History of the Middle East

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to the Arabs, to refrain from aiding the enforcement of the UN resolution, meaning the partition of Palestine. And in an important secret corollary... it agreed that Britain would do all in its power to delay until early May the arrival in Palestine of the UN (Implementation) Commission. The Foreign Office immediately informed the commission "that it would be intolerable for the Commission to begin to exercise its authority while the Palestine Government was still administratively responsible for Palestine"... This... nullified any possibility of an orderly implementation of the partition resolution.

4546: 7913: 1215: 3942: 3600: 3723: 4883:" and was placed under direct British administration. The Jewish population of Palestine, consisting overwhelmingly of recent migrants from Europe, numbered less than 8 percent in 1918. Under the British mandate, Zionist settlers were granted wide rein to immigrate initially, buy land from absentee landlords, set up a local government and later establish the nucleus of a state all under the protection of the British Army, which brutally suppressed multiple Palestinian Arab revolts in the years that followed, 5383: 5008: 39: 1456: 4613: 8117: 3101: 884: 31: 4275: 3384: 7661: 3986:. Islam unified the Middle East and helped the empires there to remain stable. Missionaries and warriors spread the religion from Arabia to North and Sudanic Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Mesopotamia area. This created a mix of cultures, especially in Africa, and the mawali demographic. Although the mawali would experience discrimination from the Umayyad, they would gain widespread acceptance from the 5593:

post-war insurgency which morphed into persistent ethnic violence that the American army was initially unable to quell. Many of Iraq's intellectual and business elite fled the country, and many Iraqi refugees left as a result of the insurgency, further destabilizing the region. A responsive surge in U.S. forces in Iraq was largely successful in controlling the insurgency and stabilizing the country. U.S. forces

4887:. The Territory East of the Jordan River and west of Iraq was also declared a British Mandate when the Council of the League of Nations passed the British written Transjordan Memorandum on 16 September 1922. Most of the Arabian peninsula, including the Holy cities of Mecca and Medina, though not incorporated into either a British or French colonial mandate, fell under the control of another British ally, 5438: 3278:

particularly the third, had a profound and lasting impact on the Near East. Before Assyrian hegemony ended, the Assyrians brought the highest civilization to the then known world. From the Caspian to Cyprus, from Anatolia to Egypt, Assyrian imperial expansion would bring into the Assyrian sphere nomadic and barbaric communities, and would bestow the gift of civilization upon them."

4287: 4639:, hoping that they would gradually achieve prosperity, democracy and national liberation, they soon became disillusioned. The British imposed heavy taxes to cover the compensation they paid to the Sultan for conceding Cyprus to them. Moreover, the people were not given the right to participate in the administration of the island, since all powers were reserved to the 5328:, resorted to a prolonged campaign of violence against Israel and against American, Jewish, and western targets generally, as a means of weakening Israeli resolve and undermining western support for Israel. The Palestinians were supported in this, to varying degrees, by the regimes in Syria, Libya, Iran, and Iraq. The high point of this campaign came in the 1975 5121: 3075:"In the course of the fourth millennium BC, city-states developed in southern Mesopotamia that were dominated by temples whose priests represented the cities' patron deities. The most prominent of the city-states was Sumer, which gave its language to the area, and became the first great civilization of mankind. About 2340 BC, 4563:, which the Turks saw as a betrayal by Britain. These demands cost Britain the support of the Turks, as the pro-British Freedom and Accord Party was now repressed under the pro-German Committee for, in Enver's words, "shamefully delivering the country to the enemy" (Britain) after agreeing to the demands to give up Edirne. 5375:

dependence on oil from the Arab states. It discredited the model of development through authoritarian state socialism, which Egypt (under Nasser), Algeria, Syria, and Iraq had followed since the 1960s, leaving these regimes politically and economically stranded. Rulers such as Iraq's Saddam Hussein increasingly relied on

3588:. The Byzantines and Sasanians fought with each other a reflection of the rivalry between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire seen during the previous five hundred years. The Byzantine-Sasanian rivalry was also seen through their respective cultures and religions. The Byzantines considered themselves champions of 7112:

Bevin regarded the UNSCOP majority report of 1 September 1947 as unjust and immoral. He promptly decided that Britain would not attempt to im- pose it on the Arabs; indeed, he expected them to resist its implementation… The British cabinet...: in the meeting on 4 December 1947... It decided, in a sop

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The Entente, won the war and the Ottoman Empire was abolished with most of its territories ceded to Britain and France; Turkey just managed to survive. The war transformed the region in terms of shattering Ottoman power which was supplanted by increased British and French involvement; the creation of

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all sought to import versions of the western model of constitutional government, civil law, secular education, and industrial development into their countries. Throughout the region, railways and telegraph lines were constructed, schools and universities were opened, and a new class of army officers,

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The United States, in response, felt obliged to defend its remaining allies, the monarchies of Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iran, and the Persian Gulf emirates, whose methods of rule were often almost as unattractive in western eyes as those of the anti-western regimes. Iran in particular became a key U.S.

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in 1260. Issues began to arise when the Mongols grew increasingly unable to reach a consensus as to whom to elect khagan. Additionally, societal clashing occurred between traditionalists who wished to retain their nomadic culture and Mongols moving towards sedentary agriculture. All of this led to

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While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is considered distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze consider themselves fully assimilated in American

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developed a plan to invade Iraq, remove Saddam from power, and turn Iraq into a democratic state with a free-market economy, which they hoped would serve as a model for the rest of the Middle East. The United States and its principal allies—Britain, Italy, Spain, and Australia—could not secure

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When the Ottoman Empire surrendered to the Allies in 1918, the Arab patriots did not get what they had expected. Islamic activists of more recent times have described it as an Anglo-French betrayal. The governments of the European Entente had concluded a secret treaty before the armistice, the

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The advent of a new western army of occupation in a Middle Eastern capital marked a turning point in the history of the region. Despite successful elections (although boycotted by large portions of Iraq's Sunni population) held in January 2005, much of Iraq had all but disintegrated, due to a

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of 911–605 BC. The Assyrian Empire, at its peak, was the largest the world had seen. It ruled all of what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Kuwait, Jordan, Egypt, Cyprus, and Bahrain—with large swathes of Iran, Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Sudan, and Arabia. "The Assyrian empires,

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to Israel, further strengthening the Jewish state. It cut off the easiest source of credit, armaments, and diplomatic support to the anti-western Arab regimes, weakening their position. It opened up the prospect of cheap oil from Russia, driving down the price of oil and reducing the west's

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By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman khans, who in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capitol of Constantinople and made themselves sultans. The Mamluks held the Ottomans out of the Middle East for a century, but in 1514

4709:, the most important commodity in the 20th century. The discovery of oil in the region made many of the kings and emirs of the Middle East immensely wealthy and enabled them to consolidate their hold on power while giving them a stake in preserving western hegemony over the region. 6130:

Semino, Ornella; Magri, Chiara; Benuzzi, Giorgia; Lin, Alice A.; Al-Zahery, Nadia; Battaglia, Vincenza; MacCioni, Liliana; Triantaphyllidis, Costas; Shen, Peidong; Oefner, Peter J.; Zhivotovsky, Lev A.; King, Roy; Torroni, Antonio; Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luca; Underhill, Peter A.;

