1033:. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the wealthy increasingly sought to escape this regime of stern collectivism. When possible, rich hosts retired with their consorts to private chambers where the meal could be enjoyed in greater exclusivity and privacy. Being invited to a lord's chambers was a great privilege and could be used as a way to reward friends and allies and to awe subordinates. It allowed lords to distance themselves further from the household and to enjoy more luxurious treats while serving inferior food to the rest of the household that still dined in the great hall. At major occasions and banquets, however, the host and hostess generally dined in the great hall with the other diners. Although there are descriptions of dining etiquette on special occasions, less is known about the details of day-to-day meals of the elite or about the
2741:, and reached England by the 15th century. Hopped beer became very popular in the last decades of the Late Middle Ages. In England and the Low Countries, the per capita annual consumption was around 275 to 300 litres (60 to 66 imp gal; 73 to 79 US gal), and it was consumed with practically every meal: low alcohol-content beers for breakfast, and stronger ones later in the day. When perfected as an ingredient, hops could make beer keep for six months or more, and facilitated extensive exports. In Late Medieval England, the word beer came to mean a hopped beverage, whereas ale had to be unhopped. In turn, ale or beer was classified as "strong" or "small", the latter less intoxicating, regarded as a drink of temperate people, and suitable for consumption by children. As late as 1693,
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543:. One was expected to remain in one's social class and to respect the authority of the ruling classes. Political power was displayed not just by rule, but also by displaying wealth. Refined nobles dined on fresh game seasoned with exotic spices, and displayed refined table manners. Rough laborers could make do with coarse barley bread, salt pork and beans and were not expected to display etiquette. Even dietary recommendations were different: the diet of the upper classes was considered to be as much a requirement of their refined physical constitution as a sign of economic reality. The digestive system of a lord was considered to be more refined than that of lower-class subordinates and therefore required finer foods.
1936:
3015:(the juice of unripe grapes or fruits) vinegar and the juices of various fruits, especially those with tart flavors, were almost universal and a hallmark of late medieval cooking. In combination with sweeteners and spices, it produced a distinctive "pungeant, fruity" flavor. Equally common, and used to complement the tanginess of these ingredients, were (sweet) almonds. They were used in a variety of ways: whole, shelled or unshelled, slivered, ground and, most importantly, processed into almond milk. This last type of non-dairy milk product is probably the single most common ingredient in late medieval cooking and blended the aroma of spices and sour liquids with a mild taste and creamy texture.
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the often unfamiliar combination of flavors, the perceived lack of vegetables and a liberal use of spices. The heavy use of spices has been popular as an argument to support the claim that spices were employed to disguise the flavor of spoiled meat, a conclusion without support in historical fact and contemporary sources. Fresh meat could be procured throughout the year by those who could afford it. The preservation techniques available at the time, although crude by today's standards, were perfectly adequate. The astronomical cost and high prestige of spices, and thereby the reputation of the host, would have been effectively undone if wasted on cheap and poorly handled foods.
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prayers or how long it took to walk around a certain field. Professional cooks were taught their trade through apprenticeship and practical training, working their way up in the highly defined kitchen hierarchy. A medieval cook employed in a large household would most likely have been able to plan and produce a meal without the help of recipes or written instruction. Due to the generally good condition of surviving manuscripts it has been proposed by food historian
Terence Scully that they were records of household practices intended for the wealthy and literate master of a household, such as
1989:, made from by-products of the production of harder cheeses. Cheese was used in cooking for pies and soups, the latter being common fare in German-speaking areas. Butter, another important dairy product, was in popular use in the regions of Northern Europe that specialized in cattle production in the latter half of the Middle Ages, the Low Countries and Southern Scandinavia. While most other regions used oil or lard as cooking fats, butter was the dominant cooking medium in these areas. Its production also allowed for a lucrative butter export from the 12th century onward.
282:. Porridge, gruel, and later bread became the basic staple foods that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population. From the 8th to the 11th centuries, the proportion of various cereals in the diet rose from about a third to three-quarters. Dependence on wheat remained significant throughout the medieval era, and spread northward with the rise of Christianity. In colder climates, however, it was usually unaffordable for the majority population, and was associated with the higher classes. The centrality of bread in religious rituals such as the
1407:
325:
2178:
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1595:'s sermons from the early 13th century describe sellers of cooked meat as an outright health hazard. While the necessity of the cook's services was occasionally recognized and appreciated, they were often disparaged since they catered to the baser of bodily human needs rather than spiritual betterment. The stereotypical cook in art and literature was male, hot-tempered, prone to drunkenness, and often depicted guarding his stewpot from being pilfered by both humans and animals. In the early 15th century, the English monk
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physical labor, as well as sailors and soldiers, may have consumed 3,500 calories (15,000 kJ) or more per day. Intakes of aristocrats may have reached 4,000 to 5,000 calories (17,000 to 21,000 kJ) per day. Monks consumed 6,000 calories (25,000 kJ) per day on "normal" days, and 4,500 calories (19,000 kJ) per day when fasting. As a consequence of these excesses, obesity was common among upper classes. Monks, especially, frequently suffered from conditions that were more common among the obese, such as
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2702:, had been used. Gruit had the same preserving properties as hops, though less reliable depending on what herbs were in it; as such, the end result was much more variable. Another flavoring method was to increase the alcohol content, but this was more expensive and lent the beer the undesired characteristic of being a quick and heavy intoxicant. Hops may have been widely used in England in the tenth century; they were grown in Austria by 1208 and in Finland by 1249, and possibly much earlier.
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those invited to the abbot's table from the reckoning. Overall, a monk at
Westminster Abbey in the late 15th century would have been allowed 2.25 pounds (1.02 kg) of bread per day; 5 eggs per day, except on Fridays and in Lent; 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of meat per day, four days per week (excluding Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday), except in Advent and Lent; and 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of fish per day, three days per week and every day during Advent and Lent.
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distinction was applied to red and white vinegar. Milk was moderately warm and moist, but the milk of different animals was often believed to differ. Egg yolks were considered to be warm and moist while the whites were cold and moist. Skilled cooks were expected to conform to the regimen of humoral medicine. Even if this limited the combinations of food they could prepare, there was still ample room for artistic variation by the chef.
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main ingredient. The lack of recipes for many basic vegetable dishes, such as potages, has been interpreted not to mean that they were absent from the meals of the nobility, but rather that they were considered so basic that they did not require recording. Carrots were available in many variants during the Middle Ages: among them a tastier reddish-purple variety and a less prestigious green-yellow type. Various legumes, like
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population could support a wide variety of food establishments that catered to various social groups. Many of the poor city dwellers had to live in cramped conditions without access to a kitchen or even a hearth, and many did not own the equipment for basic cooking. Food from vendors was in such cases the only option. Cookshops could either sell ready-made hot food, an early form of
430:. The choice of ingredients may have been limited, but that did not mean that meals were smaller. Neither were there any restrictions against (moderate) drinking or eating sweets. Banquets held on fish days could be splendid, and were popular occasions for serving illusion food that imitated meat, cheese, and eggs in various ingenious ways; fish could be moulded to look like
2729:, breweries in the fledgling medieval towns of northern Germany began to take over production. Though most of the breweries were small family businesses that employed at most eight to ten people, regular production allowed for investment in better equipment and increased experimentation with new recipes and brewing techniques. These operations later spread to the
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products like milk and eggs. It was only after the Black Death had eradicated up to half of the
European population that meat became more common even for poorer people. The drastic reduction in many populated areas resulted in a labor shortage, meaning that wages dramatically increased. It also left vast areas of farmland untended, making it available for
2207:. Also included were the beaver, due to its scaly tail and considerable time spent in water, and barnacle geese, due to the belief that they developed underwater in the form of barnacles. Such foods were also considered appropriate for fast days, though the rather contrived classification of barnacle geese as fish was not universally accepted. The
2947:. Sugar, unlike today, was considered to be a type of spice due to its high cost and humoral qualities. Few dishes employed just one type of spice or herb, but rather a combination of several different ones. Even when a dish was dominated by a single flavor it was usually combined with another to produce a compound taste, for example parsley and
2253:. While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked. Stockfish, cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole and dried, was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range of
2483:, the type of grape and more importantly, the number of grape pressings. The first pressing was made into the finest and most expensive wines which were reserved for the upper classes. The second and third pressings were subsequently of lower quality and alcohol content. Common folk usually had to settle for a cheap
383:'s sacrifice for humanity. The intention was not to portray certain foods as unclean, but rather to teach a spiritual lesson in self-restraint through abstention. During particularly severe fast days, the number of daily meals was also reduced to one. Even if most people respected these restrictions and usually made
1450:. While an average peasant household often made do with firewood collected from the surrounding woodlands, the major kitchens of households had to cope with the logistics of daily providing at least two meals for several hundred people. Guidelines on how to prepare for a two-day banquet can be found in the cookbook
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boundaries. Geographical variation in eating was primarily the result of differences in climate, political administration, and local customs that varied across the continent. Though sweeping generalizations should be avoided, more or less distinct areas where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned. In the
3065:, from its first appearance in Europe, was viewed as much as a drug as a sweetener; its long-lived medieval reputation as an exotic luxury encouraged its appearance in elite contexts accompanying meats and other dishes that to modern taste are more naturally savoury. There were a wide variety of fritters,
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products in water to get rid of excess salt. Salt was present during more elaborate or expensive meals. The richer the host, and the more prestigious the guest, the more elaborate would be the container in which it was served and the higher the quality and price of the salt. Wealthy guests were seated "
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it, innovations from international trade and foreign wars from the 12th century onward gradually disseminated through the upper middle class of medieval cities. Aside from economic unavailability of luxuries such as spices, decrees outlawed consumption of certain foods among certain social classes and
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of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into
Western Europe each year during the late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. While pepper was the most common spice, the most exclusive (though not
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The aging of high-quality red wine required specialized knowledge as well as expensive storage and equipment, and resulted in an even more expensive end product. Judging from the advice given in many medieval documents on how to salvage wine that bore signs of going bad, preservation must have been a
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to avoid having to carry their provisions with them. For the more affluent, there were many types of specialist that could supply various foods and condiments: cheesemongers, pie bakers, saucers, and waferers, for example. Well-off citizens who had the means to cook at home could on special occasions
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Before hops became popular as an ingredient, it was difficult to preserve this beverage for any time, so it was mostly consumed fresh. It was unfiltered, and therefore cloudy, and likely had a lower alcohol content than the typical modern equivalent. Quantities of beer consumed by medieval residents
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was not only popular among the affluent, but was also considered especially healthy by physicians. Wine was believed to act as a kind of vaporizer and conduit of other foodstuffs to every part of the body, and the addition of fragrant and exotic spices would make it even more wholesome. Spiced wines
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Meats were more expensive than plant foods and could be up to four times as expensive as bread. Fish was up to 16 times as costly, and was expensive even for coastal populations. This meant that fasts could mean an especially meager diet for those who could not afford alternatives to meat and animal
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or milk that was soured or watered down. Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling. On occasion it was used in upper-class kitchens in stews, but it was difficult to keep fresh in bulk and almond milk was generally used in
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was an important source of animal protein for those who could not afford meat. It would mostly come from cows, but milk from goats and sheep was also common. Plain fresh milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, and was usually reserved for the very young or elderly. Poor adults would
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in the Late Middle Ages developed significantly. New techniques, like the shortcrust pie and the clarification of jelly with egg whites began to appear in recipes in the late 14th century and recipes began to include detailed instructions instead of being mere memory aids to an already skilled cook.
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and, by the 15th century, it provided about 20% of the total. Even among the lay nobility of medieval
England, grain provided 65–70% of calories in the early 14th century, though a generous provision of meat and fish was included, and their consumption of meat increased in the aftermath of the Black
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The most ideal food was that which most closely matched the humour of human beings, i.e. moderately warm and moist. Food should preferably also be finely chopped, ground, pounded and strained to achieve a true mixture of all the ingredients. White wine was believed to be cooler than red and the same
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In the late Middle Ages, the increasing wealth of middle class merchants and traders meant that commoners began emulating the aristocracy. This threatened to break down some of the symbolic barriers between the nobility and the lower classes. The response came in two forms: literature warning of the
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The recipes were often brief and did not give precise quantities. Cooking times and temperatures were seldom specified since accurate portable clocks were not available and since all cooking was done with fire. At best, cooking times could be specified as the time it took to say a certain number of
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was, until around 1980, a somewhat neglected field of study. Misconceptions and outright errors were quite common among historians, and are still present in as a part of the popular view of the Middle Ages as a backward, primitive and barbaric era. Medieval cookery was described as revolting due to
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was ubiquitous and indispensable in medieval cooking. Salting and drying was the most common form of food preservation and meant that fish and meat in particular were often heavily salted. Many medieval recipes specifically warn against oversalting and there were recommendations for soaking certain
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By modern standards, the brewing process was relatively inefficient, but capable of producing quite strong alcohol when that was desired. A 1998 attempt to recreate medieval
English "strong ale" using recipes and techniques of the era (albeit with the use of modern yeast strains) yielded a strongly
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The intoxicating effect of beer was believed to last longer than that of wine, but it was also admitted that it did not create the "false thirst" associated with wine. Though less prominent than in the north, beer was consumed in northern France and the
Italian mainland. Perhaps as a consequence of
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While wine was the most common table beverage in much of Europe, this was not the case in the northern regions where grapes were not cultivated. Those who could afford it drank imported wine; even for nobility in these areas, however, it was common to drink beer or ale, particularly towards the end
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cloth, since many medieval recipes called for food to be finely chopped, mashed, strained and seasoned either before or after cooking. This was based on a belief among physicians that the finer the consistency of food, the more effectively the body would absorb the nourishment. It also gave skilled
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The overall calorie intake is subject to some debate. One typical estimate is that an adult peasant male needed 2,900 calories (12,000 kJ) per day, and an adult female needed 2,150 calories (9,000 kJ). Both lower and higher estimates have been proposed. Those engaged in particularly heavy
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imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of beer; and uncertain quantities of bread and ale could have been consumed in between meals. The diet of the lord of the household differed somewhat from this structure, including less red meat, more high-quality wild game, fresh fish, fruit, and
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Medical science of the Middle Ages had a considerable influence on what was considered healthy and nutritious among the upper classes. One's lifestyle—including diet, exercise, appropriate social behavior, and approved medical remedies—was the way to good health, and all types of food were assigned
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has been edited by
Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat. Though it is assumed that they describe real dishes, food scholars do not believe they were used as cookbooks might be today, as a step-by-step guide through the cooking procedure that could be kept at hand while preparing a dish. Few in a kitchen, at
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by adding the cost of everything from firewood and salt to the baker's wife, house, and dog. Since bread was such a central part of the medieval diet, swindling by those who were trusted with supplying the precious commodity to the community was considered a serious offense. Bakers who were caught
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also made it keep longer. Most of these methods had the advantage of shorter preparation times and of introducing new flavors. Smoking or salting meat of livestock butchered in autumn was a common household strategy to avoid having to feed more animals than necessary during the lean winter months.
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were offered to guests so they could wash their hands, as cleanliness was emphasized. Social codes made it difficult for women to uphold the ideal of immaculate neatness and delicacy while enjoying a meal, so the wife of the host often dined in private with her entourage or ate very little at such
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meant that it enjoyed an especially high prestige among foodstuffs. Only olive oil and wine had a comparable value, but both remained quite exclusive outside the warmer grape- and olive-growing regions. The symbolic role of bread as both sustenance and substance is illustrated in a sermon given by
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of many foods very expensive (perishability made other foods untransportable). Because of this, the nobility's food was more prone to foreign influence than the cuisine of the poor; it was dependent on exotic spices and expensive imports. As each level of society attempted to imitate the one above
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is often drunk with a meal in modern times, in the Middle Ages concerns over purity, medical recommendations, and its low prestige value made it less favored. As such, alcoholic beverages were preferred. They were seen as more nutritious and beneficial to digestion than water, with the invaluable
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were common foodstuffs. Many of these were eaten daily by peasants and workers and were less prestigious than meat. Cookbooks, which appeared in the late Middle Ages and were intended mostly for those who could afford such luxuries, contained only a small number of recipes using vegetables as the
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did not apply, and where a large number of monks ate. Each monk would be regularly sent either to the misericord or to the refectory. When Pope
Benedict XII ruled that at least half of all monks should be required to eat in the refectory on any given day, monks responded by excluding the sick and
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The trend from the 13th century onward was toward a more legalistic interpretation of fasting. Nobles were careful not to eat meat on fast days, but still dined in style; fish replaced meat, often as imitation hams and bacon; almond milk replaced animal milk as an expensive non-dairy alternative;
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The common method of grinding and mashing ingredients into pastes and the many potages and sauces has been used as an argument that most adults within the medieval nobility lost their teeth at an early age, and hence were forced to eat nothing but porridge, soup and ground-up meat. This has been
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Fruits were popular and could be served fresh, dried, or preserved, and was a common ingredient in many cooked dishes. Since honey and sugar were both expensive, it was common to include many types of fruit in dishes that called for sweeteners of some sort. The fruits of choice in the south were
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though meat was highly valued by all, lower classes often could not afford it, nor were they allowed by the church to consume it every day. In
England in the 13th century, meat contributed a negligible portion of calories to a typical harvest worker's diet; however, its share increased after the
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The calorie content and structure of medieval diet varied over time, from region to region, and between classes. However, for most people, the diet tended to be high-carbohydrate, with most of the budget spent on, and the majority of calories provided by, cereals and alcohol (such as beer). Even
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be filled in an appropriate manner. Easily digestible foods would be consumed first, followed by gradually heavier dishes. If this regimen were not respected it was believed that heavy foods would sink to the bottom of the stomach, thus blocking the digestion duct, so that food would digest very
1615:
The period between 500 and 1300 saw a major change in diet that affected most of Europe. More intense agriculture on ever-increasing acreage resulted in a shift from animal products, like meat and dairy, to various grains and vegetables as the staple of the majority population. Before the 14th
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where the lower ranked were expected to help the higher, the younger to assist the elder, and men to spare women the risk of sullying dress and reputation by having to handle food in an unwomanly fashion. Shared drinking cups were common even at lavish banquets for all but those who sat at the
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church officials took a hard-line approach, and discouraged any culinary refinement for the clergy, their Western counterparts were far more lenient. There was also no lack of grumbling about the rigours of fasting among the laity. During Lent, kings and schoolboys, commoners and nobility, all
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lived in rural communities or isolated farms and households. The norm was self-sufficiency with only a small percentage of production being exported or sold in markets. Large towns were exceptions and required their surrounding hinterlands to support them with food and fuel. The dense urban
793:
The regional specialties that are a feature of early modern and contemporary cuisine were not in evidence in the sparser documentation that survives. Instead, medieval cuisine can be differentiated by the cereals and the oils that shaped dietary norms and crossed ethnic and, later, national
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The importance of bread as a daily staple meant that bakers played a crucial role in any medieval community. Bread consumption was high in most of Western Europe by the 14th century. Estimates of bread consumption from different regions are fairly similar: around 1 to 1.5 kilograms (2.2 to
1528:). Another method was to seal the food by cooking it in honey, sugar, or fat, in which it was then stored. Microbial modification was also encouraged, however, by a number of methods; grains and fruits were turned into alcoholic drinks thus killing any pathogens, and milk was fermented and
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have been found in medieval recipes, with or without alcoholic content. However, the honey-based drink became less common as a table beverage towards the end of the period and was eventually relegated to medicinal use. Mead has often been presented as the common drink of the
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to have shared ownership of an oven to ensure that the bread baking essential to everyone was made communal rather than private. There were also portable ovens designed to be filled with food and then buried in hot coals, and even larger ones on wheels that were used to sell
868:, especially after the terrible mortality during the Black Death made them less scarce, were used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the
391:
It is the nature of man to build the most complicated cage of rules and regulations in which to trap himself, and then, with equal ingenuity and zest, to bend his brain to the problem of wriggling triumphantly out again. Lent was a challenge; the game was to ferret out the
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were used at the table, but most people were expected to bring their own, and only highly favoured guests would be given a personal knife. A knife was usually shared with at least one other dinner guest, unless one was of very high rank or well acquainted with the host.
