3-xii.290.59c
1894:10.1515/9783110321517.427
1631:Quinn, Frederick (2008).
2772:Islam: The Straight Path
2250:10.1515/9783110312546.13
2150:Schadler, Peter (2017).
1860:Hartmann, Heiko (2013).
1742:European Christian world
1484:Islam: The Straight Path
1112:, Muhammad is placed in
1086:'s illustrations of the
631:, but the one born of a
2536:San Francisco Chronicle
2481:Seth Zimmerman (2003).
2102:Robinson, Neal (1991).
1645:Oxford University Press
1116:, the eighth circle of
1044:Estoire del Saint Grail
960:The thirteenth century
947:The Fall of the Princes
804:by Medieval Christians.
716:Encyclopædia Britannica
592:Sophronius of Jerusalem
76:After Conquest of Mecca
3076:Christianity and Islam
2921:. Palgrave, New York.
2844:Islam: An Introduction
2377:Reeves, Minou (2003).
2310:4 October 2018 at the
1833:
1402:Muhammad and the Bible
1382:Christianity and Islam
1360:Germanic hero Dietrich
1337:early Muslim conquests
1309:
1223:
1093:
817:
805:
703:
649:
262:Companions of Muhammad
100:Milestones and records
3015:Encyclopedia of Islam
2359:". Diane Publishing.
2283:". Diane Publishing.
2170:10.1163/9789004356054
1799:Summa contra Gentiles
1750:Christian theologians
1730:
1327:were being tried for
1302:
1212:
1165:San Petronio Basilica
1081:
811:
770:
761:Further information:
698:
682:that lived under the
663:. In the 8th century
625:
485:. Some of them, like
162:Splitting of the Moon
2868:. Insel, Frankfurt.
2118:. pp. 106–140.
1888:. pp. 427–442.
1734:St. John of Damascus
1581:. pp. 360–376.
1341:Western Roman Empire
1279:4, and specifically
1102:, the first part of
996:Summa de Poenitentia
992:Raymond of Penyafort
970:monk named Sergius.
909:Leggenda di Maometto
820:In the 11th century
676:Christian theologian
617:first Arab civil war
374:Biography portal
2961:Watt, W. Montgomery
2937:Watt, W. Montgomery
2862:Schimmel, Annemarie
2840:Schimmel, Annemarie
2648:10.1093/jis/etaa040
2164:. pp. 97–140.
1778:Peter the Venerable
1510:Watt, W. Montgomery
1362:and builds "Bern" (
1306:Nuremberg Chronicle
1295:Later presentations
1056:Joseph of Arimathea
895:number of the beast
826:Peter the Venerable
792:'s illustration of
751:Eulogius of Córdoba
318:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi
83:Farewell Pilgrimage
3066:Criticism of Islam
2999:. New York: Putnam
2586:Watt, Montgomery,
1794:St. Thomas Aquinas
1766:Christian Orthodox
1693:. pp. 34–49.
1647:. pp. 17–54.
1530:New Edition, p.231
1356:Diebolt von Hanowe
1310:
1263:in the heavens of
1094:
1004:The Song of Roland
915:by fleeing to the
818:
806:
780:casts Muhammad in
728:Storia de Mahometh
722:Epistolae Saraceni
467:Christian thinkers
220:Medieval Christian
3042:978-1-59339-236-9
2828:978-0-8147-7564-6
2677:Notes and Queries
2616:978-0-394-74067-6
2562:978-0-8232-6386-8
2388:978-0-8147-7564-6
2259:978-3-11-031238-6
2179:978-90-04-34965-0
2125:978-0-7914-0558-1
1938:Patrologia Graeca
1700:978-1-56663-340-6
1596:978-90-04-16121-4
1561:van Donzel, E. J.
1366:) in three days.