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As the West became dependent on Middle Eastern oil exports and British influence steadily declined, American interest in the region grew. Initially, Western oil companies established a dominance over oil production and extraction. However, indigenous movements towards

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did not, however, attempt to overthrow Saddam Hussein, which the United States later came to regret. The Gulf War led to a permanent U.S. military presence in the Persian Gulf, particularly in Saudi Arabia, which offended many Muslims, and was a reason often cited by

3678:(then called Yathrib) were two such cities that were important hubs for trade between Africa and Eurasia. This commerce was central to city-life, where most inhabitants were merchants. Nevertheless, some Arabs saw it fit to migrate to the northern regions of the 4369:, Europe had overtaken the Muslim world in wealth, population and technology. (Some historians argue that science had already been in decline in the Muslim world since the 14th century while other argue that sciences still continued until the 17th century.) The 5449:

did not occur in the Middle East. In the whole region, only Israel, Turkey and to some extent Lebanon and the Palestinian territories were considered to be democracies. Some countries had legislative bodies, but these were said to have little power. In the

3533:, became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity, gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. By this time, Greek had become the ' 5125: 3407:

united the region with most of Europe and North Africa in a single political and economic unit. Even areas not directly annexed were strongly influenced by the Empire, which was the most powerful political and cultural entity for centuries. Though

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and has seen many of the world's oldest cultures and civilizations. The region's history started from the earliest human settlements and continues through several major pre- and post-Islamic Empires to today's nation-states of the Middle East.

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was a center for Christianity and Jewish craftsmen, merchants, and farmers were common in western Arabia as were Christian monks in central Arabia. Thus pre-Islamic Arabia was no stranger to Abrahamic religions or monotheism, for that matter.

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Christian Western Europe staged a remarkable economic and demographic recovery in the 11th century since its nadir in the 7th century. The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joined forces, mainly from England, France, and the emerging

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grew based on ethical values. Astronomy was stressed in art. Much of this learning would find its way to the West. This was especially true during the crusades, as warriors would bring back Muslim treasures, weapons, and medicinal methods.

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By 1948, the majority of Palestinians, about 700,000 to 800,000 people from 500 to 600 villages, were displaced. They were either expelled or fled from their homes for fear of being killed, as had actually taken place in a number of

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Religion always played a prevalent role in Middle Eastern culture, affecting learning, architecture, and the ebb and flow of cultures. When Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture, inspiring achievements in

899:. Not so much lingually but rather culturally, politically and historically, the most significant division here has been between the north and the south, which is to some degree isolated from each other by the sparsely-populated 3694:

in a similar area inside of Byzantine territory; these political units of Arab origin offered a surprising stability that was rare in the region and offered Arabia further connections to the outside world. The Lakhmid capital,

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in the mid-7th century AD. Between the 1st century BC and the early 7th century AD, the region was completely dominated by the Romans and the Parthians and Sassanids on the other hand, which often culminated in various

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the Middle Eastern state system as seen in Turkey and Saudi Arabia; the emergence of explicitly more nationalist politics, as seen in Turkey and Egypt; and the expansion of oil industry, particularly in the Gulf States.

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of Iran. Because the Arabian Plate and Eurasia plate collide, many cities are in danger such as those in south eastern Turkey (which is on the Arabian Plate). These dangers include earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes.

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which immediately followed, the armies of Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia intervened and were defeated by Israel. About 800,000 Palestinians fled from areas annexed by Israel and became

4753:, an alliance that included Russia, Great Britain and France. The British saw the Ottomans as the weak link in the enemy alliance, and concentrated on knocking them out of the war. When a direct assault failed at 6180:

Gérard, Nathalie; Berriche, Sala; Aouizérate, Annie; Diéterlen, Florent; Lucotte, Gérard (2006). "North African Berber and Arab Influences in the Western Mediterranean Revealed by Y-Chromosome DNA Haplotypes".

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from the 3rd century AD. This empire dominated sizable parts of what is now the Asian part of the Middle East and continued to influence the rest of the Asiatic and African Middle East region, until the Arab

689:. In 1912, Italy took Libya and the Dodecanese islands. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers sought modernization to match European powers. A key moment came with the discovery of 6118:

Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above..

4438:, just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia. The Ottomans turned to Germany to protect them from the western powers, but the result was increasing financial and military dependence on Germany. 7649: 4221: 4995:. A Palestinian state was also an attractive alternative to the Arab and Persian leaders, instead of the de facto British, French, and perceived Jewish colonialism or imperialism, under the logic of " 6224:

Grugni, Viola; Battaglia, Vincenza; Hooshiar Kashani, Baharak; Parolo, Silvia; Al-Zahery, Nadia; Achilli, Alessandro; Olivieri, Anna; Gandini, Francesca; et al. (2012). Kivisild, Toomas (ed.).

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ended, the British, French, and Soviets, withdrew from most parts of the regions they had occupied both before and during the War II and seven Middle East states gained or regained independence:

7650: 7623:, vol. LXVII, no. 15 (8 October 2020), pp. 31–33. Worth writes (p. 33): "Perhaps things would have been different if the Syrians had been left to govern themselves a century ago." 5477:, where the ruling emirs allowed some political and social liberalization, but without giving up any of their own power. Lebanon also rebuilt a fairly successful economy after a prolonged 4135:

effectively marked the end of Byzantine power. The Seljuks ruled most of the Middle East region for the next 200 years, but their empire soon broke up into a number of smaller sultanates.

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who was able to repel these invasions, and in 628 he replaced the Sasanian Great King with a more docile one. But the fighting weakened both states, leaving the stage open to a new power.

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began the systematic Ottoman conquest of the region. Syria was occupied in 1516 and Egypt in 1517, extinguishing the Mameluk line. Iraq was conquered almost in 40 years from the Iranian

4929:. While Zaghloul would later become Prime Minister, the British repression of the anticolonial riots led to around 800 deaths. In 1920, Syrian forces were defeated by the French in the 5351:

in 1980 at the behest of the latter's chaotic state of country due to the 1979 Islamic Revolution, eventually turned into a stalemate with hundreds of thousands of dead on both sides.

5297: 3974:, or the pilgrimage that a Muslim needed to take at least once in their lifetime, according to the five (or six) pillars of Islam. Islam also created the need for spectacularly built 3998:. However, the crusades started a new thinking in the Islamic empires, that non-Islamic ideas were immoral or inferior; this was primarily perpetrated by the ulama (علماء) scholars. 1325:, which now comprise between them almost all of the population of the haplogroup, are both believed to have arisen very early, at least 10,000 years ago. Nonetheless, Y-chromosomes 4555:

Enver Bey's alliance with Germany, which he considered the most advanced military power in Europe, was enabled by British demands that the Ottoman Empire cede their formal capital

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rather than on the river-based irrigation of Egypt and Mesopotamia, resulting in preference for different crops. Since travel was faster and easier by sea, civilizations along the

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The Mongols eventually retreated in 1335, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks. In 1401, the region was further plagued by the Turko-Mongol,

4053:. The use of this system in Muslim trade and political institutions allowed for the eventual popularization of it around the world; this number system would be critical to the 3990:

and it was because of this that allowed for mass conversions in foreign areas. "People of the book" or dhimmi were always treated well; these people included Christians, Jews,

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continued to be a potent military and economic force in the Mediterranean, preventing Arab expansion into much of Europe. The Seljuqs' defeat of the Byzantine military in the

865: 1423:, between 9686 BP and 7534 BP, possibly around 8500 BP; corroborating this timeframe for the Fulani, by at least 7500 BP, there is evidence of herders engaging in the act of 6133:"Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area" 6033:

The Middle East still stands at the heart of the Christian world. After all, it is the birthplace, and the death place, of Christ, and the cradle of the Christian tradition.