758:, each monk was given an allowance of 1 imperial gallon (4.5 L; 1.2 US gal) of beer per day. Meat of "four-footed animals" was prohibited altogether, year-round, for everyone but the very weak and the sick. This was circumvented in part by declaring that
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to be a process similar to cooking. The processing of food in the stomach was seen as a continuation of the preparation initiated by the cook. In order for the food to be properly "cooked" and for the nutrients to be properly absorbed, it was important that the
1926:
were not available to Europeans until after 1492, after European contact with the Americas. Even after their wider availability in Europe it often took considerable time (sometimes several centuries) for the new foodstuffs to be accepted by society at large.
1097:, and early on were limited to Italy. Even there it was not until the 14th century that the fork became common among Italians of all social classes. The change in attitudes can be illustrated by the reactions to the table manners of the Byzantine princess
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both for their meat and fur. It is frequently and falsely claimed that they were of particular value for monasteries because newborn rabbits were allegedly declared fish (or at least not meat) by church officials, allowing them to be eaten during Lent.
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was not as common among the lower classes, especially in the north where wheat was more difficult to grow. A bread-based diet became gradually more common during the 15th century and replaced warm intermediate meals that were porridge- or gruel-based.
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1995 0851154301 page94 "Such a fireplace and such equipment afforded the medieval cook in some respects more control over what was happening to his food ... Depending on the size and weight of the meat, the cook chose a heavy or light spit of various
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served at the high table. Banquet dishes were apart from mainstream of cuisine, and have been described as "the outcome of grand banquets serving political ambition rather than gastronomy; today as yesterday" by historian Maguelonne Toussant-Samat.
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As with almost every part of life at the time, a medieval meal was generally a communal affair. The entire household, including servants, would ideally dine together. To sneak off to enjoy private company was considered a haughty and inefficient
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in 1336, but (as mentioned above) monks were adept at "working around" these rules. Wine was restricted to about 10 imperial fluid ounces (280 mL; 9.6 US fl oz) per day, but there was no corresponding limit on beer, and, at
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cooks the opportunity to elaborately shape the results. Fine-textured food was also associated with wealth; for example, finely milled flour was expensive, while the bread of commoners was typically brown and coarse. A typical procedure was
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was far more important as a foodstuff, especially for common people, and it has been suggested that it was, during many periods, the chief supplier of animal protein among the lower classes. Many varieties of cheese eaten today, like Dutch
1333:
area began to evolve. The first step was to move the fireplaces towards the walls of the main hall, and later to build a separate building or wing that contained a dedicated kitchen area, often separated from the main building by a covered
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in the evening. The two-meal system remained consistent throughout the late Middle Ages. Smaller intermediate meals were common, but became a matter of social status, as those who did not have to perform manual labor could go without them.
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feasts. She could then join dinner only after the potentially messy business of eating was done. Overall, fine dining was a predominantly male affair, and it was uncommon for anyone but the most honored of guests to bring his wife or her
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complained about being deprived of meat for the long, hard weeks of solemn contemplation of their sins. At Lent, owners of livestock were even warned to keep an eye out for hungry dogs frustrated by a "hard siege by Lent and fish bones".
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of 1266 listed extensive tables where the size, weight, and price of a loaf of bread were regulated in relation to grain prices. The baker's profit margin stipulated in the tables was later increased through successful lobbying from the
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could easily be swung away from the fire to keep them from burning or boiling over. Utensils were often held directly over the fire or placed into embers on tripods. To assist the cook there were also assorted knives, stirring spoons,
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in the middle of the main living area, to make efficient use of the heat. This was the most common arrangement, even in wealthy households, for most of the Middle Ages, where the kitchen was combined with the dining hall. Towards the
2394:. This is partially true since mead bore great symbolic value at important occasions. When agreeing on treaties and other important affairs of state, mead was often presented as a ceremonial gift. It was also common at weddings and
2125:, and just about any other wild bird that could be captured. Swans and peafowl were domesticated to some extent, but were only eaten by the social elite, and more praised for their fine appearance as stunning entertainment dishes,
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imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of alcohol. On top of these quantities, some members of these households (usually, a minority) ate breakfast, which would not include any meat, but would probably include another
1025:: "forbid dinners and suppers out of hall, in secret and in private rooms, for from this arises waste and no honor to the lord and lady." He also recommended watching that the servants not make off with leftovers to make merry at
2841:. Towards the end of the Late Middle Ages, the consumption of spirits became so ingrained even among the general population that restrictions on sales and production began to appear in the late 15th century. In 1496, the city of
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Cookbooks, or more specifically, recipe collections, compiled in the Middle Ages are among the most important historical sources for medieval cuisine. The first cookbooks began to appear towards the end of the 13th century. The
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were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most. Freshwater fish such as
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members of the household received a staggering 3.8 pounds (1.7 kg) of assorted meats in a typical meat meal in the autumn and 2.4 pounds (1.1 kg) in the winter, in addition to 0.9 pounds (0.41 kg) of bread and
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from a second or even third pressing, meaning that it could be consumed in quite generous amounts without leading to heavy intoxication. For the poorest (or the most pious), watered-down vinegar (similar to Ancient Roman
3034:, precious metals or other fine materials, often intricately decorated. The rank of a diner also decided how finely ground and white the salt was. Salt for cooking, preservation or for use by common people was coarser;
2471:'s dietetics, it was considered hot and dry; however, these qualities were moderated when wine was watered down. Unlike water or beer, which were considered cold and moist, consumption of wine in moderation (especially
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content, or at least when fat could be afforded. This was considered less of a problem in a time of back-breaking toil, famine, and a greater acceptance—even desirability—of plumpness; only the poor or sick, and devout
679:, as well as vegetables and nuts, including pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. It was popular, and recommended by medical expertise, to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives.
2898:, which made them extremely expensive, and gave them social cachet such that pepper, for example, was hoarded, traded and conspicuously donated in the manner of gold bullion. It has been estimated that around 1,000
374:
Both the Eastern and the Western churches ordained that feast should alternate with fast. In most of Europe, Fridays were fast days, and fasting was observed on various other days and periods, including Lent and
479:. Newly-assigned Catholic monastery officials sought to amend the problem of fast evasion not merely with moral condemnations, but by making sure that well-prepared non-meat dishes were available on fast days.
379:. Meat, and animal products such as milk, cheese, butter, and eggs, were not allowed, and at times also fish. The fast was intended to mortify the body and invigorate the soul, and also to remind the faster of
2606:
and the influx of Arabic texts) meant that beer was often disfavoured. For most medieval Europeans, it was a humble brew compared with common southern drinks and cooking ingredients, such as wine, lemons and
1890:
but also because they were associated with the coarse food of peasants. The importance of vegetables to the common people is illustrated by accounts from 16th century Germany stating that many peasants ate
3253:
The numerous descriptions of banquets from the later Middle Ages concentrated on the pageantry of the event rather than the minutiae of the food, which was not the same for most banqueters as those choice
2986:(1098–1179) as poor man's food. While locally grown herbs were less prestigious than spices, they were still used in upper-class food, but were then usually less prominent or included merely as coloring.
2982:. Many of these plants grew throughout all of Europe or were cultivated in gardens, and were a cheaper alternative to exotic spices. Mustard was particularly popular with meat dishes and was described by
1629:-growing regions in the south, while unleavened flatbread of barley, rye, or oats remained more common in northern and highland regions, and unleavened flatbread was also common as provisions for troops.
515:. The relationship between the classes was strictly hierarchical, with the nobility and clergy claiming worldly and spiritual overlordship over commoners. Within the nobility and clergy there were also a
1172:
in the streets of medieval towns. But for most people, almost all cooking was done in simple stewpots, since this was the most efficient use of firewood and did not waste precious cooking juices, making
3038:, or "bay salt", in particular, had more impurities, and was described in colors ranging from black to green. Expensive salt, on the other hand, looked like the standard commercial salt common today.
1338:. This way, the smoke, odors and bustle of the kitchen could be kept out of sight of guests, and the fire risk lessened. Few medieval kitchens survive as they were "notoriously ephemeral structures".
2445:, were popular in East Asia and the Muslim world during the Middle Ages. However, neither of these non-alcoholic social drinks were consumed in Europe before the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
1886:, especially among the lower classes. With the exception of peas, legumes were often viewed with some suspicion by the dietitians advising the upper class, partly because of their tendency to cause
1656:
remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most
1487:
that cause decay. In warm climates this was mostly achieved by leaving food out in the sun, and in the cooler northern climates by exposure to strong winds (especially common for the preparation of
2714:
received a ration of 1 imperial gallon (4.5 L; 1.2 US gal) of beer per day. Polish peasants consumed up to 3 litres (0.66 imp gal; 0.79 US gal) of beer per day.
1483:, thereby prolonging the durability if not the flavor of almost any type of food from cereals to meats; the drying of food worked by drastically reducing the activity of various water-dependent
414:
While animal products were to be avoided during times of penance, pragmatic compromises often prevailed. The definition of "fish" was often extended to marine and semi-aquatic animals such as
720:
in 1469, gentle members received 2.1 pounds (0.95 kg) of meat per meal, and all others received 1.04 pounds (0.47 kg), and everyone was given 0.4 pounds (0.18 kg) of bread and
2001:
A 14th-century butcher shop. A large pig is being bled in preparation for slaughter. A whole pig carcass and cuts are hanging from a rack and various cuts are being prepared for a customer.
716:
imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of beer or possibly wine (and there would have been two meat meals per day, five days a week, except during Lent). In the household of
647:, a wine flavoured with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as
1583:
Urban cookshops that catered to workers or the destitute were regarded as unsavory and disreputable places by the well-to-do and professional cooks tended to have a bad reputation.
2781:, which feature in manuscripts from the ninth century onwards. Distillation was believed by medieval scholars to produce the essence of the liquid being purified, and the term
1711:
or dishes for the sick, if boiled in milk (or almond milk) and sweetened with sugar. Pies filled with meats, eggs, vegetables, or fruit were common throughout Europe, as were
447:
faux eggs made from almond milk were cooked in blown-out eggshells, flavoured and coloured with exclusive spices. In some cases, the lavishness of noble tables was outdone by
2911:
provided a yellow substitute, and touches of gilding at banquets supplied both the medieval love of ostentatious show and Galenic dietary lore: at the sumptuous banquet that
2335:
was consumed on a daily basis in most of France and all over the Western Mediterranean wherever grapes were cultivated. Further north it remained the preferred drink of the
1403:
an animal, grind up the meat and mix it with spices and other ingredients and then return it into its own skin, or mold it into the shape of a completely different animal.
639:, wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. As the stomach had been opened, it should then be "closed" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a
2073:
remained a rare and highly prized commodity. In England, they were deliberately introduced by the 13th century and their colonies were carefully protected. Further south,
2339:
and the nobility who could afford it, and far less common among peasants and workers. The drink of commoners in the northern parts of the continent was primarily beer or
1664:
that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes. As one descended the social ladder, bread became coarser, darker, and its
2199:
was the mainstay of many coastal populations. "Fish" to the medieval person was also a general name for anything not considered a proper land-living animal, including
1575:, or offer cooking services while the customers supplied some or all of the ingredients. Travelers, such as pilgrims en route to a holy site, made use of professional
2619:
meat generally received more positive attention in medical texts. Beer was just an acceptable alternative and was assigned various negative qualities. In 1256, the
3077:, almond milk and eggs in a pastry shell that could also include fruit and sometimes even bone marrow or fish. German-speaking areas had a particular fondness for
1727:. Grain, either as bread crumbs or flour, was also the most common thickener of soups and stews, alone or in combination with almond milk. By the Late Middle Ages
371:. Additionally, it was customary for all citizens to fast before taking the Eucharist. These fasts were occasionally for a full day and required total abstinence.
195:
be less refined, since it was believed there was a natural resemblance between one's way of life and one's food; hard manual labor required coarser, cheaper food.
2635:, it fills the stomach with bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating
8217:
467:. Since the sick were exempt from fasting, there often evolved the notion that fasting restrictions only applied to the main dining area, and many Benedictine
5038:
4795:
According to Paul Freedman, the idea is presented as a fact even by some modern scholars, despite the lack of any credible support; Freedman (2008), pages 3–4
566:
certain properties that affected a person's health. All foodstuffs were also classified on scales ranging from hot to cold and moist to dry, according to the
451:
monasteries, which served as many as sixteen courses during certain feast days. Exceptions from fasting were frequently made for very broadly defined groups.
8583:
1611:
A baker caught trying to cheat customers is punished by being dragged around the community on a sleigh with the offending loaf of bread tied around his neck.
5077:
Creighton, Oliver; Christie, Neil (2015). "The Archaeology of Wallingford Castle: a summary of the current state of knowledge". In Keats-Rohan, K. S. B.;
2821:
wrote that "t prolongs good health, dissipates superfluous humours, reanimates the heart and maintains youth." In the Late Middle Ages, the production of
2161:
explicitly prohibited the eating of barnacle geese during Lent, arguing that they lived and fed like ducks and so were of the same nature as other birds.
960:
consumption were considered immoral. The latter were especially associated with gambling, crude language, drunkenness, and lewd behavior. Minor meals and
387:
when they violated them, there were also numerous ways of circumventing them, a conflict of ideals and practice summarized by writer Bridget Ann Henisch:
8719:
2811:
in spirits. It would then be placed in the mouth of the stuffed, cooked and occasionally redressed animals, and lit just before presenting the creation.
4281:
3726:
3364:, citron leaves and "onions of Escalon" all appear in an eighth-century list of spices that the Carolingian cook should have at hand. It was written by
3061:
accompanied by aged cheese, and by the Late Middle Ages could also include fresh fruit covered in honey, sugar, or syrup and boiled-down fruit pastes.
2237:. The herring was of unprecedented significance to the economy of much of Northern Europe, and it was one of the most common commodities traded by the
1707:, a thick wheat porridge often boiled in a meat broth and seasoned with spices. Porridges were also made of every type of grain and could be served as
2508:
describes several methods for salvaging spoiling wine; making sure that the wine barrels are always topped up or adding a mixture of dried and boiled
5556:
1143:
5101:
4657:
Scully notes the importance of appearance to the medieval cook, who prized yellow foods achieved with saffron; Scully (1995), page 114. See also
1668:
content increased. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like
1242:. This meant that food had to be "tempered" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients,
8232:
2907:, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor, for according to the humours, yellow signified hot and dry, valued qualities;
1281:
pie did not appear in recipes until the 15th century. Before that the pastry was primarily used as a cooking container in a technique known as
2373:
which was especially popular in the north where both apples and pears were plentiful. Medieval drinks that have survived to this day include
2061:
or even illusion food such as giant eggs. Among the meats that today are rare or even considered inappropriate for human consumption are the
2045:
required less attention and cheaper feed. Domestic pigs often ran freely even in towns and could be fed on just about any organic waste, and
1357:, already existed, although they were often too expensive for poorer households. Other tools more specific to cooking over an open fire were
876:, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety of almonds came along much later.
8309:
937:
was still eaten by working men, and was tolerated for young children, women, the elderly and the sick. Because the church preached against
7814:
3277:
with recipes for "drepee", parboiled birds with almonds and fried onions, and the first part of a recipe for "mawmenee", a sweet stew of
3137:
recipe made with three kinds of cheese, eggs, beet greens, spinach, fennel fronds, and parsley. In northern France, a wide assortment of
2502:
widespread problem. Even if vinegar was a common ingredient, there was only so much of it that could be used. The 14th-century cookbook
964:
were common (although also disliked by the church), and working men commonly received an allowance from their employers in order to buy
7940:
4583:
4498:
B. M. S. Campbell, Mark Overton (1991), Land, labour, and livestock: historical studies in European agricultural productivity, page 167
2021:
was labor-intensive, requiring pastures and feed, and oxen and cows were much more valuable as draught animals and for producing milk.