1048:Matter of Britain
974:Medieval romances
929:chansons de geste
917:Arabian Peninsula
851:Niketas Choniates
739:Álvaro of Córdoba
684:Umayyad Caliphate
572:Christian convert
567:Teaching of Jacob
556:Early Middle Ages
414:Muhammad in Islam
410:
409:
16:(Redirected from
3088:
3046:
3028:
2980:
2956:
2932:
2910:
2901:
2879:
2857:
2832:
2810:
2786:
2762:
2740:
2721:
2715:
2709:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2669:
2660:
2659:
2627:
2621:
2620:
2597:
2591:
2584:
2575:
2574:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2478:
2472:
2457:
2451:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2413:
2407:
2400:
2394:
2392:
2374:
2368:
2353:
2340:
2339:
2325:
2319:
2298:
2292:
2277:
2264:
2263:
2237:
2231:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2162:Brill Publishers
2147:
2138:
2137:
2112:Albany, New York
2099:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2053:
2045:
2037:
2031:
2023:
2017:
2015:Genesis 16:10–12
2009:
2003:
2000:
1994:
1991:
1985:
1971:
1965:
1952:
1946:
1943:The Moslem World
1925:John of Damascus
1922:
1916:
1915:
1857:
1834:
1831:
1808:Michael Curtis,
1784:translated into
1772:theologians and
1728:
1705:
1704:
1678:
1659:
1658:
1628:
1601:
1600:
1579:Brill Publishers
1565:Heinrichs, W. P.
1544:
1531:
1529:
1506:
1500:
1498:
1475:
1469:
1462:
1348:Heldenbuch-Prosa
1303:Muhammad in the
1058:, keeper of the
1036:Escala de Mahoma
1028:picaresque novel
1011:", ranging from
933:William Langland
913:Christian Church
853:(12th-13th c.).
814:Lucas van Leyden
757:High Middle Ages
665:John of Damascus
604:, a 7th-century
540:inspired by the
510:Late Middle Ages
502:High Middle Ages
430:Christian heresy
402:
395:
388:
372:
371:
370:
362:Islam portal
360:
359:
358:
342:History of Islam
147:First revelation
30:
29:
21:
3096:
3095:
3091:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3086:
3085:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3043:
3031:
3002:
2977:
2953:
2929:
2898:
2876:
2854:
2829:
2807:
2783:
2759:
2730:
2725:
2724:
2716:
2712:
2704:
2700:
2671:
2670:
2663:
2628:
2624:
2617:
2598:
2594:
2585:
2578:
2563:
2552:Dante and Islam
2549:
2548:
2544:
2527:
2523:
2506:
2502:
2495:
2479:
2475:
2458:
2454:
2441:
2437:
2430:
2414:
2410:
2401:
2397:
2389:
2375:
2371:
2354:
2343:
2326:
2322:
2312:Wayback Machine
2299:
2295:
2278:
2267:
2260:
2238:
2234:
2221:
2217:
2208:
2207:
2203:
2180:
2148:
2141:
2126:
2100:
2093:
2085:
2081:
2067:
2063:
2047:
2046:
2042:Sebeos' History
2038:
2034:
2024:
2020:
2010:
2006:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1980:forms (such as
1972:
1968:
1953:
1949:
1923:
1919:
1904:
1858:
1837:
1832:
1814:(2009), p. 31,
1807:
1729:
1708:
1701:
1679:
1662:
1655:
1629:
1604:
1597:
1573:. Vol. 7.
1557:Bosworth, C. E.
1545:
1534:
1526:
1507:
1503:
1495:
1476:
1472:
1463:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1372:
1325:Knights Templar
1316:John Mandeville
1314:Travels of Sir
1297:
1198:Cultural critic
1104:Dante Alighieri
1076:
976:
958:
859:
822:Petrus Alphonsi
786:Christian world
765:
759:
621:Farewell Sermon
558:
456:
448:Main articles:
446:
424:largely viewed
406:
368:
366:
356:
354:
347:
346:
313:
305:
304:
285:
277:
276:
247:
237:
236:
198:
190:
189:
175:
167:
166:
155:Isra and Mi'raj
138:
128:
127:
113:
105:
104:
87:Farewell Sermon
54:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3094:
3084:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3048:
3047:
3041:
3029:
3008:
3001:
3000:
2990:
2982:
2975:
2957:
2951:
2933:
2928:978-1403965240
2927:
2915:Uebel, Michael
2911:
2902:
2897:978-0231123334
2896:
2880:
2874:
2858:
2852:
2846:. SUNY Press.
2836:
2833:
2827:
2811:
2805:
2791:Esposito, John
2787:
2781:
2767:Esposito, John
2763:
2757:
2741:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2710:
2698:
2661:
2642:(1): 111–112.
2622:
2615:
2592:
2576:
2561:
2542:
2521:
2500:
2493:
2473:
2452:
2435:
2429:978-0691154077
2428:
2408:
2395:
2387:
2369:
2341:
2320:
2293:
2265:
2258:
2232:
2215:
2201:
2178:
2139:
2124:
2091:
2079:
2061:
2032:
2018:
2004:
1995:
1986:
1976:, among other
1966:
1957:Church History
1947:
1917:
1902:
1835:
1828:978-0521767255
1805:
1706:
1699:
1660:
1654:978-0195325638
1653:
1602:
1595:
1549:Bearman, P. J.