5141:. The United States was the ultimate guarantor of the region's stability as well as the dominant force in the oil industry after the 1950s. When revolutions brought radical 5461:, overspending on arms and prestige projects and over-dependence on oil revenues. The successful economies were countries that had oil wealth and low populations, such as 5180:

These regimes gained popular support with promises to destroy the state of Israel and other "western imperialists", and to bring prosperity to the Arab masses. When the

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became important centers of Christian scholarship. By the 5th century, Christianity was the dominant religion in the Middle East, with other faiths (gradually including

3086:, as High Priestess of Inanna at Ur. Her writings, which established her as the first known author in world history, also helped cement Sargon's position in the region. 586:, around the 5th millennium BC, were among the first to develop what we now call "civilization." By 3150 BC, Egyptian civilization had unified under its first pharaoh. 4454:

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with Europe. In the Ottoman Empire, the

4245:, by 1566 they would conquer the Iraq-Iran region, the Balkans, Greece, Byzantium, most of Egypt, most of north Africa, and parts of Arabia, unifying them under the 3619:(southwest Arabia). Thus the clash between the kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar in 525 displayed a higher power struggle between Byzantium and Persia for control of the 3639:. Byzantium, as the continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire, continued control of the latter's territories in the Middle East. Since 527, this included Anatolia, 7546: 7071: 5083:

in neighbouring countries, thus creating the "Palestinian problem", which has troubled the region ever since. Approximately two-thirds of 758,000–866,000 of the

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that proved to be far more anti-western than the secular regimes in Iraq or Syria. The list of Arab-Israeli wars includes a great number of major wars such as

8004: 4826:, but were swiftly defeated by the forces of Great Britain and France who soon after establishing control, re-arranged the Middle East to suit themselves. 4542:

and became a ruling junta, with Talaat as Grand Vizier and Enver as War Minister, and established a German-funded modernisation program across the Empire.

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approval for the execution of the numerous UN resolutions, so they launched an invasion of Iraq and deposed Saddam without much difficulty in April 2003.

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was found throughout the Middle East. It was associated with divinity, royalty, and power. The symbol shown above is an Egyptian version. The modern-day

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were introduced to the region, traditional religions were often criticized and the cults gained societal influence. These cults formed around gods like

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of 1967 ended with an overwhelming Israeli victory, many viewed the defeat as the failure of Arab socialism. This represents a turning point when "

3833:, however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions. At the far west, they crossed the sea taking 7666: 5704: 5337: 5329: 5138: 4942: 3670:

and remained in small clans tied together by kinship. Urbanization and agriculture was limited in Arabia, save for a few regions near the coast.

7279: 4108:, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia. They conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the 7770: 4498:

in favor of personal rule. Abdul Hamid ruled by decree for the next 30 years, stirring democratic resentment. The reform movement known as the

5940: 7932: 6536:, pp. 112–115, for Byzantine territory, Sasanian invasions, Heraclius' success at repelling invasion, and the exhaustion of both states. 3592:

and Christianity. Meanwhile, the Sasanians thought themselves heroes of ancient Iranian traditions and of the traditional Persian religion,

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The conquest of Baghdad and the death of the caliph in 1258 officiated the end of the Abbasid Caliphate and annexed its territories to the

3915:. The Crusades were unsuccessful but were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire. They also rearranged the 3607:

The Arabian peninsula already played a role in the power struggles of the Byzantines and Sasanians. While Byzantium allied itself with the

7615:

How the West Stole Democracy from the Arabs: the Syrian Arab Congress of 1920 and the Destruction of Its Historic Liberal-Islamic Alliance

5098:, a charismatic religious and political leader, was elected its first independent president, and in 1961 it became the 99th member of the 4001:

Arabian culture took off during the early Abbasid age, despite the prevalent political issues. Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in

8097: 7959: 5115: 4607: 4050: 5573:

regime, which had been harboring Bin Laden and al-Qaida. The United States and its allies described this operation as part of a global "

3537:' of the region, although ethnicities such as the Syriacs and the Hebrew continued to exist. Under Byzantine/Greek rule the area of the 1415:

herders, compared to the Tuareg variant, the Fulani variant of –13910*T has undergone a longer period of haplotype differentiation. The

1270:, but the separation of Africa and Arabia occurred in the Oligocene, and since then the Arabian Plate has been slowly moving toward the 4722: 3954:, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. Islam primarily consisted of the 3916: 3880:) and Morocco soon broke away from this distant control and founded one of the world's most advanced societies at the time, along with 963:

Historically human populations have tended to settle around bodies of water, which is reflected in modern population density patterns.

666: 5320:, concluded a peace treaty with Israel, ending the prospects of a united Arab military front. From the 1970s the Palestinians, led by 5699: 5659:. At its peak, the group controlled an area containing an estimated 2.8 to 8 million people, 98% of which was lost by December 2017. 5405: 3775: 3128:

approximately around 3150 BC. Since then, Ancient Egypt experienced 3 high points of civilization, the so-called "Kingdom" periods:

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In most Middle Eastern countries, the growth of market economies was said to be limited by political restrictions, corruption, and

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At the beginning of the 21st century, all these factors intensified conflict in the Middle East, which affected the entire world.

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were saved and distributed throughout the empire (and eventually into Europe) in this manner. Muslim scholars also discovered the

2919: 1360:-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 6000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the 755:

shaped the modern Middle East. Despite economic growth, many countries faced challenges like political restrictions, corruption,

569: 6061:

Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.

4399:", increasingly under the financial control of European powers. Domination soon turned to outright conquest: the French annexed 4317:

of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years, despite brief intermissions created by the Iranian Safavids and

3603:

Map of the Roman–Persian frontier after the division of Armenia in 384. The frontier remained stable throughout the 5th century.

3424:, became major urban centers for the Empire and the region became the Empire's "bread basket" as the key agricultural producer. 482: 4884: 4209:

for the election of a new khagan. His absence resulted in the first defeat of the Mongols (by the Mamluk Egyptians) during the

3469:

As the Christian religion spread throughout the Roman and Persian Empires, it took root in the Middle East, and cities such as

2940: 17: 6524:, pp. 1–5, for the Byzantine–Sasanian struggle with Aksum and Himyar, as well as the territorial wars and focus on trade. 7753: 7593: 7565: 7434: 7413: 7369: 7327: 7235: 7167: 7140: 6845: 6801: 5973: 5923: 5867: 5566: 4419: 3936: 3811: 6753:

El-Rouayheb, Khaled (2006). "Opening the Gate of Verification: The Forgotten Arab-Islamic Florescence of the 17th Century".