1491:), or in warm ovens, cellars, attics, and at times even in living quarters. Subjecting food to a number of chemical processes such as
5876:
2694:
times, but was adopted gradually due to difficulties in establishing the appropriate proportions. Before the widespread use of hops,
933:
frowned on breaking the overnight fast too early, and members of the church and cultivated gentry avoided it. For practical reasons,
351:, and their calendars, had great influence on eating habits; consumption of meat was forbidden for a full third of the year for most
17:
2049:
was a sought-after delicacy. Just about every part of the pig was eaten, including ears, snout, tail, tongue, and womb. Intestines,
1562:. The long meat hook in his left hand was one of the most common medieval cook's tools; from the Ellesmere manuscripts, about 1410.
822:. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second-
591:
of the body and draw bad humours into the stomach. It was also of vital importance that food of differing properties not be mixed.
7076:
4205:
Hans J. Teuteberg, "Periods and Turning-Points in the History of European Diet: A Preliminary Outline of Problems and Methods" in
4072:
Hans J. Teuteberg, "Periods and Turning-Points in the History of European Diet: A Preliminary Outline of Problems and Methods" in
2803:
and cooking ingredient and for hand washing. Alcoholic distillates were also occasionally used to create dazzling, fire-breathing
6077:
5846:
4157:
Cabbage and other foodstuffs in common use by most German-speaking peoples are mentioned in Walther Ryff's dietary from 1549 and
1022:
698:
4313:
3326:
from the late 14th century. Over 70 collections of medieval recipes survive today, written in several major European languages.
2749:, while criticizing the apparently common practice among Englishmen of the time to give their children wine and strong alcohol.
2706:
of Europe, as recorded in contemporary literature, far exceed intakes in the modern world. For example, sailors in 16th-century
5106:. Translated by Thomas, Magdalena. revised and adapted by William Woys Weaver. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
3986:
Liane Plouvier, "La gastronomie dans les Pays-Bas méridionaux sous les ducs de Bourgogne: le témoignage des livres de cuisine"
3157:('parlor spices') and were taken as digestibles at the end of a meal to "close" the stomach. Like their Muslim counterparts in
830:
was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and
717:
315:
At the baptismal font you were kneaded into a single dough. In the oven of the Holy Ghost you were baked into God's true bread.
697:
Death as well. In one early-15th-century English aristocratic household for which detailed records are available (that of the
8187:
7894:
5871:
5530:
5495:
5476:
5430:
5254:
5170:
5149:
5090:
5067:
4323:
3062:
2916:
352:
1599:
articulated the beliefs of many of his contemporaries by proclaiming that "Hoot ffir and smoke makith many an angry cook."
1001:
8144:
1460:. Chiquart recommends that the chief cook should have at hand at least 1,000 cartloads of "good, dry firewood" and a large
788:
4940:, which had been extinct for centuries, so may have included some purely literary items; Toussaint-Samat (2009), page 434.
2013:
that were no longer able to work were slaughtered but not particularly appetizing and therefore were less valued as meat.
495:
were often brutally enforced, food was an important marker of social status in a way that has no equivalent today in most
139:, a form of meat acquired from hunting, was common only on the nobility's tables. The most prevalent butcher's meats were
8643:
8618:
8558:
560:
1113:
servants and then eating the pieces with a golden fork shocked and upset the diners so much that there was a claim that
459:, workers and beggars, but not the poor as long as they had some sort of shelter. There are many accounts of members of
8734:
7512:
5627:
5403:
5361:
5130:
4566:
3343:
1125:
and referred to her as "... the Venetian Doge's wife, whose body, after her excessive delicacy, entirely rotted away."
1109:, and caused considerable dismay among upstanding Venetians. The princess' insistence on having her food cut up by her
4218:
Adamson (2004), pages 46–7; Johanna Maria van Winter, "The Low Countries in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries" in
3165:
introduced a wide variety of new sweets and desserts that eventually found their way to the rest of Europe. Just like
2421:
was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, being reserved for the very young or elderly, and then usually as
1456:('On cookery') written in 1420 in part to compete with the court of Burgundy by Maistre Chiquart, master chef of Duke
551:
that put a cap on the lavishness of commoners' banquets. Animal parts were even assigned to different social classes.
8777:
8739:
8269:
7614:
5453:
5384:
5342:
5319:
5296:
5277:
5228:
5197:
5111:
5048:
5027:
5004:
4981:
4962:
4363:
4002:
Edited from the Ms. S 103 Bibliothèque Supersaxo, (in the Bibliothèque cantonale du Valais, Sion, by Terence Scully,
3053:, 'to clear a table', literally 'to un-serve', and originated during the Middle Ages. It would typically consist of
7904:
5704:
5692:
3426:
2211:
848:
was a ubiquitous ingredient in Mediterranean cultures, but remained an expensive import in the north where oils of
1735:
in the U.S.) and especially wafers, eaten for dessert, had become high-prestige foods and came in many varieties.
1479:
in the early 19th century. The most common and simplest method was to expose foodstuffs to heat or wind to remove
1234:
under the top crust. It was considered important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of
8237:
5160:
2195:
Although less prestigious than other animal meats, and often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days,
1846:
were more common. Figs and dates were eaten all over Europe, but remained rather expensive imports in the north.
1475:
methods were basically the same as had been used since antiquity, and did not change much until the invention of
941:
and other weaknesses of the flesh, men tended to be ashamed of the weak practicality of breakfast. Lavish dinner
516:
2627:
But from whichever it is made, whether from oats, barley or wheat, it harms the head and the stomach, it causes
8603:
8543:
8515:
8274:
5963:
4854:
The manuscripts from which early books were printed rarely survive, as a scan of introductory materials in the
4644:, was only 5 million, and was a mere 3 million by 1450; see J.C Russel "Population in Europe 500–1500" in
3718:
1997:
1759:
to be organized were the bakers, and laws and regulations were passed to keep bread prices stable. The English
893:
2586:, beer was consumed on a daily basis by people of all social classes and age groups. By the mid-15th century,
1246:
and spices; fish was seen as being cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as
1037:
of the common people and the destitute. However, it can be assumed there were no such extravagant luxuries as
8689:
8520:
7789:
7774:
6340:
4273:
3416:
3087:
in many forms was well-known in Italy and southern France by the 1340s, and is assumed to be of Arab origin.
2154:
1935:
1094:
2218:
wrote a very skeptical account of his reaction to being served barnacle goose at a fish-day dinner in 1456.
7794:
7680:
6226:
2754:
1767:
1580:
hire professionals when their own kitchen or staff could not handle the burden of hosting a major banquet.
2648:
and the travelling of nobles between France and England, one French variant described in the 14th century
8699:
7988:
7824:
7809:
7746:
7644:
7275:
1687:
One of the common constituents of a medieval meal, either as part of a banquet or as a small snack, were
1492:
1457:
155:, which required greater investment in land, was less common. A wide variety of freshwater and saltwater
5553:
8694:
8684:
8648:
8490:
8392:
7889:
7799:
7438:
7408:
6196:
2575:
2467:
Wine was commonly drunk and was also regarded as the most prestigious and healthy choice. According to
2399:
4640:
Adamson (2004), page 65. By comparison, the estimated population of Britain in 1340, right before the
3333:
also include many details of overseeing correct preparations in the kitchen. Towards the onset of the
976:
328:
Nuns dining in silence while listening to a Bible reading. The nuns use hand gestures to communicate.
8798:
8417:
8180:
7804:
7764:
7490:
7448:
7443:
7418:
6964:
5861:
5751:
2863:
1512:
tended to be heavily salted (5–10%) in order not to spoil. Vegetables, eggs, or fish were also often
1155:
did not appear until the 18th century, and cooks had to know how to cook directly over an open fire.
766:, were not meat. Secondly, Benedictine monasteries contained a room called the misericord, where the
5586:
4782:
Constance B. Hieatt, "Making Sense of Medieval Culinary Records: Much Done, But Much More to Do" in
4659:
The Appetite and the Eye: Visual aspects of food and its presentation within their historic context.
4534:
Though there are references to the use of hops in beer as early as 822 AD; EĂźlinger (2009), page 11.
3011:
Surviving medieval recipes frequently call for flavoring with a number of sour, tart liquids. Wine,
2787:('water of life') was used as a generic term for all kinds of distillates. The early use of various
8668:
8124:
7884:
7839:
7754:
7589:
7567:
7552:
7542:
7527:
7495:
7428:
7423:
7403:
6335:
5746:
5741:
5665:
2579:
1258:. In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the
1250:
or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices; beef was dry and hot and should therefore be
1118:
897:
2757:
of 1.091 (corresponding to a potential alcohol content over 9%) and "pleasant, apple-like taste".
595:
8372:
8342:
7998:
7702:
7562:
7547:
7537:
7413:
7361:
7315:
6352:
6008:
5988:
5672:
1761:
1098:
348:
180:
5519:
3322:
3312:
2525:
were usually made by mixing an ordinary (red) wine with an assortment of spices such as ginger,
1159:
were used, but they were expensive to construct and existed only in fairly large households and
8729:
8485:
8259:
7819:
7670:
7557:
7470:
7101:
6283:
6003:
5851:
5781:
5771:
5724:
5687:
5682:
5620:
4855:
3511:
Bynum (1987), page 41; see also Scully (1995), pages 58–64 and Adamson (2004), page 72, 191–92.
2997:
2857:
2818:
2583:
2214:
examined barnacles and noted no evidence of any bird-like embryo in them, and the secretary of
1181:
the most common dishes. Overall, most evidence suggests that medieval dishes had a fairly high
1044:
Things were different for the wealthy. Before the meal and between courses, shallow basins and
767:
746:
5016:
8548:
8440:
8397:
7769:
7759:
7675:
7572:
7460:
7126:
7081:
6797:
6787:
6651:
6517:
6452:
6412:
6206:
5776:
5709:
4579:
4366:
3441:
2919:
in June 1473, the bread was gilded. Among the spices that have now fallen into obscurity are
2883:
2009:
were popular among those who could obtain it, most meat came from domestic animals. Domestic
1346:
1335:
472:
460:
6874:
6278:
5217:
1065:, as was the standard etiquette of breaking bread and carving meat for one's fellow diners.
8767:
8709:
8505:
8412:
8382:
8367:
8173:
7957:
7952:
7935:
7854:
7697:
7624:
7505:
7500:
7485:
7433:
7171:
7061:
6735:
6730:
6522:
5998:
5866:
5660:
4937:
3431:
3103:, apples, and plums. The English chefs also had a penchant for using flower petals such as
2874:
were among the most luxurious products available in the Middle Ages, the most common being
2559:. By the 14th century, bagged spice mixes could be bought ready-made from spice merchants.
1779:": a baker would give 13 for the price of 12, to be certain of not being known as a cheat.
1084:
or bare hands. In lower-class households it was common to eat food straight off the table.
1073:
574:
that dominated Western medical science from late Antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages.
500:
8:
8653:
8633:
8613:
8578:
8510:
8422:
8289:
8154:
7203:
7106:
7096:
7071:
6954:
6914:
6884:
6854:
6849:
6671:
6661:
6256:
6179:
6055:
5923:
5913:
5856:
5719:
5465:
4347:
3334:
3079:
2983:
2691:
2534:
2513:
1660:
of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. The finely sifted white
1504:
1358:
1262:
nature than what a modern cook would consider to be similarity in taste. In a recipe for
980:
889:
275:
62:
8130:
5547:
3023:
2598:, accounted for 27% of all cereal acreage in England. However, the heavy influence from
1703:
could be soaked up and eaten. Another common sight at the medieval dinner table was the
1406:
1302:
Fowl roasting on a spit. A shallow basin collects the drippings to use in sauces or for
987:, enjoys a grand meal, sitting at the high table in front of the fireplace, served by a
8757:
8593:
8568:
8470:
8347:
8299:
8294:
8284:
8222:
7967:
7834:
7714:
7330:
7310:
7305:
7193:
7161:
7136:
7086:
7066:
7014:
6984:
6969:
6959:
6919:
6894:
6827:
6802:
6792:
6772:
6656:
6641:
6631:
6529:
6487:
6462:
6437:
6392:
6347:
6273:
6211:
6186:
5983:
5933:
5903:
5841:
5831:
5826:
5580:
5501:
5442:
5409:
5373:
5331:
5308:
5266:
5243:
5203:
5176:
4993:
4859:
4580:"Recreating Medieval English Ales (a recreation of late-13–14th unhopped English ales)"
4351:
3774:
3749:
3436:
3407:
3338:
3316:
those times, would have been able to read, and working texts have a low survival rate.
3003:
2920:
2414:, was known in Europe, but as with mead was mostly something prescribed by physicians.
2402:, mead had a status equivalent to that of imported luxuries, such as spices and wines.
2349:, as well as wines, of a multitude of fruits and berries had been known at least since
2208:
2187:
1945:
1797:
1775:
with less expensive ingredients could receive severe penalties. This gave rise to the "
1452:
1418:
The kitchen staff of huge noble or royal courts occasionally numbered in the hundreds:
1018:
1014:
in a world where people depended very much on each other. In the 13th century, English
957:
656:
288:
2990:
was used to flavor fish and chicken dishes, and its seeds were served as sugar-coated
8753:
8495:
8465:
8455:
8445:
8362:
8352:
8337:
8204:
8046:
7920:
7784:
7685:
7649:
7619:
7368:
7300:
7290:
7285:
7238:
7233:
7223:
7186:
7116:
7029:
6949:
6939:
6879:
6859:
6834:
6817:
6710:
6681:
6599:
6594:
6584:
6559:
6507:
6492:
6442:
6377:
6372:
6357:
6241:
6144:
6139:
6107:
6102:
6070:
6050:
6045:
6035:
6030:
5973:
5953:
5928:
5893:
5836:
5714:
5677:
5613:
5575:
5526:
5491:
5472:
5449:
5426:
5399:
5380:
5357:
5338:
5315:
5292:
5273:
5250:
5224:
5207:
5193:
5180:
5166:
5145:
5126:
5107:
5086:
5063:
5044:
5023:
5000:
4977:
4958:
4837:
4359:
4319:
3779:
2718:
2177:
2158:
1787:
1576:
1567:
1472:
1400:
1383:
1303:
1202:
1015:
755:
750:
496:
336:
76:
50:
5598:
4262:
All Things Medieval: An Encyclopedia of the Medieval World, Ruth A Johnston, page 19
1026:
8714:
8663:
8658:
8598:
8475:
8432:
8402:
8324:
8242:
8212:
8114:
8070:
8053:
7983:
7962:
7829:
7731:
7692:
7665:
7599:
7584:
7475:
7373:
7270:
7255:
7250:
7198:
7181:
7176:
7156:
7146:
7141:
6994:
6974:
6929:
6924:
6909:
6899:
6889:
6869:
6812:
6807:
6777:
6767:
6703:
6698:
6693:
6676:
6579:
6574:
6569:
6539:
6534:
6457:
6432:
6427:
6422:
6397:
6367:
6330:
6315:
6305:
6295:
6251:
6236:
6231:
6216:
6191:
6149:
6117:
6112:
6060:
6025:
6013:
5968:
5958:
5943:
5918:
5908:
5898:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5798:
5758:
5731:
5655:
5471:. Translated by Bell, Anthea (New Expanded ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
5398:. California Studies in Food and Culture. Oakland: University of California Press.
3769:
3761:
3295:
3188:
2777:, but it was not practiced on a major scale in Europe until after the invention of
2738:
2726:
2660:
2238:
1592:
1584:
1558:
1553:
1411:
1326:
1164:
1072:
or in stew pots, and diners would take their share from the dishes and place it on
1069:
1038:
950:
492:
439:
363:(during the strictest fasting periods also fish), were generally prohibited during
199:
66:
58:
2791:, alcoholic or not, was varied, but it was primarily culinary or medicinal; grape
455:(about 1225–1274) believed dispensation should be provided for children, the old,
8724:
8638:
8608:
8332:
8249:
7874:
7864:
7844:
7736:
7609:
7579:
7398:
7378:
7325:
7280:
7265:
7260:
7208:
7166:
7131:
7091:
7056:
7019:
7009:
7004:
6999:
6904:
6864:
6844:
6822:
6762:
6747:
6742:
6688:
6646:
6636:
6626:
6621:
6606:
6512:
6482:
6402:
6362:
6300:
6288:
6263:
6221:
6174:
6159:
6127:
6122:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6065:
6040:
5993:
5978:
5938:
5888:
5650:
5564:
5560:
4158:
3421:
2826:
2645:
2568:
2454:
2215:
2149:
was believed to reproduce not by laying eggs like other birds, but by growing in
2138:
2074:
2022:
1712:
1622:
1298:
1053:
823:
344:
164:
144:
8134:
7634:
8628:
8573:
8527:
8480:
8460:
8304:
8227:
7993:
7930:
7899:
7859:
7629:
7532:
7480:
7465:
7388:
7383:
7320:
7218:
7151:
7121:
7111:
7044:
6989:
6979:
6934:
6839:
6782:
6752:
6725:
6720:
6715:
6589:
6554:
6544:
6497:
6447:
6407:
6387:
6382:
6325:
6310:
6268:
6246:
6169:
6132:
5806:
5766:
5736:
3932:
Barbara Santich, "The Evolution of Culinary Techniques in the Medieval Era" in
2766:
2745:
stated that the only drink he considered suitable for children of all ages was
2391:
2250:
2230:
2146:
2054:
2010:
1843:
1776:
1496:
1106:
1102:
884:
861:
452:
419:
331:
5018:
Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women
4165:('German Larder') from 1550; see Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in
4037:
Martha Carling, "Fast Food and Urban Living Standards in Medieval England" in
3765:
3347:("On honorable pleasure and health") and the physician Iodocus Willich edited
2890:, nutmeg, ginger, and cloves. They all had to be imported from plantations in
2479:
and brighten the mood. The quality of wine differed considerably according to
8792:
8387:
8026:
7947:
7879:
7779:
7604:
7594:
7522:
7393:
7295:
7228:
7213:
7049:
7039:
7034:
6944:
6666:
6616:
6611:
6549:
6502:
6320:
6201:
6164:
6154:
6018:
5948:
5881:
5793:
5699:
5238:
5078:
4841:
3373:
3329:
The repertory of housekeeping instructions laid down by manuscripts like the
3273:
3250:
demonstrated to be an unfounded theory by historians such as Terence Scully.