1532:
1524:
1501:
1493:
1479:Esposito, John
1470:
1466:eb.com article
1433:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1387:Jesus in Islam
1384:
1379:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1296:
1293:
1245:Hafsid dynasty
1241:ninth Crusades
1192:Karla Mallette
1152:Divine Comedy:
1148:
1147:
1140:
1137:
1075:
1069:
1052:Lancelot-Grail
1032:Roman de Mahom
975:
972:
957:
951:
890:Kenneth Setton
858:
855:
847:pseudo-prophet
758:
755:
645:Mosaic history
557:
554:
506:Ottoman Empire
487:Thomas Aquinas
445:
442:
408:
407:
405:
404:
397:
390:
382:
379:
378:
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376:
364:
349:
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139:
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133:
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110:
107:
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91:
90:
79:
78:
72:
71:
66:
61:
55:
50:
49:
46:
45:
39:
38:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3093:
3082:
3081:Point of view
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3044:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3016:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3006:
3005:Encyclopedias
2998:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2976:0-19-881078-4
2972:
2968:
2967:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2952:0-19-881078-4
2948:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2909:. Bloomsbury.
2908:
2903:
2899:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2875:3-458-33415-7
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2853:0-7914-1327-6
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2830:
2824:
2821:. NYU Press.
2820:
2816:
2815:Reeves, Minou
2812:
2808:
2806:0-19-513076-6
2802:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2782:0-19-511233-4
2778:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2758:0-8078-5577-4
2754:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2739:. De Gruyter.
2738:
2733:
2732:
2719:
2714:
2708:, CHAPTER XV.
2707:
2702:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2668:
2666:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2618:
2612:
2608:
2607:
2602:
2596:
2589:
2583:
2581:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2558:
2554:
2553:
2546:
2538:
2537:
2532:
2525:
2517:
2516:
2511:
2504:
2496:
2494:0-595-28090-0
2490:
2486:
2485:
2477:
2470:
2469:0-8240-7733-4
2466:
2462:
2456:
2450:
2446:
2445:
2439:
2431:
2425:
2421:
2420:
2412:
2405:
2399:
2390:
2384:
2381:. NYU Press.
2380:
2373:
2366:
2365:0-87169-201-5
2362:
2358:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2337:
2336:
2330:
2324:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2297:
2290:
2289:0-87169-201-5
2286:
2282:
2276:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2261:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2229:
2228:peri aipeseon
2225:
2219:
2211:
2205:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2154:
2146:
2144:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2098:
2096:
2088:
2083:
2077:
2073:
2070:
2065:
2057:
2051:
2043:
2036:
2030:
2029:Genesis 17:20
2027:
2022:
2016:
2013:
2008:
1999:
1990:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1963:
1959:
1958:
1951:
1944:
1940:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1929:De Haeresibus
1926:
1921:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1903:9783110328783
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1869:
1865:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1746:Islamic world
1743:
1739:
1738:false prophet
1735:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1702:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1677:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1656:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1627:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1598:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1553:Bianquis, Th.
1550:
1543:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1527:
1525:0-19-881078-4
1521:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1505:
1496:
1494:0-19-511233-4
1490:
1486:
1485:
1480:
1474:
1467:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1434:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1367:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1308:
1307:
1301:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1277:
1272:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1249:Sunni Muslims
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1229:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1211:
1209:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1193:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1181:William Blake
1178:
1177:Auguste Rodin
1174:
1173:Salvador Dalí
1170:
1166:
1162:
1161:
1160:Last Judgment
1157:
1153:
1145:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1110:
1109:Divine Comedy
1105:
1101:
1100:
1091:
1090:
1089:Divine Comedy
1085:
1080:
1074:
1073:Divine Comedy
1068:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1022:
1018:
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1010:
1006:
1005:
999:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
971:
969:
965:
964:
963:Golden Legend
956:
955:Golden Legend
950:
948:
944:
940:
939:
938:Piers Plowman
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
904:
900:
896:
891:
886:
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868:
864:
863:Peter Pascual
854:
852:
848:
843:
841:
840:
835:
831:
827:
823:
815:
810:
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799:
795:
791:
790:William Blake
787:
783:
779:
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773:
769:
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752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
735:
730:
729:
724:
723:
718:
717:
712:
711:false prophet
708:
707:De Haeresibus
702:
697:
695:
691:
690:
689:De Haeresibus
685:
681:
677:
673:
670:
666:
662:
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569:
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547:
546:modern period
543:
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451:
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438:false prophet
435:
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40:
36:
32:
31:
19:
3032:
3013:
3004:
3003:
2986:
2981:New Edition.