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brought major protests, uprisings, and revolutions to several Middle Eastern countries, followed by prolonged civil wars in

1317:

in the Middle East today, is believed to have arisen in the region 31,700±12,800 years ago. The two main current subgroups,

7885: 5652: 1696: 1407:, who are descendants of these Neolithic agriculturalists, share the lactase persistence variant –13910*T. While shared by 285: 8210: 5816: 5673: 5648: 5644: 5134: 4184: 2073: 1891: 1450: 7002: 6918: 7999: 7954: 7543: 7068: 5688: 5668: 4996: 4583: 2912: 2812: 2802: 2632: 2627: 2123: 1205: 662: 7128:

Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present

6572:, The world into which the Arabs came, for Arabian migrations, the Lakhmids & Ghassanids, and religious diversity. 3983: 459: 368: 8176: 7971: 7716: 7251: 7213: 7098: 7033: 6898: 6705: 6494: 6451: 6424: 6397: 6326: 6111: 6082: 6054: 6026: 5325: 4475: 3683: 2933: 1314: 1189: 7726: 4670:

that pushed Turkey both economically and culturally closer to Europe and away from the Arab world. He abolished the

7994: 4934: 4773: 3932: 3504: 3079:(c. 2360–2305 BC) united the city-states in the south and founded the Akkadian dynasty, the world's first empire." 5445:

The worldwide change of governance in Eastern Europe, Latin America, East Asia, and parts of Africa following the

594:(1365–1076 BC and 911–609 BC). From the 7th century BC, the region was dominated by Iranian powers, including the 8241: 8090: 7986: 7966: 7159:

Clinical Care for Homeless, Runaway and Refugee Youth: Intervention Approaches, Education and Research Directions

6790:

Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb

6726:

El-Rouayheb, Khaled (2008). "The Myth of "The Triumph of Fanaticism" in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire".

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created a situation the British could neither resolve nor extricate themselves from. The rise of German dictator

4801: 4519: 4046: 3904: 2997: 2774: 1133: 698: 7451:

Cheta, Omar Youssef. "The economy by other means: The historiography of capitalism in the modern Middle East."

5678: 5248: 3826: 2749: 2708: 2664: 999:, being much more conducive to agriculture than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula, sea traded heavily with the 523: 276: 4539: 8236: 8014: 4973: 4953: 4515: 4407:

in 1878 and the British occupied Egypt in 1882, though it remained under nominal Ottoman sovereignty. In the

4214:

the fragmentation of the empire in 1260. Hulegu carved out his Middle Eastern territory into the independent

4147:

responded to pleas from the flagging Byzantine Empire and summoned the European aristocracy to recapture the

4006: 3175: 2902: 2637: 1799: 1628: 7721: 6360: 4486:

This first Ottoman constitutional experiment ended soon after it began, however, when the autocratic Sultan

1389:

variants, including –13910*T, and may have been subsequently supplanted by later migrations of peoples. The

468: 8047: 7619: 7060: 6226:"Ancient Migratory Events in the Middle East: New Clues from the Y-Chromosome Variation of Modern Iranians" 5746: 3834: 3560:

In the 5th century, the Middle East was separated into small, weak states; the two most prominent were the

3454: 3450: 3155: 2825: 2525: 1209: 827: 157: 5408:. In response, the United States formed a coalition of allies with Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Syria, gained 4961: 3892:

the island developed its own distinct culture with the fusion of Arab, Western, and Byzantine influences.

440: 435: 8009: 7026:

The Population of Palestine: Population History and Statistics of the Late Ottoman Period and the Mandate

5524: 4926: 4738: 4659: 4446: 4249:. The rule of the Ottoman sultans marked the end of the Medieval (Postclassical) Era in the Middle East. 3876:

Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centres in the Middle East, but Iberia (

3209: 2830: 2589: 562: 321: 7521: 8083: 7937: 6793: 6304: 5558: 5546: 5252: 5111: 5059:. This plan sought to create an Arab state and a separate Jewish state in the narrow space between the 4969: 4757:

in 1916, they turned to fomenting revolution in the Ottoman domains, exploiting the awakening force of

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From the early 6th century BC onwards, several Persian states dominated the region, beginning with the

1566: 123: 8116: 7479:

Gause III, F. Gregory. "'Hegemony' Compared: Great Britain and the United States in the Middle East."

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soon became a major military base for the British and the country was occupied. The British cited the

4205:, died in 1259, any further expansion by Hulegu was halted, as he had to return to the Mongol capital 3269:

was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost the entire Middle East—particularly the

2362: 8180: 8037: 7942: 7746: 7685: 7287: 5609: 5209: 5075: 4833: 4808: 4651: 4511: 4495: 4467: 4345:

saw many conversions to Islam, but Ottoman Europe was not culturally absorbed into the Muslim world.

3803: 3337: 2835: 2194: 2189: 725: 5454:

the majority of the population could not vote because they were guest workers rather than citizens.

1120:, but most of those began to be gradually replaced at first by Christianity (even before the 313 AD 8184: 8032: 5948: 5709: 4683: 4599: 4523: 4463: 3822: 3488: 2797: 2720: 2659: 2088: 1622: 1307:. One of the potential routes for early human migrations toward southern and eastern Asia is Iran. 996: 815: 359: 5898:

interview by Robin Wright of UK Foreign Secretary (at the time) Lord Carrington in November 1981,

5608:'s death in 2004. In response, Israel moved towards a unilateral solution, pushing ahead with the 5604:

between Israel and the Palestinians was stalled, although this situation had begun to change with

4879:, and, on 24 July 1922, this mandate was approved by the League of Nations. Palestine became the " 4655: 4616: 3899:

Africa was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later

3896:

remained a leading artistic and commercial centre of the Mediterranean well into the Middle Ages.

3623:

trade. Territorial wars soon became common, with the Byzantines and Sasanians fighting over upper

454: 449: 266: 8195: 5833: 5801: 5137:, and the growing importance of the oil industry. These developments eventually led to increased 3799: 3409: 3140: 1638: 331: 7189: 6647: 4667: 4104:

The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the

3888:

was one of the major centres of Islamic culture in the Mediterranean. After its conquest by the

3308:

known as the first Persian Empire, conquered in the late 4th century BC by the very short-lived

622:. Between the 3rd and 7th centuries AD, the Middle East was dominated by the Byzantines and the 8064: 8042: 7707: 5683: 5489: 5185: 5142: 5056: 4603: 4549: 4313:

The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the

3815: 3783: 3713: 3550: 3425: 3049: 2989: 2870: 2807: 2457: 1404: 1364:. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River, where they developed a settled agricultural 1290: 1201: 1125: 1094: 967:

systems were extremely important for the agricultural Middle East: for Egypt that of the lower

747:

emerged in Western Asia and Northern Africa. The end of European control, the establishment of

736: 678: 651: 555: 313: 247: 69: 58: 7338:"Christian Europe and Mongol Asia: First Medieval Intercultural Contact Between East and West" 7157: 6959:

Eagles on the Crescent: Germany, Austria, and the diplomacy of the Turkish alliance, 1914-1918

6441: 6414: 1507: 7697: 7337: 6387: 5963: 5913: 5726: 5538: 5362:

in the early 1990s had several consequences for the Middle East. It allowed large numbers of

5271: 4750: 4647: 4507: 4370: 4054: 3955: 3432: 3301: 3036:

in history were established in the region now known as the Middle East around 3500 BC by the