3108:
3088:
2959:
2927:
which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking,
2912:
2530:
2459:
2200:
2134:
1970:
1815:
1484:
1447:
1375:
1308:
1152:
1034:
984:
811:
803:
795:
548:
404:
tails were of such a fish-like nature that they could be eaten on fast days;
360:
192:
184:
176:
5413:
2520:, even if the chemical processes were not understood at the time. Spiced or
1849:
While grains were the primary constituent of most meals, vegetables such as
8553:
8450:
8254:
8104:
8041:
7849:
7356:
7351:
7245:
7024:
6564:
6477:
6472:
6467:
6417:
5514:
5505:
3783:
3401:
3233:('Turkish hats'), fried, chilled pastry tubes with a sweet cheese filling.
2932:
2875:
2817:
in its alcoholic forms was highly praised by medieval physicians. In 1309,
2774:
2770:
2599:
2350:
2130:
2110:
2046:
1919:
1596:
1435:
1114:
988:
913:
588:
567:
448:
223:
156:
4050:
Margaret Murphy, "Feeding Medieval Cities: Some Historical Approaches" in
2795:
mixed with sugar and spices was prescribed for a variety of ailments, and
32:
8704:
8407:
8314:
8196:
8092:
7724:
7517:
6757:
4641:
3393:
3267:
3219:
3166:
3058:
3027:
2955:
2928:
2730:
2690:
That hops could be used for flavoring beer had been known at least since
2683:
2632:
2603:
2521:
2517:
2509:
2504:
2354:
2336:
2153:, and was hence considered acceptable food for fast and Lent. But at the
2078:
2050:
2006:
1982:
1903:
1898:
Common and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like
1819:
1591:, is described as a sleazy purveyor of unpalatable food. French cardinal
1517:
1354:
992:
901:
873:
831:
807:
693:
356:
278:
since antiquity had been based on cereals, particularly various types of
263:
188:
171:
160:
136:
87:
first used in the 16th century, and much later for the wider population.
54:
5569:
2314:
1981:, were available and well known in late medieval times. There were also
1529:
842:
were available in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking.
324:
65:
that followed, when those changes helped lay the foundations for modern
8279:
8165:
5592:
3365:
3286:
3215:
3158:
3047:
2783:
2746:
2742:
2628:
2612:
2555:
2484:
2422:
2398:
parties, though in limited quantity due to its high price. In medieval
2362:
2234:
2114:
1907:
1892:
1887:
1875:
1818:(the sweet type was not introduced until several hundred years later),
1537:
1342:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1187:
1041:, luxurious spices or hand-washing in scented water in everyday meals.
961:
608:
463:
who flouted fasting restrictions through clever interpretations of the
207:
5103:
Food and Drink in Medieval Poland: Rediscovering a Cuisine of the Past
2602:
and Mediterranean culture on medical science (particularly due to the
2331:
bonus of being less prone to putrefaction due to the alcohol content.
643:, which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or
8588:
8357:
7925:
7346:
5190:
Food in Change: Eating Habits from the Middle Ages to the Present Day
3196:
3150:
2936:
2842:
2822:
2804:
2796:
2722:
2636:
2608:
2594:
known to be somewhat poorly suited for breadmaking but excellent for
2442:
2433:
products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling.
2378:
2269:
were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater
2246:
2102:
2066:
2034:
1657:
1641:
1572:
1488:
1243:
1239:
1057:
934:
845:
839:
776:
745:
In monasteries, the basic structure of the diet was laid down by the
660:
578:
504:
476:
308:
300:
283:
247:
203:
128:
57:, which lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. During this period,
3360:
High-status exotic spices and rarities like ginger, pepper, cloves,
3354:
3285:
with cinnamon, ginger, cloves, dates and pine nuts and colored with
3183:
3054:
2807:(a type of entertainment dish after a course) by soaking a piece of
2545:
and sugar. These would be contained in small bags which were either
2475:) was, among other things, believed to aid digestion, generate good
1879:
1738:
1366:
1361:
of various sizes, and material for skewering anything from delicate
640:
499:. According to the ideological norm, society consisted of the three
8623:
8500:
8377:
8016:
4896:
4240:
Simon Varey, "Medieval and Renaissance Italy, A. The Peninsula" in
3282:
3242:
3142:
3112:
3084:
3083:: fried pastries and dough with various sweet and savory fillings.
3035:
3012:
2940:
2924:
2908:
2879:
2734:
2649:
2550:
2546:
2526:
2472:
2358:
2270:
2254:
2204:
2150:
2126:
2086:
2062:
2037:
was consumed in some parts of medieval Europe. Far more common was
1978:
1871:
1720:
1704:
1669:
1607:
1521:
1513:
1480:
1439:
1370:
1341:
Many basic variations of cooking utensils available today, such as
1313:
1259:
1255:
1235:
938:
930:
857:
644:
512:
434:
and fake eggs could be made by stuffing empty egg shells with fish
396:
211:
108:
3307:
have found a modern editor in Marianne Mulon, and a cookbook from
3066:
1684:, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter.
8264:
8021:
7719:
7639:
5636:
5396:
A history of cookbooks: from kitchen to page over seven centuries
4900:
3817:
Eszter Kisbán, "Food Habits in Change: The Example of Europe" in
3349:
3224:
3074:
3070:
2967:
2963:
2904:
2800:
2778:
2711:
2707:
2616:
2595:
2480:
2395:
2295:
2266:
2222:
2196:
2182:
2166:
2142:
2094:
2058:
1986:
1911:
1883:
1850:
1792:
1728:
1716:
1708:
1525:
1500:
1476:
1431:
1419:
1330:
1267:
1251:
1227:
1174:
1138:
1133:
1011:
942:
664:
652:
648:
624:
583:
456:
431:
384:
368:
227:
219:
148:
2488:
2318:
An abbey cellarer testing his wine. Illumination from a copy of
1369:. There were also cranes with adjustable hooks so that pots and
991:
and other servants. On the table to the Duke's left is a golden
594:
Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be "opened" with an
5310:
Living and Dying in England, 1100–1540: The Monastic Experience
5264:
Glick, Thomas; Livesey, Steven J.; Wallis, Faith, eds. (2005).
4891:
3750:"Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in ancient clergymen"
3361:
3308:
3300:
3208:
3200:
3174:
3162:
3149:('departure from the table'). The ever-present candied ginger,
3138:
3134:
3116:
3100:
3092:
3031:
2991:
2979:
2971:
2948:
2895:
2838:
2808:
2788:
2673:
2591:
2587:
2538:
2438:
2322:
by Aldobrandino of Siena. British Library, Sloane 2435, f. 44v.
2299:
2262:
2258:
2242:
2070:
2018:
1965:
1940:
1915:
1899:
1866:
1862:
1823:
1811:
1755:
3.3 lb) of bread per person per day. Among the first town
1732:
1724:
1673:
1645:
1637:
1548:
1533:
1509:
1443:
1427:
1379:
1350:
1321:
1271:
1263:
1247:
1219:
1207:
1160:
1110:
1077:
925:
921:
905:
869:
853:
799:
702:
632:
620:
540:
536:
532:
508:
488:
427:
423:
401:
376:
243:
231:
120:
88:
84:
72:
4836:(in French). Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques.
4832:
Mulon, Marianne (1971). "Deux traités d'art culinaire médié".
4769:
Habeeb Saloum, "Medieval and Renaissance Italy: B. Sicily" in
4661:
Anne Wilson (ed.) Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. 1991.
2463:
A matron demonstrates how to properly treat and conserve wine.
2069:, occasionally mentioned in late medieval recipe collections.
1196:
was readily combined with meat, fish and eggs. The recipe for
547:
dangers of adapting a diet inappropriate for one's class, and
49:
includes foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various
8031:
7453:
5525:. Medieval History and Archaeology. Oxford University Press.
4253:
The Rabbit and the Medieval East Anglian Economy, Mark Bailey
3598:
3596:
3278:
3091:
cookbooks are full of recipes for sweet and savory custards,
2987:
2944:
2887:
2871:
2792:
2695:
2664:
2620:
2542:
2494:
2476:
2468:
2430:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2370:
2366:
2346:
2327:
2303:
2291:
2287:
2122:
2106:
2098:
1923:
1858:
1854:
1831:
1827:
1807:
1772:
1756:
1743:
1700:
1677:
1661:
1626:
1617:
1516:
in tightly packed jars, containing brine and acidic liquids (
1423:
1387:
1382:. In wealthy households one of the most common tools was the
1362:
1211:
1193:
1122:
1085:
1081:
1048:
1045:
849:
835:
819:
815:
814:, the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of
763:
759:
668:
636:
628:
616:
612:
599:
571:
507:, that is, the working classes—by far the largest group; the
471:
would simply eat their fast day meals in what was called the
468:
464:
415:
380:
279:
259:
239:
235:
124:
116:
112:
104:
100:
8087:
5337:. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
4274:"Debunked: The Strange Tale of Pope Gregory and the Rabbits"
3387:
3376:
manuscript. Vinidarius's own dates may not be much earlier.
2623:
physician Aldobrandino described beer in the following way:
1093:
for eating were not in widespread usage in Europe until the
202:
set the standard among the nobility all over Europe. Common
27:
Foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of the Middle Ages
8065:
8036:
7709:
5605:
5268:
Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: an Encyclopedia
3104:
3096:
3018:
2975:
2891:
2725:, and on a smaller scale, in individual households. By the
2699:
2668:
2426:
2418:
2386:
2332:
2283:
2279:
2118:
2090:
2038:
2030:
2026:
2014:
1974:
1958:
1953:
1839:
1835:
1696:
1692:
1681:
1665:
1653:
1231:
1215:
1178:
1156:
1090:
1062:
1030:
865:
827:
676:
672:
659:, herbs, moist fruits, and light meats, such as chicken or
528:
524:
520:
364:
255:
251:
215:
152:
140:
132:
80:
3593:
607:, 'to open') that was preferably of a hot and dry nature:
8058:
5512:
3141:
and wafers was eaten with cheese and hypocras or a sweet
3133:("Parisian Household Book"), written in 1393, includes a
2899:
2434:
2382:
2340:
2275:
2226:
2042:
1688:
1649:
1633:
1223:
1182:
1169:
435:
96:
92:
5123:
Delizia! The epic history of the Italians and their food
3641:
3639:
2966:
were grown and used in cooking all over Europe, as were
2025:
were fairly common, especially in areas with a sizeable
1254:; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be
210:
repertory typical of upper-class medieval food included
5289:
Preventing Alcohol Abuse: alcohol, culture, and control
5219:
The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages
4751:
Le MĂ©nagier de Paris, page218, "Pour Faire une Tourte."
4646:
The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages
4024:
Beth Marie Forrest, "Food storage and preservation" in
3988:
Publications du Centre Européen d'Etudes Bourguignonnes
1056:. The hierarchical nature of society was reinforced by
487:
Medieval society was highly stratified. In a time when
5423:
Histoire de la cuisine et de la gastronomie françaises
4974:
Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays
2837:'burnt wine') was commonplace, marking the origin of
2241:, a powerful north German alliance of trading guilds.
1151:
All types of cooking involved the direct use of fire.
131:
were important supplements for the lower orders while
3636:
3195:). From the south, the Arabs also brought the art of
2137:
had been domesticated but were not as popular as the
103:
was generally more expensive. These were consumed as
5245:
Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination
3917:
3383:
3218:
bowl with which it was shaped), made from marzipan,
5375:
A History of Business in Medieval Europe, 1200–1550
5354:
Revolution and Consumption in Late Medieval England
5162:
Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets
1121:, later interpreted her refined foreign manners as
900:, King of the Romans. Each diner has two knives, a
872:, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile
170:Slow and inefficient transports made long-distance
135:was more expensive and generally more prestigious.
36:Peasants sharing a simple meal of bread and drink;
5518:
5490:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
5464:
5441:
5372:
5330:
5307:
5265:
5263:
5242:
5216:
5060:La cucina medievale. Lessico, storia, preparazioni
5057:
5015:
4992:
4386:Melitta Weiss Adamson, "The Greco-Roman World" in
3203:and several examples of sweet cakes and pastries;
2687:, a spiced honey ale prepared much like hypocras.
2549:in wine or had liquid poured over them to produce
2221:Especially important was the fishing and trade in
864:were the most affordable alternatives. Butter and
5076:
5037:Carlin, Martha; Rosenthal, Joel T., eds. (1998).
1750:; from a book of hours manuscript from about 1500
920:In Europe, there were typically two meals a day:
438:and almond milk and cooking them in coals. While
8790:
5188:Fenton, Alexander; Kisbán, Eszter, eds. (1986).
2852:
2429:. Fresh milk was overall less common than other
1320:In most households, cooking was done on an open
198:A type of refined cooking that developed in the
167:being mainstays among the northern populations.
5083:Wallingford: The Castle and the Town in Context
5036:
4907:(W.F. Giles, "Onions and other edible Alliums"
3153:, aniseed and other spices were referred to as
1566:The majority of the European population before
5462:
4094:Scully (1995), page 3; Adamson (2004), page 51
3271:A page from a late-14th-century manuscript of
1101:in the late 11th century. She was the wife of
75:remained the most important staple during the
61:and cooking changed less than they did in the
8181:
5621:
3747:
3620:Terence Scully, "Tempering Medieval Food" in
3551:Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in
3538:Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in
3236:
1270:is said to work equally well, and in another
671:. After that came the "heavy" meats, such as
5521:Food in Medieval England: Diet and Nutrition
5187:
5144:. Continuum International Publishing Group.
5085:. BAR British Series. Oxford: Archaeopress.
5022:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
4923:A generic Roman term for a cookery book, as
4004:Du fait de cuisine par Maître Chiquart, 1420
3829:
3827:
3026:", while others sat "below the salt", where
2498:) would often be the only available choice.
2353:and were still consumed in the Middle Ages:
2085:A wide range of birds were eaten, including
834:were common around the Mediterranean. Dried
405:
400:During the Middle Ages it was believed that
37:
5488:Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
4350:"Topographica Hiberniae" (1187), quoted in
4341:
3489:
3487:
2017:was not as common as today because raising
1691:, pieces of bread with which a liquid like
1587:'s Hodge of Ware, the London cook from the
1141:from the first printed cookbook in German,
968:, small morsels to be eaten during breaks.
602:
8188:
8174:
5628:
5614:
5583:on medieval and early modern European food
5370:
4909:Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society
4318:. Books for Libraries Press. p. 119.
4305:
3001:Picking green grapes for making verjuice;
2671:. In England there were also the variants
2611:. Even comparatively exotic products like
1882:were also common and important sources of
234:. These, along with the widespread use of
5595:on feeding the poor in medieval Catalonia
5379:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5371:Hunt, Edwin S.; Murray, James H. (1999).
5099:
4955:Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays
4554:Medieval Science, Technology and Medicine
4311:
4026:Medieval Science, Technology and Medicine
3954:Creighton & Christie (2015), page 13.
3824:
3813:
3811:
3773:
3123:, a 14th-century recipe collection, as a
2663:'good ale') and was made from barley and
2659:(most likely a direct borrowing from the
2249:could be found in markets as far away as
1746:with his assistant making bread rolls or
311:, you were like grain kept in the granary
8195:
5420:
5333:Fast and Feast: Food in Medieval Society
5291:. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group.
5237:
5158:
3555:, pages 160–59; Scully (1995), page 117.
3484:
3266:
2996:
2861:Harvesting pepper; French manuscript of
2856:
2829:-speaking regions. By the 13th century,
2458:
2313:
2176:
1996:
1934:
1786:
1782:
1737:
1606:
1547:
1405:
1297:
1200:, a fish pie from the recipe collection
1132:
975:
883:
395:
323:
242:, gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavor.
83:was introduced to Europe late, with the
31:
5393:
5328:
5214:
4990:
4971:
4952:
3459:
3457:
2677:, made from hot milk and cold ale, and
2639:and makes one's flesh white and smooth.
1771:tampering with weights or adulterating
1543:
39:Livre du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio
14:
8791:
5513:Woolgar, Chris M.; Serjeantson, Dale;
5439:
5305:
5286:
5120:
4271:
3808:
3041:
2845:issued restrictions on the selling of
2825:started to pick up, especially in the
2512:seeds with the ash of dried and burnt
2385:and blackberry wine. Many variants of
1285:. Extant recipe collections show that
806:, the northern German-speaking areas,
762:, and various processed foods such as
8169:
7815:Historical North Indian and Pakistani
5609:
5485:
5444:The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages
5351:
5192:. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers.
5013:
4831:
3965:The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages
2441:, both made from plants found in the
2169:and putting more meat on the market.
1137:A cook at the hearth with his ladle;
782:
8120:
5356:. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer.
5249:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
5159:EĂźlinger, Hans Michael, ed. (2009).
5139:
4972:Adamson, Melitta Weiss, ed. (2002).