2965:
2941:
2918:
2906:
2887:
2865:
2843:
2818:
2795:
2771:
2748:
2736:
2717:
2713:
2701:
2676:
2639:
2635:
2625:
2605:
2601:Said, Edward
2595:
2587:
2551:
2545:
2534:
2524:
2515:The Guardian
2513:
2503:
2483:
2476:
2460:
2455:
2442:
2438:
2418:
2411:
2403:
2398:
2378:
2372:
2333:
2323:
2305:Canto XXVIII
2300:
2296:
2241:
2235:
2227:
2224:pege gnoseos
2223:
2218:
2204:
2152:
2107:
2086:
2082:
2071:
2069:Henry Stubbe
2064:
2041:
2035:
2025:
2021:
2011:
2007:
1998:
1989:
1973:
1969:
1961:
1955:
1950:
1942:
1936:
1928:
1920:
1873:
1867:
1863:
1809:
1797:
1780:who had the
1731:
1682:
1636:
1568:
1514:
1504:
1483:
1473:
1345:
1322:
1313:
1311:
1304:
1275:
1269:
1227:
1224:
1216:
1213:
1205:
1196:
1189:
1185:Gustave Doré
1158:
1151:
1149:
1129:
1121:
1107:
1097:
1095:
1087:
1084:Gustave Doré
1072:
1043:
1040:
1035:
1031:
1025:
1002:
1000:
995:
983:
977:
961:
959:
954:
946:
943:John Lydgate
936:
908:
907:
887:
860:
846:
844:
837:
836:into Latin (
819:
793:
775:
734:Tultusceptru
732:
726:
720:
714:
706:
704:
699:
687:
661:North Africa
650:
633:serving maid
626:
600:
583:
574:and several
565:
559:
528:amongst the
495:
457:
411:
257:Ghadir Khumm
219:
197:Perspectives
2884:Tolan, John
2745:Ernst, Carl
2606:Orientalism
2571:j.ctt9qds84
2329:Mai, Angelo
1407:Orientalism
1261:Cacciaguida
1207:Orientalism
1202:Edward Said
1200:and author
871:Ramon Llull
657:Middle East
550:Orientalism
508:during the
422:Christendom
418:Middle Ages
325:Possessions
272:Ahl al-Bayt
227:Historicity
3055:Categories
2993:Irving, W.
2335:fragmentum
2188:2017044207
2116:SUNY Press
1978:anglicized
1886:De Gruyter
1790:conversion
1424:References
1397:Mohammedan
1352:Heldenbuch
1126:heresiarch
1060:Holy Grail
984:paynim foe
743:Antichrist
629:free woman
522:Antichrist
520:or as the
475:Antichrist
245:Succession
185:Christians
123:Diplomatic
3025:1573-3912
2693:1471-6941
2656:0955-2340
2449:Termagant
2291:. pg 4-15
2196:165610770
2134:169122179
2050:cite book
2026:KJV Bible
2012:KJV Bible
1912:1864-3396
1868:Willehalm
1770:Byzantine
1762:Andalusia
1687:Edinburgh
1429:Citations
1417:Termagant
1323:When the
1204:wrote in
1114:Malebolge
1021:Termagant
968:Nestorian
680:apologist
613:historian
562:Byzantine
514:polemical
496:With the
491:afterlife
479:possessed
471:perverted
464:Byzantine
232:Criticism
2995:(1868).
2963:(1974).
2939:(1961).
2917:(2005).
2886:(2002).
2864:(1995).
2842:(1992).
2817:(2003).
2793:(1999).
2769:(1998).
2747:(2004).
2603:(1979).
2367:. pg 1–5
2331:(1840).
2308:Archived
1864:Parzival
1820:New York
1806:—
1758:Damascus
1744:and the
1641:New York
1567:(eds.).
1512:(1974).
1481:(1998).