3013: 2897: 2474: 2389: 2272: 2267: 2145: 1995: 1611: 1223: 1214: 145: 7511: 7317: 5343:

Due to many of the frantic events of the late 1970s in the Middle East it culminated in the

4705:. The Middle East, it turned out, possessed the world's largest easily untapped reserves of 3978:

which created a distinct form of architecture. Some of the more magnificent mosques include

430: 8057: 8052: 7897: 7739: 7681: 7386: 6862: 6237: 6003: 5989: 5786: 5474: 5426: 5275: 4766: 4762: 4395:

achieved independence during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire became known as the "

4258: 4160: 4099: 4074: 4070: 4014: 3865:

that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant

3496: 3147: 3133: 2860: 2594: 2313: 2289: 1960: 1896: 1643: 1633: 1098: 949: 776: 420: 350: 271: 257: 133: 129: 6305:"Sahelian pastoralism from the perspective of variantsassociated with lactase persistence" 3941: 8: 7132: 7126: 5694: 5451: 5080: 4880: 4876: 4812: 4811:, partitioning the Middle East amongst themselves. The British had in 1917, endorsed the 4591: 4479:

lawyers, teachers, and administrators emerged, challenging the traditional leadership of

4210: 4128: 4010: 4002: 3850: 3795: 3420:

continued to dominate throughout the Roman period. Cities in the Middle East, especially

3313: 3274: 3245: 3193: 3179: 3159: 2642: 2604: 2584: 2498: 2260: 2255: 2230: 1918: 1782: 1757: 1606: 1576: 1386: 1105: 1090: 787: 415: 299: 232: 7912: 6829: 6512:, pp. 1–5, for the Byzantine–Sasanian rivalry and its cultural/religious overtones. 6241: 5515:, though supposedly none of the Arab volunteers, were funded by the United States under 4903: 4377:

magnified the divergence, and from 1768 to 1918, the Ottomans gradually lost territory.

2379: 8166: 8126: 7842: 7401: 7245: 6770: 6260: 6225: 6206: 6157: 6132: 5776: 5731: 5721: 5628: 5601: 5505: 5478: 5201: 5162: 5063:

and the Mediterranean. Jewish leaders accepted the plan, but Arab leaders rejected it.

4930: 4845: 4754: 4663: 4545: 4503: 4491: 4471: 4396: 4078: 4018: 3928: 3745: 3717: 3648: 3346: 3342: 2977: 2735: 2695: 2676: 2669: 2654: 2599: 1949: 1345: 1294: 1193: 1185: 1136:, as well as Jews, concentrated in Israel, and followers of Iranian religions, such as 807: 752: 729: 473: 345: 176: 6563: 4991:

had created a new urgency in the Zionist quest to immigrate to Palestine and create a

4171:

dynasty, retook the city. Smaller crusader kingdoms and fiefdoms survived until 1291.

3849:

was the first empire to control the entire Middle East, as well three-quarters of the

3599: 8205: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8131: 7589: 7561: 7430: 7409: 7365: 7323: 7231: 7209: 7163: 7136: 7094: 7029: 6894: 6867: 6841: 6797: 6774: 6701: 6697: 6490: 6447: 6420: 6393: 6265: 6198: 6162: 6107: 6078: 6050: 6022: 5969: 5919: 5863: 5811: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5736: 5527: 5516: 5417: 5393: 5344: 5189: 5133:

The modern Middle East was shaped by three things: departure of European powers, the

4640: 4624: 4411:

of 1912–13 the Ottomans were driven out of Europe altogether, except for the city of

4362: 4140: 4022: 3885: 3854: 3846: 3612: 3417: 3374: 3358: 3309: 3305: 3001: 2981: 2730: 2725: 2647: 2609: 2566: 2559: 2532: 2520: 2515: 2508: 2503: 2486: 2462: 2452: 2413: 2340: 2318: 2306: 2284: 2235: 2113: 2025: 1923: 1805: 1787: 1680: 1648: 1499: 1440: 1310: 1181: 1129: 1113: 1042: 595: 336: 290: 6685: 6210: 8215: 8200: 8190: 8136: 7803: 6984: 6762: 6735: 6693: 6255: 6245: 6190: 6152: 6144: 5821: 5806: 5796: 5791: 5741: 5636: 5624:

Shi'a militia in southern Lebanon, further setting back any "prospects for peace".

5550: 5404:

before 1918, and thus in a sense part of Iraq, even though Iraq had recognized its

5376: 5244: 5229: 5221: 4980: 4938: 4853: 4758: 4675: 4560: 4514:, leading to a pluralist and multiparty elections in the Empire for the first time 4480: 4366: 4237:, and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the 4124: 4095: 3771: 3767: 3679: 3608: 3522: 3516: 3492: 3317: 3249: 3229: 3217: 3213: 3185: 2700: 2418: 2372: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2335: 2296: 2279: 2250: 2240: 2223: 2209: 2199: 2184: 2138: 2133: 2118: 2055: 2030: 2000: 1561: 1520: 1378: 1374: 1326: 1282: 1219: 1197: 1081:

8th century AD – present). Familiarity with English is not uncommon among the

916: 892: 607: 501: 162: 5347:

between neighbouring Iran and Iraq. The war, started by Iraq, who invaded Iranian

3655:. But in 603 the Sasanians invaded, conquering Damascus and Egypt. It was Emperor 8171: 8146: 8141: 7830: 7701: 7693: 7610: 7583: 7550: 7501: 7359: 7193: 7088: 7075: 6250: 5838: 5781: 5756: 5751: 5581: 5534: 5520: 5501: 5497: 5422: 5291: 5263: 5071: 5011: 4965: 4865: 4849: 4819:

movement their support in re-creating the historic Jewish homeland in Palestine.

4714: 4314: 4117: 3838: 3565: 3561: 3483:

Christian sects) being actively repressed. The Middle East's ties to the city of

3362: 3357:

from the 1st century AD onwards, and the region became a center of a flourishing

3332: 3328: 3270: 3225: 3221: 3163: 3076: 3069: 3057: 2713: 2544: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2430: 2425: 2408: 2401: 2396: 2384: 2367: 2330: 2325: 2245: 2050: 1933: 1690: 1685: 1659: 1556: 1444: 1408: 1365: 1349: 1117: 941: 846: 811: 658: 623: 591: 518: 200: 7484: 5332:

condemning Zionism as a form of racism and the reception given to Arafat by the

5052:

The struggle between the Arabs and the Jews in Palestine culminated in the 1947

4518:. The Young Turks split into two parties, the pro-German and pro-centralization 3722: 3686:

that offered it fertile land. This included entire tribal chiefdoms such as the

7422: 7355: 5613: 5586: 5562: 5409: 5386: 5309: 5287: 5279: 5256: 5240: 5225: 5170: 5158: 5099: 5053: 4869: 4861: 4746: 4636: 4632: 4595: 4572: 4538:. After a power struggle between the two parties of Young Turks, the Committee 4487: 4459: 4412: 4290: 4269: 4246: 4218:, which included most of Armenia, Anatolia, Azerbaijan, Mesopotamia, and Iran. 4113: 3995: 3907:. Motivated by religion and conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of 3593: 3500: 3396: 3291: 2865: 2686: 2614: 2481: 2301: 1847: 1488: 1304: 1271: 1145: 1141: 1121: 1066: 1000: 900: 888: 872: The limited modern archaeological and historical context of the Near East 854: 791: 733: 670: 643: 631: 630:

began to shape the region, bringing a new cultural and religious identity. The

599: 237: 6766: 5651:. In 2014, a terrorist group and self-proclaimed caliphate calling itself the 5504:

on Israeli civilians. This was the first major outbreak of violence since the

4612: 4202: 1476: 8230: 8075: 7527: 7393: 7378: 7313: 6933: 6739: 5605: 5574: 5488:'s failed attempt to broker a peace deal between Israel and Palestine at the 5321: 5213: 4948:

Although the Kingdom of Egypt was technically "neutral" during World War II,

4922: 4907: 4822:

After the Ottomans withdrew, Arab leaders proclaimed an independent state in

4342: 4238: 4190: 4152: 4144: 3945:

The interior of the former mosque of Córdoba, showing its distinctive arches.