4953:Adamson, Melitta Weiss, ed. (1995).
4771:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
4388:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
4358:, 1928, reprinted in 2003, page 10.
4242:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
4220:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
4167:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
3553:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
3540:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe
3454:
3127:with a cheese and egg yolk filling.
2903:the most obscure in its origin) was
1293:
789:Regional cuisines of medieval Europe
749:in the 7th century and tightened by
686:
482:
274:The cuisines of the cultures of the
8773:
8218:Decline of the Western Roman Empire
8140:
5463:Toussant-Samat, Maguelonne (2009).
5058:Carnevale Schianca, Enrico (2011).
4834:Bulletin Philologique et Historique
4586:from the original on 29 August 2019
3729:from the original on 3 October 2012
3719:"Bones reveal chubby monks aplenty"
3572:from the original on 1 October 2023
2172:
1410:A restored medieval kitchen inside
1128:
956:, "late supper") with considerable
577:Medieval scholars considered human
561:Medieval medicine of Western Europe
303:floor of the Lord and were threshed
222:in combination with spices such as
191:also dictated that the food of the
24:
8310:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire
5040:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe
4784:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe
4622:Quoted in Scully (1995), page 162.
4567:Some Thoughts Concerning Education
4507:Quoted in Scully (1995), page 152.
4272:Gorman, James (14 February 2018).
4052:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe
4039:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe
3463:Hunt & Murray (1999), page 16.
3344:De honesta voluptate et valetudine
3046:The term "dessert" comes from the
2849:on Sundays and official holidays.
2516:of white wine were both effective
1002:Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
888:Banquet given in Paris in 1378 by
25:
8810:
8740:Historiography in the Middle Ages
5540:
5448:. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press.
5142:Everyday Life in Medieval England
5062:(in Italian). Florence: Olschki.
4999:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
3337:, in 1474, the Vatican librarian
3169:, Sicily was once famous for its
2129:, than for their meat. As today,
1930:
475:(at those times) rather than the
355:. All animal products, including
8772:
8763:
8762:
8752:
8149:
8139:
8129:
8119:
8110:
8109:
8098:
8086:
4930:
4917:
4883:
4874:
4871:Scully (1995), pages 7–9, 24–25.
4865:
4848:
4825:
4816:
4807:
4798:
4789:
4776:
4763:
4754:
4745:
4736:
4727:
4718:
4709:
4700:
4691:
4682:
4679:Adamson (2004), pages 15–19, 28.
4673:
4664:
4651:
4634:
4625:
4616:
4607:
3887:Adamson (2004), pages 55–56, 96.
3427:Guild feasts in medieval England
3400:
3386:
2245:made from herring caught in the
1895:from three to four times a day.
535:and their subordinates, such as
269:
8238:Christianity in the Middle Ages
8233:Decline of Hellenistic religion
8150:
5352:Hicks, Michael A., ed. (2001).
5215:Cipolla, Carlo M., ed. (1972).
5043:. London: The Hambledon Press.
5014:Bynum, Caroline Walker (1987).
4991:Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004).
4613:Scully (1995), page 162, 164–65
4598:
4572:
4559:
4552:Richard W. Unger, "Brewing" in
4546:
4537:
4528:
4519:
4510:
4501:
4492:
4483:
4474:
4465:
4456:
4447:
4438:
4429:
4420:
4411:
4402:
4393:
4380:
4371:
4356:Barnacles in Nature and in Myth
4332:
4296:
4284:from the original on 4 May 2022
4265:
4256:
4247:
4234:
4225:
4212:
4199:
4190:
4181:
4172:
4151:
4142:
4133:
4124:
4115:
4106:
4097:
4088:
4079:
4066:
4057:
4044:
4031:
4018:
4009:
3996:
3980:
3971:
3957:
3948:
3939:
3926:
3908:
3899:
3890:
3881:
3872:
3863:
3854:
3845:
3836:
3799:
3790:
3741:
3711:
3702:
3693:
3684:
3675:
3666:
3657:
3648:
3627:
3614:
3605:
3584:
3558:
3545:
2721:, beer was brewed primarily in
2053:, and stomach could be used as
1467:
295:This bread retells your history
8516:Crisis of the late Middle Ages
7805:Historical Indian subcontinent
4312:Lankester, Edwin Ray (1970) .
3878:Henisch (1976), pages 185–186.
3869:Adamson (2004), pages 161–164.
3532:
3523:
3514:
3505:
3496:
3475:
3466:
2760:
2578:, the Low Countries, northern
1957:sometimes drink buttermilk or
894:Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor
13:
1:
8690:Disability in the Middle Ages
8363:Rise of the Republic of Genoa
8295:Rise of the Venetian Republic
5329:Henisch, Bridget Ann (1976).
4946:
4724:Henisch (1976), pages 161–64.
4516:Scully (1995), pages 151–154.
4417:Scully (1995), pages 154–157.
3748:J. J. Verlaan (August 2007).
3611:Scully (1995), pages 126–135.
3602:Scully (1995), pages 135–136.
3417:Early modern European cuisine
3372:survive in an eighth-century
2882:(and the cheaper alternative
2853:Herbs, spices, and condiments
2833:(literally 'home-burnt' from
2733:in the 14th century, then to
2155:Fourth Council of the Lateran
319:
99:were eaten by the poor while
5635:
5425:(in French). Paris: Perrin.
4936:The list, however, includes
4927:is of American dictionaries.
4862:are rare collectibles today.
4715:Adamson (2004), pages 26–27.
4706:Scully (1995), pages 111–12.
4697:Adamson (2004), pages 11–15.
4631:Scully (1995), pages 163–64.
4604:Scully (1995), pages 158–59.
4489:Scully (1995), pages 147–51.
4480:Scully (1995), pages 143–44.
4471:Scully (1995), pages 140–42.
4462:Scully (1995), pages 138–39.
4444:Adamson (2004), pages 48–51.
4399:Adamson (2004), pages 45–39.
4377:Henisch (1976), pages 48–49.
4302:Adamson (2004), pages 33–35.
4231:Adamson (2004), pages 30–33.
4139:Adamson (2004), pages 19–24.
4063:Henisch (1976), pages 64–67.
3977:Adamson (2004), pages 57–62.
3945:Henisch (1976), pages 95–97.
3842:Henisch (1976), pages 24–25.
3529:Scully (1995), pages 190–92.
3472:Henisch (1976), pages 29–58.
3305:Tractatus de modo preparandi
3262:
3222:with sweetened ricotta, and
2377:from wild plums (modern-day
1632:The most common grains were
1274:could be replaced by pears.
971:
910:Banquet de Charles V le Sage
554:
7:
7989:List of historical cuisines
7825:History of alcoholic drinks
5842:Lowcountry (South Carolina)
5314:. Oxford University Press.
5306:Harvey, Barbara F. (1993).
4880:Notaker (2021), pages 49–66
4408:Adamson (2004), pages 48–51
4121:Scully (1995), pages 35–38.
3914:Scully (1995). pages 44–46.
3896:Dembinska (1999), page 143.
3590:Scully (1995), pages 41–46.
3379:
3299:, perhaps originating near
2145:equivalent of the pig. The
1552:The disreputable cook from
1029:, rather than giving it as
407:Livre des simples médecines
10:
8815:
8491:Rise of the Ottoman Empire
7276:Trinidadian and Tobagonian
5486:Unger, Richard W. (2007).
5421:Rambourg, Patrick (2010).
5140:Dyer, Christopher (2000).
4804:Scully (1995), pages 84–86
4426:Dembinska (1999), page 80.
4315:Diversions of a Naturalist
4085:Adamson (2004), pages 1–5.
3690:Harvey (1993), pages 64–65
3681:Harvey (1993), pages 38–41
3237:Historiography and sources
3115:flowers. An early form of
2835:gebrannter wein, brandwein
2566:
2452:
1602:
1206:, includes a mix of figs,
1068:Food was mostly served on
999:, in the shape of a ship;
786:
558:
119:by people of all classes.
8748:
8677:
8536:
8431:
8418:Mongol invasion of Europe
8323:
8203:
8081:
8009:
7976:
7913:
7745:
7658:
7339:
5792:
5643:
5574:, a medieval cookbook on
5100:Dembinska, Maria (1999).
4760:Adamson (2004), page 110.
4367:full text at Google Books
4338:Adamson (2004), page 164.
4178:Adamson (2004), chapter 1
4103:Adamson (2004), pages 1–5
3860:Adamson (2004), page 170.
3851:Adamson (2004), page 162.
3766:10.1007/s00586-007-0342-x
3654:Hicks (2001), pages 15–17
3161:, the Arab conquerors of
2864:The Travels of Marco Polo
2773:knew of the technique of
1625:bread was more common in
924:at mid-day and a lighter
18:Medieval European cuisine
7895:Scottish royal household
7840:History of vegetarianism
6078:Central African Republic
5440:Scully, Terence (1995).
5287:Hanson, David J (1995).
4742:Adamson (2004), page 97.
4733:Adamson (2004), page 89.
4453:Scully (1995), page 137.
4435:Scully (1995), page 157.
4196:Adamson (2004), page 45.
3905:Scully (1995), page 113.
3833:Henisch (1976), page 17.
3796:Scully (1995), page 218.
3520:Henisch (1976), page 46.
3502:Henisch (1976), page 40.
3493:Henisch (1976), page 43.
3481:Henisch (1976), page 41.
3448:
2406:, the fermented milk of
2309:
2005:While all forms of wild
1992:
1399:'to cram'), to skin and
1119:Cardinal Bishop of Ostia
1076:of stale bread, wood or
892:(second from right) for
879:
299:You were brought to the
8373:Investiture Controversy
8343:Second Bulgarian Empire
5394:Notaker, Henry (2017).
5272:. New York: Routledge.
5165:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
5081:; Roffe, David (eds.).
4976:. New York: Routledge.
4813:Scully (1995), page 174
4688:Scully (1995), page 86.
4670:Dickie (2008), page 63.
4187:Scully (1995), page 14.
4148:Scully (1995), page 71.
4112:Henisch (1976), page 77
4015:Scully (1995), page 96.
3934:Food in the Middle Ages
3923:Scully (1995), page 70.
3805:Scully (1995), page 83.
3663:Hicks (2001), page10–11
3645:Woolgar (2006), page 11
3622:Food in the Middle Ages
3241:Research into medieval
3191:) and almond clusters (
2574:of the Middle Ages. In
2562:
2448:
1762:Assize of Bread and Ale
246:were very popular as a
181:conspicuous consumption
8730:Post-classical history
8486:Fall of Constantinople
8393:Capet–Plantagenet feud
8260:First Bulgarian Empire
7820:History of agriculture
5601:on early-medieval diet
5550:about medieval cuisine
5435:. coll. tempus n° 359.
4995:Food in Medieval Times
4858:demonstrates, and old
4856:Loeb Classical Library
4822:Toussanit-Samat (2009)
3566:"Gale – Product Login"
3289:
3205:cassata alla Siciliana
3199:-making that produced
3008:
2951:or pepper and ginger.
2868:
2641:
2464:
2323:
2192:
2002:
1950:
1939:Preparing and serving
1802:
1768:London Baker's Company
1751:
1612:
1563:
1415:
1317:
1277:The completely edible
1163:. It was common for a
1148:
1006:
917:
768:Rule of Saint Benedict
747:Rule of Saint Benedict
603:
411:
406:
394:
340:
317:
43:
38:
7790:Early modern European
7518:Indigenous Australian
7077:SĂŁo TomĂ© and PrĂncipe
5964:Bosnian-Herzegovinian
5559:20 April 2007 at the
5121:Dickie, John (2008).
4957:. New York: Garland.
4889:In modern botany the
4543:Hanson (1995), page 9
4525:Unger (2007), page 54
4130:Scully 1995, page 70.
3699:Dyer (1989), page 134
3672:Hicks (2001), page 18
3442:Pre-Columbian cuisine
3270:
3000:
2954:Common herbs such as
2860:
2819:Arnaldus of Villanova
2625:
2462:
2317:
2180:
2000:
1938:
1790:
1783:Fruits and vegetables
1741:
1610:
1551:
1458:Amadeus VIII of Savoy
1409:
1301:
1136:
979:
908:, bread and a plate (
887:
399:
389:
327:
293:
206:in the highly spiced
159:was also eaten, with
35:
8710:Medieval reenactment
8506:Renaissance Humanism
8413:Medieval Warm Period
8383:Republic of Florence
8197:European Middle Ages
7953:Molecular gastronomy
7885:Pre-contact Hawaiian
7795:Historical Argentine
7681:Mangalorean Catholic
5862:Pacific Northwestern
4914:: (1943) pp 193–200.
4899:in Palestine is the
4565:John Locke (1693), "
3708:Hicks (2001), page 8
3633:Dyer (2000), page 85
3432:Tudor food and drink
3368:, whose excerpts of
3323:Le MĂ©nagier de Paris
3131:Le MĂ©nagier de Paris
2867:, early 15th century
2753:alcoholic brew with
2653:Le Menagier de Paris
2075:domesticated rabbits
1544:Professional cooking
1532:into a multitude of
1230:) and pitted damson
896:(left), and his son
619:-coated spices like
501:estates of the realm
491:was commonplace and
330:The Life of Blessed
8423:Kingdom of Portugal
8290:Old Church Slavonic
8275:Anglo-Saxon England
7810:Historical Japanese
7645:Transylvanian Saxon
7513:Indigenous American
5467:The History of Food
5223:. London: Collins.
5125:. London: Sceptre.
4348:Giraldus Cambrensis
4163:Deutsche SpeiĂźkamer
4006:Vallesia, 40, 1985.
3335:early modern period
3214:, the term for the
3099:with strawberries,
3042:Sweets and desserts
2984:Hildegard of Bingen
2698:, a mix of various
2320:Li livres dou santé
2203:such as whales and
1723:, and many similar
1095:early modern period
1023:Countess of Lincoln
890:Charles V of France
570:theory proposed by
568:four bodily humours
497:developed countries
276:Mediterranean Basin
63:early modern period
8604:In popular culture
8569:Crusading movement
8441:Hundred Years' War
8300:Civitas Schinesghe
8285:Carolingian Empire
8270:Kingdom of Croatia
8223:Barbarian kingdoms
7890:Korean royal court
7835:History of seafood
7800:Historical Chinese
7775:Antebellum America
7615:Pennsylvania Dutch
6227:Equatorial Guinean
6197:Dominican Republic
5554:Medieval cookbooks
5548:Academic resources
4352:Edward Heron-Allen
4278:The New York Times
3437:Medieval household
3408:Middle Ages portal
3339:Bartolomeo Platina
3290:
3231:cappelli di turchi
3069:with sugar, sweet
3009:
3004:Tacuinum Sanitatis
2921:grains of paradise
2869:
2535:grains of paradise
2465:
2324:
2209:Holy Roman Emperor
2193:
2188:Tacuinum Sanitatis
2003:
1973:, Northern French
1951:
1946:Tacuinum Sanitatis
1803:
1798:Tacuinum Sanitatis
1752:
1613:
1564:
1453:Du fait de cuisine
1416:
1318:
1149:
1019:Robert Grosseteste
1007:
958:alcoholic beverage
918:
916:, around 1455–60).
783:Regional variation
493:social hierarchies
412:
341:
262:, particularly as
44:
8786:
8785:
8695:Basic topics list
8496:Swiss mercenaries
8446:Wars of the Roses
8353:Kingdom of Poland
8338:Holy Roman Empire
8205:Early Middle Ages
8163:
8162:
7905:Thirteen Colonies
7765:Ancient Israelite
6965:Papua New Guinean
5763:Intercontinental
5589:on medieval bread
5576:Project Gutenberg
5571:The Forme of Cury
5532:978-0-19-956335-7
5497:978-0-8122-1999-9
5478:978-1-4051-8119-8
5432:978-2-262-03318-7
5256:978-0-300-11199-6
5172:978-3-527-31674-8
5151:978-1-85285-201-6
5092:978-1-4073-1418-1
5069:978-88-222-6073-4
4325:978-0-8369-1471-9
3331:MĂ©nagier de Paris
3313:Châlons-sur-Marne
3155:Ă©pices de chambre
2917:Eleanor of Naples
2719:Early Middle Ages
2159:Pope Innocent III
2029:industry, as was
1844:wild strawberries
1830:. Farther north,
1568:industrialization
1503:, conserving, or
1473:Food preservation
1294:Medieval kitchens
1203:The Forme of Cury
1099:Theodora Doukaina
1080:with the help of
1054:ladies-in-waiting
756:Westminster Abbey
751:Pope Benedict XII
687:Calorie structure
587:slowly and cause
483:Class constraints
349:Orthodox Churches
337:Pietro Lorenzetti
77:Early Middle Ages
67:European cuisines
51:European cultures
16:(Redirected from
8806:
8799:Medieval cuisine
8776:
8775:
8766:
8765:
8756:
8715:Medieval studies
8559:Church and State
8433:Late Middle Ages
8325:High Middle Ages
8243:Christianization
8213:Migration Period
8190:
8183:
8176:
8167:
8166:
8153:
8152:
8143:
8142:
8133:
8123:
8122:
8113:
8112:
8105:Drink portal
8103:
8102:
8101:
8091:
8090:
8071:Meal preparation
7984:List of cuisines
7830:History of bread
7755:Ancient Egyptian
7732:Ritual slaughter
7590:Louisiana Creole
7528:Italian American
7347:African American
6336:Greek Macedonian
5630:
5623:
5616:
5607:
5606:
5536:
5524:
5509:
5482:
5470:
5459:
5447:
5436:
5417:
5390:
5378:
5367:
5348:
5336:
5325:
5313:
5302:
5283:
5271:
5260:
5248:
5234:
5222:
5211:
5184:
5155:
5136:
5117:
5096:
5073:
5054:
5033:
5021:
5010:
4998:
4987:
4968:
4941:
4934:
4928:
4921:
4915:
4887:
4881:
4878:
4872:
4869:
4863:
4860:children's books
4852:
4846:
4845:
4829:
4823:
4820:
4814:
4811:
4805:
4802:
4796:
4793:
4787:
4780:
4774:
4773:, pages 120–121.