1377:Baphomet
1370:See also
1333:Baphomet
1285:Avicenna
1281:Averroes
1270:Paradiso
1253:Ifriqiya
1013:Apollyon
980:infidels
788:. Here,
747:Mozarabs
641:Muhammad
606:Armenian
584:Doctrina
580:Saracens
538:idolater
534:Paganism
498:Crusades
458:Various
444:Overview
434:Muhammad
136:Miracles
118:Military
43:Muhammad
35:a series
33:Part of
2728:Sources
2718:Mahomet
2318:(1867).
2301:Inferno
1982:Mahound
1974:Mahomet
1754:Baghdad
1412:Saracen
1392:Mahound
1346:In the
1289:Saladin
1276:Inferno
1233:Muslims
1228:Inferno
1218:Inferno
1169:Bologna
1130:Inferno
1099:Inferno
1064:prophet
1017:Lucifer
988:Saracen
899:Mahound
794:Inferno
777:Inferno
655:in the
637:Ishmael
588:chariot
500:of the
460:Western
312:Related
290:Salawat
252:Saqifah
213:Judaism
3039:
3023:
3017:Online
2973:
2949:
2925:
2894:
2872:
2850:
2825:
2803:
2779:
2755:
2691:
2654:
2613:
2569:
2559:
2491:
2467:
2426:
2385:
2363:
2287:
2256:
2194:
2186:
2176:
2158:Leiden
2132:
2122:
1931:. See
1910:
1900:
1882:Boston
1878:Berlin
1826:
1774:rulers
1748:. For
1697:
1651:
1593:
1575:Leiden
1522:
1491:
1364:Verona
1329:heresy
1287:, and
1257:Africa
1247:, the
1237:eighth
1183:, and
1156:fresco
1122:bolgia
1092:(1861)
1050:, the
941:, and
879:heresy
869:, and
802:heresy
678:, and
669:Syrian
639:named
609:bishop
602:Sebeos
530:damned
483:demons
452:, and
330:Relics
300:Mawlid
284:Praise
112:Career
95:Hadith
69:Medina
64:Hijrah
2567:JSTOR
2393:, p.3
2192:S2CID
2130:S2CID
1964:86–87
1933:Migne
1786:Latin
1782:Koran
1132:28):
1009:idols
990:" in
925:Venus
921:Bible
903:Arian
883:Jesus
875:Islam
834:Quran
830:Arius
798:demon
772:Dante
542:Devil
518:Satan
436:as a
428:as a
426:Islam
208:Bible
203:Islam
174:Views
143:Quran
59:Mecca
3037:ISBN
3021:ISSN
2971:ISBN
2947:ISBN
2923:ISBN
2892:ISBN
2870:ISBN
2848:ISBN
2823:ISBN
2801:ISBN
2777:ISBN
2753:ISBN
2689:ISSN
2652:ISSN
2611:ISBN
2557:ISBN
2489:ISBN
2465:ISBN
2424:ISBN
2383:ISBN
2361:ISBN
2285:ISBN
2254:ISBN
2184:LCCN
2174:ISBN
2120:ISBN
2056:link
1908:ISSN
1898:ISBN
1880:and
1866:and
1824:ISBN
1768:and
1756:and
1695:ISBN
1649:ISBN
1591:ISBN
1520:ISBN
1499:p.14
1489:ISBN
1265:Mars
1239:and
1118:hell
1071:The
953:The
782:Hell
672:monk
667:, a
659:and
611:and
596:sins
576:Jews
526:Hell
462:and
432:and
335:Seal
295:Naat
180:Jews
52:Life
2681:doi
2644:doi
2447:, "
2246:doi
2166:doi
2076:211
2074:Pg
1890:doi
1796:in
1583:doi
1354:of
1267:in
1167:in
1144:Ali
1106:'s
1096:In
1023:".
1015:to
994:'s
945:'s
935:'s
774:'s
552:).
481:by
440:.
3057::
2687:.
2675:.
2664:^
2650:.
2640:33
2638:.
2634:.
2579:^
2565:.
2533:.
2512:.
2344:^
2303:,
2268:^
2252:.
2190:.
2182:.
2172:.
2160::
2142:^
2128:.
2114::
2110:.
2106:.
2094:^
2052:}}
2048:{{
1935:,
1927:,
1906:.
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1884::
1838:^
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1709:^
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1643::
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1559:;
1555:;
1551:;
1535:^
1437:^
1291:.
1283:,
1187:.
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2230:)
2212:.
2198:.
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2058:)
1914:.
1892::
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1830:.
1703:.
1657:.
1599:.
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1528:.
1497:.
1468:.
1128:(
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145:(
89:)
85:(
20:)
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