3870: 3787: 3589: 3534: 3413: 3327:

After a century of hiatus, the idea of the Persian Empire was revived by the

3237: 3205: 3095: 2892: 1913: 1464: 1412: 1397: 1337: 1330: 1322: 1318: 1239: 1235: 1149: 1038: 984: 980: 896: 831: 819: 639: 511: 186: 77: 4646:

Meanwhile, the fall of the Ottomans and the partitioning of Anatolia by the

7870: 7397: 6269: 6202: 6166: 5493: 5485: 5355: 5305: 5267: 5150: 5095: 5060: 5019: 4992: 4988: 4892: 4857: 4694: 4679: 4535: 4531: 4423: 4194: 4105: 3951: 3484: 3462: 3404: 3378: 3033: 2885: 2850: 2764: 1815: 1468: 1393: 1299: 1259: 1132:

in 634 AD). To this day, however, the Middle East has, in particular, some

1082: 1019: 929: 721: 694: 674: 657:

Large parts of the Middle East were contested between the Ottomans and the

619: 208: 181: 7518:

A short history of the Middle East: from the rise of Islam to modern times

6194: 5655:

made rapid territorial gains in western Iraq and eastern Syria, prompting

1137: 709:, leading to increased Western and later American interest in the region. 661:

from the early 16th century. By 1700, the Ottomans had been pushed out of

7762: 7669:

was created from a revision of this article dated 28 March 2008

6603: 6591: 6551: 5632: 5363: 5317: 5301: 5283: 5217: 5181: 4785: 4742: 4734: 4527: 4499: 4408: 4333:, setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the 4034: 3900: 3862: 3624: 3266: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3105: 3041: 3009: 2961: 2880: 2845: 2469: 2204: 1943: 1938: 1820: 1742: 1653: 1591: 1551: 1525: 1420: 1390: 1243: 1227: 1164:

religion is a distinct religion in its own right or merely a part of the

1086: 1011: 904: 823: 783: 744: 587: 387: 382: 252: 102: 50: 38: 6988: 6047:

The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives

6019:

The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East

4278:

The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent in the Middle East, including

3853:, the only other empire besides the Roman Empire to control most of the 1419:

lactase persistence variant –13910*T may have spread, along with cattle

7849: 6919:"Narrowing the Gulf: Anglo-American Relations and Arabian Oil, 1928–74" 5617: 5512: 5039: 4957: 4435: 4374: 4307: 3877: 3691: 3470: 3421: 3083: 3082:

During this same time period, Sargon the Great appointed his daughter,

2820: 2754: 2549: 2165: 2128: 2083: 2078: 2040: 2020: 1717: 1460: 1169: 1157: 1109: 1015: 968: 964: 953: 760: 403: 213: 166: 141: 87: 6548:, pp. 1–5, for the replacement of the Sasanian king by Heraclius. 6347: 5382: 1479:

also featured one, sometimes flanked on either side with the Egyptian

1455: 1089:. Arabic is not commonly spoken in Turkey, Iran, and Israel, and some 1007:

Arabs, inhabiting the drier desert areas of the Middle East, were all

7857: 7704:

archive materials relating to Persian Gulf history and Arabic science

7508:

The Economic History of the Middle East 1800–1914: A Book of Readings

6223: 5621: 5359: 5348: 5205: 5007: 4706: 4690: 4671: 4358: 4318: 4215: 4206: 4180: 4156: 4148: 4123:

Despite massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the Christian

4066: 4058: 4026: 3912: 3858: 3758: 3709: 3656: 3530: 3458: 3350: 3287: 3233: 3065: 3005: 2960:

The ancient Near East was the first to practice intensive year-round

2759: 2537: 2150: 2035: 1990: 1901: 1825: 1792: 1767: 1586: 1484: 1472: 1382: 1371: 1255: 1247: 1165: 1153: 988: 976: 799: 690: 615: 603: 506: 227: 91: 54: 43: 30: 6972: 6284:

The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings

4875:

Britain was granted a Mandate for Palestine on 25 April 1920 at the

4274: 883: 6686:"Islamic Science and Renaissance Europe: The Copernican Connection" 6148: 5542: 5458: 5413: 5197: 5154: 4888: 4823: 4781: 4455: 4392: 4303: 4242: 4132: 4091: 4025:

that would later find its way back to Western Europe. The works of

3991: 3908: 3807: 3735: 3696: 3687: 3667: 3577: 3321: 2993: 2965: 2554: 2170: 2160: 2095: 2045: 1985: 1980: 1908: 1864: 1832: 1737: 1712: 1707: 1702: 1616: 1596: 1571: 1251: 1116:. Initially the ancient inhabitants of the region followed various 1018:, with the geo-linguistic distribution today being divided between 1004: 957: 945: 858: 826:

triggered major protests and revolutions in the region. Clashes in

803: 795: 756: 740: 647: 218: 115: 6810: 6474:(2nd ed.). Wigston, Leicestershire: Lorenz Books. p. 12. 5282:

in 1979, and Syria was ruled first by a Military Committee led by

4956:

that allowed it to station troops on Egyptian soil to protect the

4872:, many of whom had been promised independent states of their own. 3967: 3919:

in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power.

3798:, swept through most of the Middle East, taking more than half of 3383: 3100: 849:, it may have a limited meaning, namely the northern historically- 7825: 7778: 6364: 6179: 5570: 5466: 5371: 5145:

regimes to power in Egypt (1954), Syria (1963), Iraq (1968), and

5087:

after 1948 were absorbed and naturalized by the State of Israel.