4767:
4761:
4758:
4752:
4749:
4743:
4740:
4734:
4731:
4725:
4722:
4716:
4713:
4707:
4704:
4698:
4695:
4689:
4686:
4680:
4677:
4671:
4668:
4662:
4655:
4649:
4638:
4632:
4629:
4623:
4620:
4614:
4611:
4605:
4602:
4596:
4595:
4593:
4591:
4576:
4570:
4563:
4557:
4550:
4544:
4541:
4535:
4532:
4526:
4523:
4517:
4514:
4508:
4505:
4499:
4496:
4490:
4487:
4481:
4478:
4472:
4469:
4463:
4460:
4454:
4451:
4445:
4442:
4436:
4433:
4427:
4424:
4418:
4415:
4409:
4406:
4400:
4397:
4391:
4384:
4378:
4375:
4369:
4345:
4339:
4336:
4330:
4329:
4309:
4303:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4269:
4263:
4260:
4254:
4251:
4245:
4238:
4232:
4229:
4223:
4216:
4210:
4203:
4197:
4194:
4188:
4185:
4179:
4176:
4170:
4155:
4149:
4146:
4140:
4137:
4131:
4128:
4122:
4119:
4113:
4110:
4104:
4101:
4095:
4092:
4086:
4083:
4077:
4070:
4064:
4061:
4055:
4048:
4042:
4035:
4029:
4022:
4016:
4013:
4007:
4000:
3994:
3984:
3978:
3975:
3969:
3963:Terence Scully,
3961:
3955:
3952:
3946:
3943:
3937:
3930:
3924:
3921:
3915:
3912:
3906:
3903:
3897:
3894:
3888:
3885:
3879:
3876:
3870:
3867:
3861:
3858:
3852:
3849:
3843:
3840:
3834:
3831:
3822:
3815:
3806:
3803:
3797:
3794:
3788:
3787:
3777:
3745:
3739:
3738:
3736:
3734:
3725:. 15 July 2004.
3715:
3709:
3706:
3700:
3697:
3691:
3688:
3682:
3679:
3673:
3670:
3664:
3661:
3655:
3652:
3646:
3643:
3634:
3631:
3625:
3618:
3612:
3609:
3603:
3600:
3591:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3577:
3562:
3556:
3549:
3543:
3536:
3530:
3527:
3521:
3518:
3512:
3509:
3503:
3500:
3494:
3491:
3482:
3479:
3473:
3470:
3464:
3461:
3410:
3405:
3404:
3396:
3391:
3390:
3296:Liber de Coquina
3119:can be found in
2923:, a relative of
2755:original gravity
2727:High Middle Ages
2239:Hanseatic League
2173:Fish and seafood
1593:Jacques de Vitry
1589:Canterbury Tales
1585:Geoffrey Chaucer
1559:Canterbury Tales
1412:Verrucole Castle
1395:(from the Latin
1327:Late Middle Ages
1198:Tart de brymlent
1129:Food preparation
1039:multiple courses
740:
739:
735:
729:
728:
724:
715:
714:
710:
606:
409:
314:
306:
298:
200:Late Middle Ages
47:Medieval cuisine
41:
21:
8814:
8813:
8809:
8808:
8807:
8805:
8804:
8803:
8789:
8788:
8787:
8782:
8744:
8725:Neo-medievalism
8673:
8609:Itinerant court
8532:
8427:
8348:Georgian Empire
8333:Norman Conquest
8319:
8265:Frankish Empire
8199:
8194:
8164:
8159:
8099:
8097:
8093:Food portal
8085:
8077:
8005:
7972:
7909:
7741:
7654:
7362:Arab-Indonesian
7335:
7316:Western Saharan
6788:Liechtensteiner
6353:Guinea-Bissauan
5989:Channel Islands
5877:Southwestern US
5797:
5788:
5639:
5634:
5604:
5599:Journal article
5565:British Library
5561:Wayback Machine
5543:
5533:
5517:, eds. (2006).
5498:
5479:
5456:
5433:
5406:
5387:
5364:
5345:
5322:
5299:
5280:
5257:
5231:
5200:
5173:
5152:
5133:
5114:
5093:
5070:
5051:
5030:
5007:
4984:
4965:
4949:
4944:
4935:
4931:
4922:
4918:
4905:A. ascalonensis
4888:
4884:
4879:
4875:
4870:
4866:
4853:
4849:
4830:
4826:
4821:
4817:
4812:
4808:
4803:
4799:
4794:
4790:
4781:
4777:
4768:
4764:
4759:
4755:
4750:
4746:
4741:
4737:
4732:
4728:
4723:
4719:
4714:
4710:
4705:
4701:
4696:
4692:
4687:
4683:
4678:
4674:
4669:
4665:
4656:
4652:
4639:
4635:
4630:
4626:
4621:
4617:
4612:
4608:
4603:
4599:
4589:
4587:
4578:
4577:
4573:
4564:
4560:
4551:
4547:
4542:
4538:
4533:
4529:
4524:
4520:
4515:
4511:
4506:
4502:
4497:
4493:
4488:
4484:
4479:
4475:
4470:
4466:
4461:
4457:
4452:
4448:
4443:
4439:
4434:
4430:
4425:
4421:
4416:
4412:
4407:
4403:
4398:
4394:
4385:
4381:
4376:
4372:
4346:
4342:
4337:
4333:
4326:
4310:
4306:
4301:
4297:
4287:
4285:
4270:
4266:
4261:
4257:
4252:
4248:
4239:
4235:
4230:
4226:
4217:
4213:
4204:
4200:
4195:
4191:
4186:
4182:
4177:
4173:
4159:Hieronymus Bock
4156:
4152:
4147:
4143:
4138:
4134:
4129:
4125:
4120:
4116:
4111:
4107:
4102:
4098:
4093:
4089:
4084:
4080:
4071:
4067:
4062:
4058:
4049:
4045:
4036:
4032:
4028:, pages 176–77.
4023:
4019:
4014:
4010:
4001:
3997:
3985:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3962:
3958:
3953:
3949:
3944:
3940:
3931:
3927:
3922:
3918:
3913:
3909:
3904:
3900:
3895:
3891:
3886:
3882:
3877:
3873:
3868:
3864:
3859:
3855:
3850:
3846:
3841:
3837:
3832:
3825:
3816:
3809:
3804:
3800:
3795:
3791:
3746:
3742:
3732:
3730:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3707:
3703:
3698:
3694:
3689:
3685:
3680:
3676:
3671:
3667:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3649:
3644:
3637:
3632:
3628:
3619:
3615:
3610:
3606:
3601:
3594:
3589:
3585:
3575:
3573:
3564:
3563:
3559:
3550:
3546:
3542:, pages 155–59.
3537:
3533:
3528:
3524:
3519:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3501:
3497:
3492:
3485:
3480:
3476:
3471:
3467:
3462:
3455:
3451:
3446:
3422:Guillaume Tirel
3406:
3399:
3392:
3385:
3382:
3265:
3239:
3044:
2913:Cardinal Riario
2855:
2763:
2646:Norman Conquest
2633:ruins the teeth
2571:
2569:History of beer
2565:
2457:
2455:History of wine
2451:
2351:Roman antiquity
2312:
2216:Leo of Rozmital
2175:
2079:bred and raised
2023:Lamb and mutton
2011:working animals
1995:
1933:
1785:
1605:
1546:
1470:
1446:, and numerous
1296:
1131:
974:
945:and late-night
882:
791:
785:
737:
733:
732:
726:
722:
721:
712:
708:
707:
699:Earl of Warwick
689:
627:, and seeds of
563:
557:
517:number of ranks
485:
461:monastic orders
322:
312:
307:While awaiting
304:
296:
272:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8812:
8802:
8801:
8784:
8783:
8781:
8780:
8770:
8760:
8749:
8746:
8745:
8743:
8742:
8737:
8732:
8727:
8722:
8720:Misconceptions
8717:
8712:
8707:
8702:
8697:
8692:
8687:
8681:
8679:
8675:
8674:
8672:
8671:
8666:
8661:
8656:
8651:
8646:
8641:
8636:
8631:
8626:
8621:
8616:
8611:
8606:
8601:
8596:
8591:
8586:
8581:
8576:
8571:
8566:
8561:
8556:
8551:
8546:
8540:
8538:
8534:
8533:
8531:
8530:
8528:Little Ice Age
8525:
8524:
8523:
8513:
8508:
8503:
8498:
8493:
8488:
8483:
8481:Western Schism
8478:
8473:
8468:
8463:
8458:
8453:
8448:
8443:
8437:
8435:
8429:
8428:
8426:
8425:
8420:
8415:
8410:
8405:
8400:
8395:
8390:
8385:
8380:
8375:
8370:
8365:
8360:
8355:
8350:
8345:
8340:
8335:
8329:
8327:
8321:
8320:
8318:
8317:
8312:
8307:
8302:
8297:
8292:
8287:
8282:
8277:
8272:
8267:
8262:
8257:
8252:
8247:
8246:
8245:
8235:
8230:
8228:Late antiquity
8225:
8220:
8215:
8209:
8207:
8201:
8200:
8193:
8192:
8185:
8178:
8170:
8161:
8160:
8158:
8157:
8147:
8137:
8127:
8117:
8107:
8095:
8082:
8079:
8078:
8076:
8075:
8074:
8073:
8063:
8062:
8061:
8051:
8050:
8049:
8044:
8034:
8029:
8024:
8019:
8013:
8011:
8007:
8006:
8004:
8003:
8002:
8001:
7994:Lists of foods
7991:
7986:
7980:
7978:
7974:
7973:
7971:
7970:
7965:
7960:
7955:
7950:
7945:
7944:
7943:
7938:
7928:
7923:
7917:
7915:
7911:
7910:
7908:
7907:
7902:
7897:
7892:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7872:
7867:
7862:
7857:
7852:
7847:
7842:
7837:
7832:
7827:
7822:
7817:
7812:
7807:
7802:
7797:
7792:
7787:
7782:
7777:
7772:
7767:
7762:
7757:
7751:
7749:
7743:
7742:
7740:
7739:
7734:
7729:
7728:
7727:
7717:
7712:
7707:
7706:
7705:
7695:
7690:
7689:
7688:
7683:
7678:
7668:
7662:
7660:
7656:
7655:
7653:
7652:
7647:
7642:
7637:
7632:
7627:
7622:
7617:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7597:
7592:
7587:
7582:
7577:
7576:
7575:
7570:
7565:
7560:
7555:
7550:
7545:
7540:
7530:
7525:
7520:
7515:
7510:
7509:
7508:
7503:
7498:
7493:
7488:
7478:
7473:
7471:Greek-American
7468:
7463:
7458:
7457:
7456:
7451:
7446:
7441:
7436:
7431:
7426:
7421:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7396:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7365:
7364:
7354:
7349:
7343:
7341:
7337:
7336:
7334:
7333:
7328:
7323:
7318:
7313:
7308:
7303:
7298:
7293:
7288:
7283:
7278:
7273:
7268:
7263:
7258:
7253:
7248:
7243:
7242:
7241:
7231:
7226:
7221:
7216:
7211:
7206:
7201:
7196:
7191:
7190:
7189:
7184:
7179:
7174:
7169:
7164:
7159:
7154:
7149:
7144:
7139:
7129:
7124:
7119:
7114:
7109:
7104:
7102:Sierra Leonean
7099:
7094:
7089:
7084:
7079:
7074:
7069:
7064:
7059:
7054:
7053:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7027:
7022:
7017:
7012:
7007:
6997:
6992:
6987:
6982:
6977:
6972:
6967:
6962:
6957:
6952:
6947:
6942:
6937:
6932:
6927:
6922:
6917:
6912:
6907:
6902:
6897:
6892:
6887:
6882:
6877:
6872:
6867:
6862:
6857:
6852:
6847:
6842:
6837:
6832:
6831:
6830:
6825:
6815:
6810:
6805:
6800:
6795:
6790:
6785:
6780:
6775:
6770:
6765:
6760:
6755:
6750:
6745:
6740:
6739:
6738:
6733:
6723:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6707:
6706:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6685:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6669:
6664:
6659:
6654:
6649:
6644:
6639:
6634:
6624:
6619:
6614:
6609:
6604:
6603:
6602:
6597:
6592:
6587:
6582:
6577:
6572:
6567:
6562:
6557:
6552:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6527:
6526:
6525:
6520:
6515:
6510:
6505:
6500:
6495:
6490:
6485:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6465:
6460:
6455:
6450:
6445:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6344:
6343:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6293:
6292:
6291:
6286:
6284:French Guianan
6281:
6276:
6266:
6261:
6260:
6259:
6249:
6244:
6239:
6234:
6229:
6224:
6219:
6214:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6194:
6189:
6184:
6183:
6182:
6177:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6147:
6142:
6137:
6136:
6135:
6130:
6125:
6120:
6115:
6110:
6105:
6100:
6090:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6074:
6073:
6068:
6058:
6053:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6033:
6028:
6023:
6022:
6021:
6016:
6011:
6006:
6004:Northern Irish
6001:
5996:
5991:
5986:
5976:
5971:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5916:
5911:
5906:
5901:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5885:
5884:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5803:
5801:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5786:
5785:
5784:
5782:Middle Eastern
5779:
5774:
5772:Latin American
5769:
5761:
5756:
5755:
5754:
5749:
5744:
5739:
5729:
5728:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5697:
5696:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5680:
5670:
5669:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5647:
5645:
5641:
5640:
5633:
5632:
5625:
5618:
5610:
5603:
5602:
5596:
5590:
5584:
5578:
5567:
5551:
5544:
5542:
5541:External links
5539:
5538:
5537:
5531:
5510:
5496:
5483:
5477:
5460:
5454:
5437:
5431:
5418:
5405:978-0520294004
5404:
5391:
5385:
5368:
5363:978-0851158327
5362:
5349:
5343:
5326:
5320:
5303:
5297:
5284:
5278:
5261:
5255:
5239:Freedman, Paul
5235:
5229:
5212:
5198:
5185:
5171:
5156:
5150:
5137:
5132:978-0340896419
5131:
5118:
5112:
5097:
5091:
5079:Christie, Neil
5074:
5068:
5055:
5049:
5034:
5028:
5011:
5005:
4988:
4982:
4969:
4963:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4942:
4929:
4916:
4882:
4873:
4864:
4847:
4824:
4815:
4806:
4797:
4788:
4775:
4762:
4753:
4744:
4735:
4726:
4717:
4708:
4699:
4690:
4681:
4672:
4663:
4650:
4633:
4624:
4615:
4606:
4597:
4571:
4558:
4556:, pages 102–3.
4545:
4536:
4527:
4518:
4509:
4500:
4491:
4482:
4473:
4464:
4455:
4446:
4437:
4428:
4419:
4410:
4401:
4392:
4379:
4370:
4340:
4331:
4324:
4304:
4295:
4264:
4255:
4246:
4233:
4224:
4211:
4207:Food in Change
4198:
4189:
4180:
4171:
4150:
4141:
4132:
4123:
4114:
4105:
4096:
4087:
4078:
4076:, pages 16–18.
4074:Food in Change
4065:
4056:
4054:, pages 40–41.
4043:
4041:, pages 27–51.
4030:
4017:
4008:
3995:
3979:
3970:
3956:
3947:
3938:
3936:, pages 61–81.
3925:
3916:
3907:
3898:
3889:
3880:
3871:
3862:
3853:
3844:
3835:
3823:
3819:Food in Change
3807:
3798:
3789:
3760:(8): 1129–35.
3740:
3710:
3701:
3692:
3683:
3674:
3665:
3656:
3647:
3635:
3626:
3613:
3604:
3592:
3583:
3557:
3544:
3531:
3522:
3513:
3504:
3495:
3483:
3474:
3465:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3411:
3397:
3381:
3378:
3264:
3261:
3238:
3235:
3227:alla Siciliana
3147:issue de table
3095:, sauces, and
3043:
3040:
3024:above the salt
2854:
2851:
2799:was used as a
2767:ancient Greeks
2762:
2759:
2667:, but without
2567:Main article:
2564:
2561:
2453:Main article:
2450:
2447:
2311:
2308:
2251:Constantinople
2201:marine mammals
2191:, 15th century
2174:
2171:
2147:barnacle goose
2077:were commonly
1994:
1991:
1949:, 14th century
1932:
1931:Dairy products
1929:
1816:bitter oranges
1801:, 15th century
1784:
1781:
1604:
1601:
1545:
1542:
1485:microorganisms
1469:
1466:
1295:
1292:
1153:Kitchen stoves
1144:Kuchenmaistrey
1130:
1127:
1107:Doge of Venice
1103:Domenico Selvo
973:
970:
881:
878:
787:Main article:
784:
781:
718:Henry Stafford
688:
685:
559:Main article:
556:
553:
549:sumptuary laws
484:
481:
453:Thomas Aquinas
420:barnacle geese
361:dairy products
332:Saint Humility
321:
318:
271:
268:
177:sumptuary laws
42:, 14th century
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8811:
8800:
8797:
8796:
8794:
8779:
8771:
8769:
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8414:
8411:
8409:
8406:
8404:
8401:
8399:
8396:
8394:
8391:
8389:
8388:Scholasticism
8386:
8384:
8381:
8379:
8376:
8374:
8371:
8369:
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8364:
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8359:
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8253:
8251:
8250:Rise of Islam
8248:
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8048:
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8030:
8028:
8027:Culinary arts
8025:
8023:
8020:
8018:
8015:
8014:
8012:
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7997:
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7838:
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7798:
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7783:
7781:
7778:
7776:
7773:
7771:
7770:Ancient Roman
7768:
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7763:
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7760:Ancient Greek
7758:
7756:
7753:
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7708:
7704:
7701:
7700:
7699:
7696:
7694:
7691:
7687:
7684:
7682:
7679:
7677:
7676:Goan Catholic
7674:
7673:
7672:
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7664:
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7648:
7646:
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7484:
7483:
7482:
7479:
7477:
7474:
7472:
7469:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7461:Crimean Tatar
7459:
7455:
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7442:
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7150:
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7138:
7135:
7134:
7133:
7130:
7128:
7127:South African
7125:
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7115:
7113:
7110:
7108:
7105:
7103:
7100:
7098:
7095:
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7090:
7088:
7085:
7083:
7082:Saudi Arabian
7080:
7078:
7075:
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7068:
7065:
7063:
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7058:
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7051:
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6913:
6911:
6908:
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6903:
6901:
6898:
6896:
6893:
6891:
6888:
6886:
6883:
6881:
6878:
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6866:
6863:
6861:
6858:
6856:
6853:
6851:
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6841:
6838:
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6833:
6829:
6826:
6824:
6821:
6820:
6819:
6816:
6814:
6811:
6809:
6806:
6804:
6801:
6799:
6798:Luxembourgish
6796:
6794:
6791:
6789:
6786:
6784:
6781:
6779:
6776:
6774:
6771:
6769:
6766:
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6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6749:
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6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6728:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6719:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6705:
6702:
6701:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6663:
6660:
6658:
6655:
6653:
6650:
6648:
6645:
6643:
6640:
6638:
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6633:
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6625:
6623:
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6615:
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6608:
6605:
6601:
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6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6532:
6531:
6528:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6518:Uttar Pradesh
6516:
6514:
6511:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6501:
6499:
6496:
6494:
6491:
6489:
6486:
6484:
6481:
6479:
6476:
6474:
6471:
6469:
6466:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6453:Maharashtrian
6451:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6413:Chhattisgarhi
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6386:
6385:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6351:
6349:
6346:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6323:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6297:
6294:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6282:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6272:
6271:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6262:
6258:
6255:
6254:
6253:
6250:
6248:
6245:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6228:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6207:East Timorese
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6181:
6178:
6176:
6173:
6172:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6148:
6146:
6143:
6141:
6138:
6134:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6124:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
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6059:
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6027:
6024:
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6017:
6015:
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6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5981:
5980:
5977:
5975:
5972:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5847:Midwestern US
5845:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5835:
5833:
5830:
5828:
5825:
5824:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5804:
5802:
5800:
5795:
5791:
5783:
5780:
5778:
5777:Mediterranean
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5762:
5760:
5757:
5753:
5750:
5748:
5745:
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5738:
5735:
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5730:
5726:
5723:
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5718:
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5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5702:
5701:
5698:
5694:
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5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5675:
5674:
5671:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5657:
5654:
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5652:
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5648:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5631:
5626:
5624:
5619:
5617:
5612:
5611:
5608:
5600:
5597:
5594:
5591:
5588:
5585:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5573:
5572:
5568:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5555:
5552:
5549:
5546:
5545:
5534:
5528:
5523:
5522:
5516:
5515:Waldron, Tony
5511:
5507:
5503:
5499:
5493:
5489:
5484:
5480:
5474:
5469:
5468:
5461:
5457:
5455:0-85115-611-8
5451:
5446:
5445:
5438:
5434:
5428:
5424:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5401:
5397:
5392:
5388:
5386:0-521-49923-2
5382:
5377:
5376:
5369:
5365:
5359:
5355:
5350:
5346:
5344:0-271-01230-7
5340:
5335:
5334:
5327:
5323:
5321:0-19-820161-3
5317:
5312:
5311:
5304:
5300:
5298:0-275-94926-5
5294:
5290:
5285:
5281:
5279:0-415-96930-1
5275:
5270:
5269:
5262:
5258:
5252:
5247:
5246:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5230:0-00-632841-5
5226:
5221:
5220:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5199:0-85976-145-2
5195:
5191:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5168:
5164:
5163:
5157:
5153:
5147:
5143:
5138:
5134:
5128:
5124:
5119:
5115:
5113:0-8122-3224-0
5109:
5105:
5104:
5098:
5094:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5075:
5071:
5065:
5061:
5056:
5052:
5050:1-85285-148-1
5046:
5042:
5041:
5035:
5031:
5029:0-520-05722-8
5025:
5020:
5019:
5012:
5008:
5006:0-313-32147-7
5002:
4997:
4996:
4989:
4985:
4983:0-415-92994-6
4979:
4975:
4970:
4966:
4964:0-85976-145-2
4960:
4956:
4951:
4950:
4939:
4933:
4926:
4920:
4913:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4893:
4886:
4877:
4868:
4861:
4857:
4851:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4828:
4819:
4810:
4801:
4792:
4786:, pages 101–2
4785:
4779:
4772:
4766:
4757:
4748:
4739:
4730:
4721:
4712:
4703:
4694:
4685:
4676:
4667:
4660:
4654:
4647:
4643:
4637:
4628:
4619:
4610:
4601:
4585:
4581:
4575:
4568:
4562:
4555:
4549:
4540:
4531:
4522:
4513:
4504:
4495:
4486:
4477:
4468:
4459:
4450:
4441:
4432:
4423:
4414:
4405:
4396:
4389:
4383:
4374:
4368:
4365:
4364:0-7661-5755-5
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4344:
4335:
4327:
4321:
4317:
4316:
4308:
4299:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4268:
4259:
4250:
4243:
4237:
4228:
4221:
4215:
4208:
4202:
4193:
4184:
4175:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4154:
4145:
4136:
4127:
4118:
4109:
4100:
4091:
4082:
4075:
4069:
4060:
4053:
4047:
4040:
4034:
4027:
4021:
4012:
4005:
3999:
3992:
3989:
3983:
3974:
3966:
3960:
3951:
3942:
3935:
3929:
3920:
3911:
3902:
3893:
3884:
3875:
3866:
3857:
3848:
3839:
3830:
3828:
3820:
3814:
3812:
3802:
3793:
3785:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3744:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3714:
3705:
3696:
3687:
3678:
3669:
3660:
3651:
3642:
3640:
3630:
3623:
3617:
3608:
3599:
3597:
3587:
3571:
3567:
3561:
3554:
3548:
3541:
3535:
3526:
3517:
3508:
3499:
3490:
3488:
3478:
3469:
3460:
3458:
3453:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3409:
3403:
3398:
3395:
3389:
3384:
3377:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3358:
3356:
3352:
3351:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3317:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3297:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3275:
3274:Forme of Cury
3269:
3260:
3257:
3251:
3247:
3244:
3234:
3232:
3229:, originally
3228:
3226:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3185:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3126:
3122:
3121:Forme of Cury
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3049:
3039:
3037:
3033:
3030:were made of
3029:
3025:
3020:
3016:
3014:
3006:
3005:
2999:
2995:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2952:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2866:
2865:
2859:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2785:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2758:
2756:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2688:
2686:
2685:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2582:, Poland and
2581:
2577:
2570:
2560:
2558:
2557:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2506:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2461:
2456:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2329:
2321:
2316:
2307:
2306:were common.
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2219:
2217:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2190:
2189:
2185:in a stream;
2184:
2179:
2170:
2168:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2043:domestic pigs
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
1999:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1955:
1948:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1920:chili peppers
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1800:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1780:
1778:
1777:baker's dozen
1774:
1769:
1764:
1763:
1758:
1749:
1745:
1740:
1736:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1609:
1600:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1541:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1438:, page boys,
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1315:
1311:
1310:
1309:The Decameron
1305:
1300:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1190:, were thin.
1189:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1047:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1035:table manners
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1005:, about 1410.
1004:
1003:
998:
994:
990:
986:
985:Duke of Berry
982:
978:
969:
967:
963:
959:
955:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
927:
923:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
886:
877:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
804:Low Countries
801:
797:
796:British Isles
790:
780:
778:
772:
769:
765:
761:
757:
752:
748:
743:
719:
704:
700:
695:
684:
680:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
605:
601:
597:
592:
590:
585:
580:
575:
573:
569:
562:
552:
550:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
519:ranging from
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
480:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
444:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
410:, about 1480.
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
386:
382:
378:
372:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
338:
334:
333:
326:
316:
310:
302:
292:
290:
285:
281:
277:
270:Dietary norms
267:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
196:
194:
193:working class
190:
186:
185:nouveau riche
182:
178:
173:
168:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
40:
34:
30:
19:
8563:
8549:Architecture
8521:Great Famine
8511:Universities
8451:Hussite Wars
8368:Great Schism
8255:Papal States
7958:Note by Note
7936:New American
7869:
7625:Pontic Greek
7506:South Indian
7501:North Indian
7172:Extremaduran
7062:Saint Lucian
6736:South Korean
6731:North Korean
6595:Palembangese
6523:Uttarakhandi
6009:Saint Helena
5999:Gibraltarian
5867:Puerto Rican
5593:Book chapter
5570:
5520:
5487:
5466:
5443:
5422:
5414:j.ctt1rv6298
5395:
5374:
5353:
5332:
5309:
5288:
5267:
5244:
5218:
5189:
5161:
5141:
5122:
5102:
5082:
5059:
5039:
5017:
4994:
4973:
4954:
4932:
4924:
4919:
4911:
4908:
4904:
4890:
4885:
4876:
4867:
4850:
4833:
4827:
4818:
4809:
4800:
4791:
4783:
4778:
4770:
4765:
4756:
4747:
4738:
4729:
4720:
4711:
4702:
4693:
4684:
4675:
4666:
4658:
4653:
4645:
4636:
4627:
4618:
4609:
4600:
4588:. Retrieved
4574:
4561:
4553:
4548:
4539:
4530:
4521:
4512:
4503:
4494:
4485:
4476:
4467:
4458:
4449:
4440:
4431:
4422:
4413:
4404:
4395:
4387:
4382:
4373:
4355:
4343:
4334:
4314:
4307:
4298:
4286:. Retrieved
4277:
4267:
4258:
4249:
4241:
4236:
4227:
4219:
4214:
4206:
4201:
4192:
4183:
4174:
4166:
4162:
4153:
4144:
4135:
4126:
4117:
4108:
4099:
4090:
4081:
4073:
4068:
4059:
4051:
4046:
4038:
4033:
4025:
4020:
4011:
4003:
3998:
3990:
3987:
3982:
3973:
3964:
3959:
3950:
3941:
3933:
3928:
3919:
3910:
3901:
3892:
3883:
3874:
3865:
3856:
3847:
3838:
3821:, pages 2–4.
3818:
3801:
3792:
3757:
3753:
3743:
3731:. Retrieved
3723:The Guardian
3722:
3713:
3704:
3695:
3686:
3677:
3668:
3659:
3650:
3629:
3624:, pages 7–12
3621:
3616:
3607:
3586:
3574:. Retrieved
3560:
3552:
3547:
3539:
3534:
3525:
3516:
3507:
3498:
3477:
3468:
3369:
3359:
3348:
3342:
3330:
3328:
3321:
3318:
3304:
3294:
3291:
3272:
3255:
3252:
3248:
3240:
3230:
3223:
3211:
3204:
3192:
3182:
3178:
3170:
3154:
3146:
3130:
3129:
3125:Torte de Bry
3124:
3120:
3089:Anglo-Norman
3078:
3050:
3045:
3028:salt cellars
3017:
3010:
3002:
2953:
2876:black pepper
2870:
2862:
2846:
2834:
2830:
2814:
2813:
2782:
2775:distillation
2764:
2751:
2716:
2704:
2689:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2656:
2652:
2642:
2626:
2572:
2554:
2518:bactericides
2503:
2500:
2493:
2466:
2416:
2381:), mulberry
2374:
2345:
2325:
2319:
2220:
2212:Frederick II
2194:
2186:
2181:Fishing for
2163:
2084:
2047:suckling pig
2004:
1983:whey cheeses
1977:and Italian
1964:
1952:
1944:
1904:kidney beans
1897:
1848:
1820:pomegranates
1804:
1796:
1760:
1753:
1747:
1699:, broth, or
1686:
1631:
1614:
1597:John Lydgate
1588:
1582:
1565:
1557:
1471:
1468:Preservation
1461:
1451:
1426:, sauciers,
1417:
1396:
1392:
1355:waffle irons
1340:
1319:
1307:
1276:
1201:
1197:
1192:
1150:
1142:
1115:Peter Damian
1067:
1043:
1027:rere-suppers
1021:advised the
1008:
1000:
996:
965:
953:
946:
919:
914:Jean Fouquet
909:
844:
832:pomegranates
826:wine) while
792:
773:
744:
690:
681:
593:
589:putrefaction
576:
564:
545:
486:
445:
413:
390:
373:
342:
329:
294:
273:
224:black pepper
197:
189:Social norms
169:
147:, and other
71:
46:
45:
29:
8778:WikiProject
8705:Medievalism
8544:Agriculture
8408:Manorialism
8403:Communalism
8398:Monasticism
8315:Reconquista
8305:Kievan Rus'
8145:WikiProject
7725:Kosher food
7107:Singaporean
7097:Seychellois
7072:Sammarinese
6955:Palestinian
6915:New Zealand
6885:Montenegrin
6855:Mauritanian
6850:Marshallese
6662:Piedmontese
6590:Minangkabau
6560:Gorontalese
6341:Heptanesean
6257:Kapampangan
6180:Greenlandic
6056:Cameroonian
5924:Bangladeshi
5914:Azerbaijani
5872:Southern US
5857:New Mexican
5852:New English
5827:Californian
5644:Continental
5587:Information
5506:j.ctt3fj2zx
4642:Black Death
4222:, page 198.
4169:, page 163.
3754:Eur Spine J
3733:17 December
3394:Food portal
3220:sponge cake
3167:Montpellier
3059:mulled wine
2929:long pepper
2915:offered to
2789:distillates
2761:Distillates
2731:Netherlands
2723:monasteries
2692:Carolingian
2655:was called
2604:Reconquista
2584:Scandinavia
2522:mulled wine
2510:white grape
2505:Le Viandier
2355:pomegranate
2337:bourgeoisie
1962:its place.
1791:Harvesting
1518:lemon juice
1343:frying pans
1329:a separate
1218:with fish (
993:salt cellar
954:rèire-sopar
902:salt cellar
874:almond milk
808:Scandinavia
798:, northern
694:Black Death
609:confections
449:Benedictine
426:, and even
264:almond milk
55:Middle Ages
53:during the
8700:Land terms
8654:Technology
8634:Philosophy
8614:Literature
8579:Demography
8280:Viking Age
7968:Vegetarian
7747:Historical
7491:Indonesian
7439:Indonesian
7409:Australian
7331:Zimbabwean
7311:Vietnamese
7306:Venezuelan
7194:Sri Lankan
7162:Cantabrian
7137:Andalusian
7087:Senegalese
7067:Salvadoran
7015:Circassian
6985:Portuguese
6970:Paraguayan
6960:Panamanian
6920:Nicaraguan
6895:Mozambican
6875:Monégasque
6828:Sarawakian
6803:Macedonian
6793:Lithuanian
6657:Neapolitan
6530:Indonesian
6488:Rajasthani
6463:Meghalayan
6438:Jharkhandi
6393:Arunachali
6348:Guatemalan
6279:La RĂ©union
6212:Ecuadorian
6187:Djiboutian
5934:Belarusian
5904:Australian
5832:Floribbean
4947:References
4648:, page 36.
4390:, page 11.
4244:, page 89.
4209:, page 18.
3366:Vinidarius
3303:, and the
3287:sandalwood
3216:terracotta
3048:Old French
2815:Aqua vitae
2784:aqua vitae
2747:small beer
2743:John Locke
2629:bad breath
2613:camel milk
2423:buttermilk
2363:blackberry
2257:including
2235:Baltic Sea
1893:sauerkraut
1888:flatulence
1880:field peas
1876:fava beans
1658:nutritious
1538:buttermilk
1505:fermenting
1422:, bakers,
1287:gastronomy
1283:huff paste
1279:shortcrust
1244:condiments
1063:high table
947:reresopers
898:Wenceslaus
611:made from
511:, and the
473:misericord
392:loopholes.
353:Christians
320:The Church
208:sweet-sour
204:seasonings
183:among the
129:vegetables
8685:Dark Ages
8594:Household
8589:Hastilude
8358:Feudalism
8047:sociology
7926:Fast food
7921:Classique
7785:Byzantine
7686:Mennonite
7671:Christian
7659:Religious
7620:Peranakan
7568:Sephardic
7553:Ethiopian
7543:Ashkenazi
7496:Malaysian
7449:Pakistani
7444:Malaysian
7419:Cambodian
7369:Aromanian
7301:Vanuatuan
7291:Uruguayan
7286:Ukrainian
7239:Zanzibari
7234:Tanzanian
7224:Taiwanese
7187:Valencian
7182:Manchegan
7117:Slovenian
7030:Mordovian
6950:Pakistani
6940:Norwegian
6880:Mongolian
6860:Mauritian
6835:Maldivian
6818:Malaysian
6711:Jordanian
6672:Sardinian
6632:Abruzzese
6600:Sundanese
6585:Minahasan
6508:Telangana
6493:Sikkimese
6443:Karnataka
6378:Icelandic
6373:Hungarian
6242:Ethiopian
6192:Dominican
6145:Congolese
6140:Colombian
6108:Hong Kong
6103:Cantonese
6071:Québécois
6051:Cambodian
6046:Burundian
6036:Burkinabé
6031:Bulgarian
5984:Anguillia
5974:Brazilian
5954:Bhutanese
5929:Barbadian
5894:Argentine
5715:Levantine
5705:Caucasian
5678:Caribbean
5581:Resources
5208:160758319
5181:106720072
4842:0775-955X
4590:29 August
4569:", §16–19
3968:lengths."
3357:in 1563.
3311:found at
3263:Cookbooks
3197:ice cream
3151:coriander
3051:desservir
2937:spikenard
2843:Nuremberg
2831:Hausbrand
2823:moonshine
2805:entremets
2797:rosewater
2674:poset ale
2637:urination
2609:olive oil
2443:Old World
2396:baptismal
2379:slivovitz
2247:North Sea
2205:porpoises
2151:barnacles
2127:entremets
2103:partridge
2087:pheasants
2067:porcupine
2035:Goat meat
1872:chickpeas
1721:doughnuts
1713:turnovers
1670:chestnuts
1642:buckwheat
1616:century,
1573:fast food
1489:stockfish
1464:of coal.
1448:scullions
1440:milkmaids
1428:larderers
1414:, Tuscany
1371:cauldrons
1365:to whole
1240:dietetics
1165:community
1074:trenchers
1058:etiquette
972:Etiquette
966:nuncheons
935:breakfast
931:Moralists
846:Olive oil
777:arthritis
579:digestion
555:Dietetics
505:commoners
477:refectory
440:Byzantine
309:catechism
301:threshing
289:Augustine
284:Eucharist
248:thickener
8793:Category
8768:Category
8735:Timeline
8624:Minstrel
8619:Medicine
8501:Chivalry
8456:Burgundy
8378:Crusades
8135:Cookbook
8115:Category
8017:Cookbook
7999:Prepared
7963:Nouvelle
7941:Eurasian
7870:Medieval
7666:Buddhist
7600:Ossetian
7585:Livonian
7563:Moroccan
7548:Bukharan
7538:American
7476:Hazaragi
7454:Peruvian
7429:Filipino
7424:Canadian
7404:American
7374:Assyrian
7271:Tuvaluan
7256:Tunisian
7251:Togolese
7199:Sudanese
7177:Galician
7157:Canarian
7147:Balearic
7142:Asturian
6995:Romanian
6975:Peruvian
6930:Nigerian
6910:Nepalese
6900:Namibian
6890:Moroccan
6870:Moldovan
6813:Malawian
6808:Malagasy
6778:Liberian
6768:Lebanese
6704:Okinawan
6699:Japanese
6694:Jamaican
6682:Venetian
6677:Sicilian
6652:Lucanian
6642:Ligurian
6580:Makassar
6575:Madurese
6570:Javanese
6540:Balinese
6535:Acehnese
6458:Manipuri
6433:Kashmiri
6428:Haryanvi
6423:Gujarati
6398:Assamese
6368:Honduran
6331:Epirotic
6316:Ghanaian
6306:Georgian
6296:Gabonese
6274:Corsican
6252:Filipino
6237:Estonian
6232:Eritrean
6217:Egyptian
6150:Croatian
6133:Xinjiang
6118:Shandong
6113:Macanese
6061:Canadian
6026:Bruneian
6014:Scottish
5969:Botswana
5959:Bolivian
5949:Beninese
5944:Belizean
5919:Bahraini
5909:Austrian
5899:Armenian
5837:Hawaiian
5822:American
5817:Algerian
5812:Albanian
5799:regional
5794:National
5759:Oceanian
5732:European
5673:Americas
5637:Cuisines
5557:Archived
5241:(2008).
4938:silphium
4584:Archived
4282:Archived
3784:17390155
3727:Archived
3570:Archived
3380:See also
3283:pheasant
3243:foodways
3193:confetti
3101:cherries
3085:Marzipan
3075:darioles
3071:custards
3036:sea salt
3013:verjuice
2941:galangal
2925:cardamom
2909:turmeric
2880:cinnamon
2779:alembics
2735:Flanders
2650:cookbook
2551:hypocras
2527:cardamom
2473:red wine
2375:prunellé
2359:mulberry
2271:crayfish
2267:scallops
2255:mollusks
2233:and the
2231:Atlantic
2183:lampreys
2157:(1215),
2063:hedgehog
1979:Parmesan
1916:tomatoes
1900:potatoes
1851:cabbages
1748:manchets
1729:biscuits
1725:pastries
1717:fritters
1709:desserts
1705:frumenty
1672:, dried
1623:Leavened
1522:verjuice
1481:moisture
1432:butchers
1424:waferers
1420:pantlers
1314:Flanders
1236:medicine
1188:ascetics
1161:bakeries
943:banquets
939:gluttony
824:pressing
810:and the
665:pottages
661:goat kid
657:purslane
645:hypocras
596:apéritif
513:nobility
457:pilgrims
345:Catholic
212:verjuice
179:limited
109:porridge
8678:Related
8664:Warfare
8659:Theatre
8649:Slavery
8644:Science
8599:Hunting
8564:Cuisine
8537:Culture
8476:Castile
8471:England
8155:Outline
8125:Commons
8042:history
8022:Cooking
8010:Related
7880:Peasant
7875:Ottoman
7845:Hittite
7720:Kashrut
7703:Chinese
7698:Islamic
7610:Pashtun
7580:Kurdish
7558:Mizrahi
7486:English
7414:British
7399:Chinese
7379:Balochi
7326:Zambian
7281:Ugandan
7266:Turkmen
7261:Turkish
7209:Swedish
7167:Catalan
7132:Spanish
7092:Serbian
7057:Rwandan
7020:Cossack
7010:Chechen
7005:Bashkir
7000:Russian
6905:Nauruan
6865:Mexican
6845:Maltese
6823:Sabahan
6773:Lesotho
6763:Latvian
6748:Kuwaiti
6743:Kosovan
6689:Ivorian
6647:Lombard
6637:Apulian
6627:Italian
6622:Israeli
6607:Iranian
6513:Tripuri
6483:Punjabi
6403:Bengali
6363:Haitian
6358:Guinean
6301:Gambian
6289:Occitan
6264:Finnish
6222:Emirati
6175:Faroese
6160:Cypriot
6128:Tibetan
6123:Sichuan
6098:Beijing
6093:Chinese
6088:Chilean
6083:Chadian
6066:Acadian
6041:Burmese
5994:English
5979:British
5939:Belgian
5889:Angolan
5747:Eastern
5742:Central
5710:Central
5651:African
5563:at the
4925:Webster
4901:shallot
4897:Ascalon
3993:(2007).
3775:2200769
3370:Apicius
3350:Apicius
3225:cannoli
3189:Spanish
3179:torrone
3177:candy (
3171:comfits
3143:malmsey
3139:waffles
3109:violets
3093:potages
3080:krapfen
3055:dragées
2992:comfits
2968:caraway
2964:parsley
2960:mustard
2905:saffron
2847:aquavit
2801:perfume
2739:Brabant
2717:In the
2712:Denmark
2708:England
2684:braggot
2661:English
2621:Sienese
2617:gazelle
2596:brewing
2580:Germany
2576:England
2547:steeped
2481:vintage
2365:wines,
2296:lamprey
2263:mussels
2259:oysters
2243:Kippers
2229:in the
2223:herring
2197:seafood
2167:pasture
2143:poultry
2139:chicken
2123:finches
2115:pigeons
2095:peafowl
2071:Rabbits
2059:sausage
2055:casings
2051:bladder
1987:ricotta
1985:, like
1912:vanilla
1884:protein
1867:carrots
1824:quinces
1812:citrons
1793:cabbage
1733:cookies
1674:legumes
1603:Cereals
1554:Chaucer
1534:cheeses
1530:curdled
1526:vinegar
1514:pickled
1501:brining
1497:salting
1493:smoking
1477:canning
1462:barnful
1444:butlers
1436:carvers
1393:farcing
1380:graters
1351:kettles
1331:kitchen
1316:, 1432.
1304:basting
1272:turnips
1268:cabbage
1260:humoral
1256:roasted
1228:haddock
1208:raisins
1175:potages
1139:woodcut
1012:egotism
951:Occitan
862:filbert
736:⁄
725:⁄
711:⁄
663:, with
653:lettuce
649:cabbage
625:caraway
604:aperire
584:stomach
541:priests
537:squires
533:bishops
432:venison
428:beavers
424:puffins
385:penance
339:, 1341.
244:Almonds
228:saffron
220:vinegar
165:herring
149:poultry
145:chicken
73:Cereals
8758:Portal
8639:Poetry
8466:France
7931:Fusion
7914:Styles
7900:Soviet
7865:Mughal
7860:Muisca
7650:Yup'ik
7640:Tejano
7630:Romani
7573:Syrian
7533:Jewish
7481:Indian
7466:Gagauz
7434:Indian
7389:Buryat
7384:Berber
7340:Ethnic
7321:Yemeni
7219:Syrian
7152:Basque
7122:Somali
7112:Slovak
7045:Udmurt
6990:Qatari
6980:Polish
6935:Niuean
6840:Malian
6783:Libyan
6753:Kyrgyz
6726:Korean
6721:Kenyan
6716:Kazakh
6555:Betawi
6545:Banjar
6498:Sindhi
6448:Kerala
6408:Bihari
6388:Andhra
6383:Indian
6326:Cretan
6311:German
6269:French
6247:Fijian
6170:Danish
5807:Afghan
5767:Global
5737:Balkan
5529:
5504:
5494:
5475:
5452:
5429:
5412:
5402:
5383:
5360:
5341:
5318:
5295:
5276:
5253:
5227:
5206:
5196:
5179:
5169:
5148:
5129:
5110:
5089:
5066:
5047:
5026:
5003:
4980:
4961:
4892:Allium
4840:
4362:
4322:
3782:
3772:
3374:uncial
3362:sesame
3355:ZĂĽrich
3341:wrote
3309:Assisi
3301:Naples
3212:qas'ah
3209:Arabic
3207:(from
3201:sorbet
3184:turrĂłn
3175:nougat
3163:Sicily
3135:quiche
3117:quiche
3111:, and
3067:crĂŞpes
3032:pewter
3007:, 1474
2980:fennel
2978:, and
2962:, and
2949:cloves
2943:, and
2896:Africa
2884:cassia
2872:Spices
2839:brandy
2827:German
2809:cotton
2771:Romans
2679:brakot
2657:godale
2592:cereal
2588:barley
2543:cloves
2539:nutmeg
2531:pepper
2439:coffee
2417:Plain
2412:camels
2400:Poland
2369:, and
2347:Juices
2326:While
2302:, and
2300:salmon
2265:, and
2141:, the
2111:cranes
2107:storks
2019:cattle
1966:Cheese
1941:cheese
1922:, and
1878:, and
1865:, and
1863:garlic
1859:onions
1842:, and
1832:apples
1828:grapes
1826:, and
1808:lemons
1757:guilds
1678:acorns
1648:, and
1646:millet
1638:barley
1510:Butter
1397:farcio
1384:mortar
1376:ladles
1363:quails
1353:, and
1336:arcade
1322:hearth
1264:quince
1252:boiled
1248:frying
1220:salmon
1214:, and
1212:apples
1147:, 1485
1111:eunuch
1105:, the
1086:Knives
1082:spoons
1078:pewter
1070:plates
1049:towels
1016:bishop
989:carver
962:snacks
949:(from
926:supper
922:dinner
906:napkin
870:almond
860:, and
854:walnut
820:olives
816:grapes
812:Baltic
802:, the
800:France
742:wine.
703:gentle
669:broths
641:dragée
633:fennel
621:ginger
598:(from
509:clergy
489:famine
469:friars
416:whales
402:beaver
381:Christ
377:Advent
313:
305:
297:
287:Saint
260:sauces
258:, and
232:ginger
230:, and
218:, and
127:, and
125:fruits
121:Cheese
115:, and
95:, and
89:Barley
85:potato
8669:Women
8629:Music
8584:Domes
8574:Dance
8461:Milan
8032:Drink
7977:Lists
7948:Haute
7855:Mayan
7780:Aztec
7693:Hindu
7605:Parsi
7595:Malay
7523:Inuit
7394:Cajun
7296:Uzbek
7229:Tajik
7214:Swiss
7204:Swazi
7050:Yamal
7040:Tatar
7035:Sakha
6945:Omani
6925:Niger
6667:Roman
6617:Irish
6612:Iraqi
6550:Batak
6503:Tamil
6321:Greek
6202:Dutch
6165:Czech
6155:Cuban
6019:Welsh
5882:Texan
5720:South
5700:Asian
5688:South
5683:North
5656:North
5502:JSTOR
5410:JSTOR
5204:S2CID
5177:S2CID
4288:3 May
3576:9 May
3449:Notes
3279:capon
3181:, or
3159:Spain
3113:elder
3105:roses
3097:tarts
3063:Sugar
2988:Anise
2945:cubeb
2888:cumin
2793:syrup
2700:herbs
2696:gruit
2665:spelt
2556:claré
2495:posca
2485:white
2477:blood
2469:Galen
2431:dairy
2408:mares
2404:Kumis
2392:Slavs
2371:cider
2367:perry
2328:water
2310:Drink
2304:trout
2292:perch
2288:bream
2135:geese
2131:ducks
2119:larks
2099:quail
2091:swans
2041:, as
1993:Meats
1924:maize
1908:cacao
1855:chard
1840:plums
1836:pears
1773:dough
1744:baker
1701:sauce
1682:ferns
1662:flour
1627:wheat
1618:bread
1577:cooks
1524:, or
1401:dress
1388:sieve
1359:spits
1266:pie,
1232:plums
1226:, or
1216:pears
1194:Fruit
1179:stews
1157:Ovens
1123:pride
1091:Forks
1046:linen
995:, or
912:, by
880:Meals
858:hazel
850:poppy
840:dates
764:bacon
760:offal
637:cumin
635:, or
629:anise
617:sugar
615:- or
613:honey
600:Latin
572:Galen
529:dukes
525:popes
521:kings
465:Bible
280:wheat
256:stews
252:soups
240:sugar
236:honey
172:trade
117:pasta
113:gruel
105:bread
101:wheat
59:diets
8066:Meal
8054:Diet
8037:Food
7850:Inca
7737:Sikh
7715:Jain
7710:Ital
7635:Sámi
7357:Arab
7352:Ainu
7246:Thai
7025:Komi
6565:Indo
6478:Odia
6473:Naga
6468:Mizo
6418:Goan
5752:list
5725:list
5693:list
5666:list
5661:West
5527:ISBN
5492:ISBN
5473:ISBN
5450:ISBN
5427:ISBN
5400:ISBN
5381:ISBN
5358:ISBN
5339:ISBN
5316:ISBN
5293:ISBN
5274:ISBN
5251:ISBN
5225:ISBN
5194:ISBN
5167:ISBN
5146:ISBN
5127:ISBN
5108:ISBN
5087:ISBN
5064:ISBN
5045:ISBN
5024:ISBN
5001:ISBN
4978:ISBN
4959:ISBN
4838:ISSN
4592:2019
4360:ISBN
4320:ISBN
4290:2022
3780:PMID
3735:2016
3578:2023
3256:mets
3073:and
3057:and
3019:Salt
2976:dill
2972:mint
2956:sage
2933:mace
2900:tons
2894:and
2892:Asia
2769:and
2765:The
2737:and
2710:and
2669:hops
2644:the
2631:and
2615:and
2600:Arab
2590:, a
2563:Beer
2553:and
2514:lees
2489:rosé
2449:Wine
2437:and
2427:whey
2419:milk
2387:mead
2361:and
2333:Wine
2284:carp
2280:pike
2225:and
2133:and
2065:and
2057:for
2039:pork
2031:veal
2027:wool
2015:Beef
2007:game
1975:Brie
1971:Edam
1959:whey
1954:Milk
1697:soup
1693:wine
1689:sops
1666:bran
1654:Rice
1650:oats
1386:and
1378:and
1367:oxen
1347:pots
1238:and
1177:and
1170:pies
1031:alms
981:John
904:, a
866:lard
838:and
836:figs
828:beer
818:and
677:beef
675:and
673:pork
667:and
539:and
523:and
369:fast
367:and
365:Lent
359:and
357:eggs
347:and
343:The
216:wine
163:and
157:fish
153:Beef
141:pork
137:Game
133:meat
93:oats
81:rice
8554:Art
8059:Fat
6758:Lao
5796:and
4895:of
4161:'s
3770:PMC
3762:doi
3353:in
3281:or
3187:in
3145:as
2886:),
2681:or
2487:or
2435:Tea
2425:or
2410:or
2383:gin
2341:ale
2276:eel
2227:cod
1634:rye
1556:'s
1536:or
1224:cod
1183:fat
997:nef
701:),
527:to
436:roe
335:by
250:in
238:or
161:cod
97:rye
79:as
8795::
5500:.
5408:.
5202:.
5175:.
4912:68
4903:,
4582:.
4354:,
4280:.
4276:.
3991:47
3826:^
3810:^
3778:.
3768:.
3758:16
3756:.
3752:.
3721:.
3638:^
3595:^
3568:.
3486:^
3456:^
3173:,
3107:,
2994:.
2974:,
2970:,
2958:,
2939:,
2935:,
2931:,
2878:,
2541:,
2537:,
2533:,
2529:,
2357:,
2343:.
2298:,
2294:,
2290:,
2286:,
2282:,
2278:,
2261:,
2121:,
2117:,
2113:,
2109:,
2105:,
2101:,
2097:,
2093:,
2089:,
2033:.
1943:;
1918:,
1914:,
1910:,
1906:,
1902:,
1874:,
1861:,
1857:,
1853:,
1838:,
1834:,
1822:,
1814:,
1810:,
1795:;
1742:A
1719:,
1715:,
1695:,
1680:,
1676:,
1652:.
1644:,
1640:,
1636:,
1540:.
1520:,
1499:,
1495:,
1442:,
1434:,
1430:,
1349:,
1345:,
1312:,
1306:;
1222:,
1210:,
1117:,
983:,
856:,
852:,
779:.
655:,
651:,
631:,
623:,
531:,
503::
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