5067: 5038:

1947 – Egypt (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn to the

4984: 4837: 4816: 4702: 4674:, emancipated women, enforced western dress and the use of a new 4427: 4404: 4400: 4388: 4338: 4330: 4326: 4299: 4226: 4168: 4164: 4038: 3987: 3979: 3963: 3959: 3893: 3889: 3881: 3755: 3663: 3644: 3628: 3620: 3526: 3354: 3261: 3125: 3060:—who extended their empire to northern Mesopotamia (now northern 3021: 3017: 2681: 2218: 2179: 2155: 2010: 1879: 1842: 1772: 1752: 1747: 1732: 1670: 1601: 1581: 1541: 1424: 1353: 1278: 1263: 1058: 1031: 1008: 937: 850: 772: 717: 706: 682: 611: 7322:(Illustrated ed.), New York City: Oxford University Press, 4666:

in 1923. Atatürk, the Republic's first President, embarked on a

1293:

out of Africa occurred through the Middle East, namely over the

952:(c. the 10th millennium BCE), as well as the first to enter the 7892: 7880: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7783: 5470: 5397: 5367: 5236: 5091: 4941:

was created following the British government's issuance of the

4628: 4556: 4384: 4380: 4354: 4334: 4322: 4198: 4062: 4042: 3975: 3842: 3830: 3791: 3727: 3675: 3585: 3581: 3538: 3479: 3474: 3444: 3436: 3400: 3388: 3241: 3201: 3189: 2973: 2491: 2015: 2005: 1965: 1955: 1928: 1886: 1869: 1859: 1852: 1777: 1727: 1722: 1536: 1428: 1416: 1400: 1361: 1357: 1267: 1074: 1050: 992: 972: 908: 768: 748: 542: 7731: 7700:– an online portal providing access to previously undigitised 5533:

One of these Arab militants was a wealthy Saudi Arabian named

5232:, as well as a number of lesser conflicts of lower intensity. 4458:

reforms re-invigorated Ottoman rule and were furthered by the

3188:

to the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea and throughout the

3158:(664–332 BC), immediately followed by the history of Egypt in 7902: 7875: 7865: 7788: 7206:

Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention, from Fire to Freud

6443:

The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000

5462: 5437: 5401: 5166: 5146: 4949: 4918: 4914: 4829: 4777: 4698: 4658:, the Turkish victory against the invading powers during the 4431: 4234: 4109: 4030: 3779: 3671: 3652: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3616: 3331:

in the 3rd century BC—and continued by their successors, the

3297: 3061: 3053: 3037: 2985: 2969: 2779: 1975: 1874: 1837: 1762: 1675: 1546: 1531: 1161: 1027: 933: 764: 713: 702: 686: 635: 627: 583: 5094:

gained its independence from the British Empire. Archbishop

4526:. The former was led by an ambitious pair of army officers, 3958:, including confession of faith, the five prayers a day, to 1333:

were reported to have been observed in the Iranian plateau.

864: 7837: 7798: 7793: 6652:

Asian Topics in World History: The Mongols in World History

5862:. Buckinghamshire, UK: Shire Publications Ltd. p. 46. 5274:

took power in both Iraq and Syria. Iraq was first ruled by

5174: 5045:

1948 – Israel (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn)

4841: 4795: 4718: 3971: 3866: 3573: 3569: 3440: 3197: 3045: 2769: 1970: 1810: 1665: 1480: 1341: 1023: 912: 782:

Several key events shaped the modern Middle East: the 1967

7613:, "Syria's Lost Chance" (review of Elizabeth F. Thompson, 7392: 7124: 6891:

A history of Cyprus: from the ancient times to the present

6690:

Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance

6609: 6597: 6557: 4286: 3690:

in a less controlled area of the Sasanian Empire, and the

3666:

tribes dominated the Arabian desert, where they worshiped

3510: 3027: 42:

A map showing territories commonly considered part of the

7467:

A Land of Aching Hearts: The Middle East in the Great War

6627: 5400:

in 1990. Kuwait had been part of the Ottoman province of

5396:

from 1980 to 1988, and then into its fateful invasion of

5035:

1947 – Iraq (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn)

4788:

against Ottoman rule, after being promised independence.

4686:, and abolished the jurisdiction of the Islamic courts. 7532:

The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years

7186: 7042: 6639: 6615: 6527: 6104:

The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East

4933:

and Iraqi forces were defeated by the British when they

4741:

led the Ottoman Empire into the fatal step of entering

4057:

in Europe. Muslim intellectuals would become experts in

3884:

in the eastern Mediterranean. Between 831 and 1071, the

3611:

in the horn of Africa, the Sasanian Empire assisted the

3499:, with the Middle East tied to the new Roman capital of 1483:

symbol. The Iranian kingdom has a related symbol called

7498:

An economic history of the Middle East and North Africa

6581:

Subhi Y. Labib (1969), "Capitalism in Medieval Islam",

6487:

Orientalism and Musical Mission: Palestine and the West

5561:

on the United States. The September 11 attacks led the

5412:

approval, and evicted Iraq from Kuwait by force in the

4925:

orchestrated mass demonstrations in Egypt known as the

4836:. The Christian coastal areas were split off to become 4650:

led to resistance by the Turkish population, under the

845:, but in a different context, especially in discussing 720:

withdrew from much of the Middle East during and after

642:

invasions in the 13th century By the 15th century, the

7427:

Historical Atlas: A Comprehensive History of the World

6472:

Myths & Legends of India, Egypt, China & Japan

6416:

Ancient Egypt: From Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest

5129:

1963 film about contemporary events in the Middle East

5066:

On 14 May 1948, when the British Mandate expired, the

4848:

became British mandated territories. Iraq became the "

4502:

emerged in the 1890s against his rule, which included

4353:

By 1699, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary,

3521:

The Eastern Roman Empire, today commonly known as the

3236:

civilization, encompassing several city states, was a

3196:. Ancient Levantine kingdoms and city states included 1134:

sizable, ethnically distinct Christian minority groups

818:

in 1991 shifted global focus from the Cold War to the

7429:, Elanora Heights, NSW, Australia: Millennium House, 6973:"World War I: A War (And Peace?) for the Middle East" 6129: 4964:

in Iraq led to the British to invade, leading to the

3281: 3004:, as well as laying the foundation for the fields of 928:

Geographically, the Middle East can be thought of as

7278:

Barlett, Donald L.; Steele, James B. (13 May 2003).

6666: 6363:. Assyrian International News Agency. Archived from 6095: 6090:

society and do not necessarily identify as Muslims..

5620:. In 2006 a new conflict erupted between Israel and 4693:

was discovered, first in Persia (1908) and later in

4577: 3507:

therefore, had minimal direct impact on the region.

3416:

and language first established in the region by the

3184:

Thereafter, civilization quickly spread through the

1037:

Since ancient times the Middle East has had several

7708:

The Middle East : peace and the changing order

3631:and key cities that facilitated trade from Arabia, 638:dominance in the mid-11th century, followed by the 7727:Middle East: Primary Cultural and Historical Zones 6854: 6419:. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 102. 5902:by Robin Wright, Simon and Schuster, (1985), p. 67 4921:made moves towards independence. In 1919, Egypt's 4619:, Ottoman general and the founder of modern Turkey 3461:: Jerusalem is generally considered the cradle of 1487:which mistakenly is being called as the symbol of 7712:Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives 7408:(6th ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Longman, 5968:(Illustrated ed.). EISENBRAUNS. p. 69. 5032:22 May 1946 – Jordan (British mandate ended) 4697:(1938) as well as the other Persian Gulf states, 4627:, the United Kingdom took over the government of 4263: 3154:The history of Ancient Egypt is concluded by the 8228: 7603:Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin 7458:Cleveland, William L. and Martin Bunton. (2016) 7228:Asking Questions: The Israeli-Palestinian Puzzle 6828: 5239:between 1955 and 1974, conflict arising between 5002: 4559:(Adrianople) to the Bulgarians after losing the 4085: 3911:to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the 3112:Soon after the Sumerian civilization began, the 1124:) and finally by Islam (after the spread of the 948:. The Middle East was the first to experience a 7555: 6912: 6910: 6816: 6484: 5705:United States foreign policy in the Middle East 5338:United Nations General Assembly Resolution 4686 5330:United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 4943:Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence 4466:in the Empire that included the writing of the 4426:, and the French extended their influence into 4185:Mongol invasions and conquests § West Asia 3387:The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, under 716:pursued independence. The British, French, and 8105: 7540:Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956 7065:Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956 7003:"Skyes Picot Agreement: Division of Territory" 6072: 5290:until 2000, when he was succeeded by his son, 3922: 3837:before being halted in southern France in the 3782:grew in the Middle East. In a series of rapid 3682:, a region so named for its place between the 1471:feature different versions of the symbol. The 8091: 7747: 7485:https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2019.1604987 7277: 7125:Rabinovich, Itamar; Reinharz, Jehuda (2007). 7090:1948: a history of the first Arab-Israeli war 6836:(Revised ed.). I.B.Tauris. pp. 107 6465: 6463: 6298: 6296: 6294: 6292: 5392:Saddam Hussein led Iraq into a prolonged and 5336:. Resolution 3379 was revoked in 1991 by the 5192:began to fill the political vacuum created". 4522:and the pro-British and pro-decentralization 4151:for Christianity. In 1099 the knights of the 3012:. However, its empires also introduced rigid 2941: 891:, defined by the pre-Islamic distribution of 763:are the small, oil-rich Persian Gulf states: 618:, increasingly defined by and dogmatic about 563: 34:Contemporary political map of the Middle East 7489:Goldschmidt, Arthur, and Lawrence Davidson. 7086: 6907: 6755:International Journal of Middle East Studies 6314:. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 6131:Santachiara-Benerecetti, A. Silvana (2004). 6021:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. XLVIII. 5545:organization, which was responsible for the 4077:, with larger and more extravagant mosques. 3428:was by far the most wealthy Roman province. 1277:The collision between the Arabian Plate and 1003:, some of which it lingually Semitized. The 995:, participated in intense trade. Similarly, 830:on December 30, 2013, set the stage for the 790:in response to US support for Israel in the 7155: 6787: 6752: 6725: 6489:. Cambridge University Press. p. 146. 6470:Storm, Rachel (2011). Sudell, Helen (ed.). 6101: 5941:"Fundamentalist Islam: The Drive for Power" 5116:List of modern conflicts in the Middle East 4717:oil assets, oil sharing, and the advent of 4668:program of modernisation and secularisation 4608:List of modern conflicts in the Middle East 4506:. The Young Turks seized power in the 1908 4069:during the Abbasid Caliphate. In the arts, 1160:. It is somewhat controversial whether the 1073:4th century BC – 8th century AD), and 861:territories, marked in the two maps below. 8098: 8084: 7754: 7740: 7556:Mansfield, Peter; Pelham, Nicolas (2013), 7474:International relations of the Middle East 7406:World Civilizations: The Global Experience 6460: 6385: 6327:"Ancient Civilizations – Mesopotamia" 6289: 6217: 6106:. Michigan University Press. p. 114. 6044: 5905: 3814:by the Byzantines, who were helped by the 3169: 2948: 2934: 1385:, may have been the source population for 1104:The Middle East was the birthplace of the 979:rivers. Levantine agriculture depended on 570: 556: 7455:(April 2018) 16#4 DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12444 6917:Morton, Michael Quentin (December 2011). 6654:. Asia for Educators, Columbia University 6259: 6249: 6156: 5938: 5700:British foreign policy in the Middle East 5316:In 1979, Egypt under Nasser's successor, 5085:Jews expelled or who fled from Arab lands 4860:. Iraq incorporated large populations of 4462:in the late 19th century, leading to the 4441: 4252: 3368: 7677:, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 7660: 7581: 7312: 7258: 7023: 6888: 6672: 6545: 6521: 6509: 6358: 6077:. Oxford University Press. p. 142. 5900:Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam 5887:Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam 5881: 5879: 5523:, one of the longest and most expensive 5492:in 2000 led directly to the election of 5436: 5381: 5296: 5119: 5006: 4902: 4796:Ottoman defeat and partition (1918–1922) 4611: 4588:French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon 4544: 4445: 4430:and Syria. In 1912, the Italians seized 4361:and parts of the western Balkans in the 4348: 4285: 4273: 4220: 3940: 3794:and skilled military commanders such as 3721: 3598: 3541:met an era of stability and prosperity. 3449: 3382: 3345:over the seven centuries. Eastern Rite, 3099: 2976:), gave the rest of the world the first 1454: 1222:, circa 7500 BC, with main sites of the 1213: 1175: 882: 863: 759:and overreliance on oil. The wealthiest 37: 29: 7377: 7354: 7208:. New York: Harper Perennial. p. 1096. 6822: 6569: 6439: 6016: 5961: 5496:as Prime Minister of Israel and to the 4937:. In 1922, the (nominally) independent 4780:believed by many to be a descendant of 4635:. While the Cypriots at first welcomed 3544: 3511:Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) 3403:conquered much of the Middle East. The 3028:Cradle of civilization, Sumer and Akkad 1065:8th century BC – 8th century AD), 1057:5th century BC – 2nd century AD), 373: 14: 8229: 7335: 7198: 6970: 6916: 6633: 6412: 6302: 6137:The American Journal of Human Genetics 5857: 4321:. By this time the Ottomans also held 4293:, Ottoman conqueror of the Middle East 4201:(or Great Khan) of the Mongol Empire, 3873:would also later dominate the region. 3774:Persian empires were both weakened by 3316:, and then successor kingdoms such as 654:and establishing a lasting sultanate. 8079: 7735: 7573: 7526: 7421: 7364:(Updated ed.), Faber and Faber, 7225: 7162:. Springer International Publishing. 7093:. Yale University Press. p. 73. 7048: 6621: 6533: 6469: 6075:The Oxford Handbook of American Islam 5911: 5876: 5153:, seeking to open a new arena of the 4566: 4197:and the majority of Arabia. When the 3937:Science in the medieval Islamic world 3487:were gradually severed as the Empire 1344:terraces and in desert oases. In the 1230:proper was not yet settled by humans. 895:and coinciding very roughly with the 590:hosted powerful empires, notably the 7886:Turkish occupation of northern Syria 7491:A concise history of the Middle East 7460:A History of the Modern Middle East. 7271: 7187:VI- The Arab Refugees – Introduction 6860: 5679:List of history journals#Middle East 5600:By 2005, President George W. Bush's 5196:ally, until a revolution led by the 4979:In Palestine, conflicting forces of 4913:During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, 4852:" and one of Sharif Hussein's sons, 4131:in the 11th century and settling in 4116:until 1169, when it too fell to the 3905:Renaissance of the 12th century 3703: 1434: 802:in Saudi Arabia that led to rise of 6645: 5915:Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam 5817:History of the United Arab Emirates 5674:History of the Mediterranean region 5657:international military intervention 5612:to protect Israel from Palestinian 3255: 1451:Chronology of the ancient Near East 24: 7647: 7444: 6389:A Brief History of the Middle East 5965:Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader 5689:Timeline of Middle Eastern history 5669:Genetic history of the Middle East 4997:the enemy of my enemy is my friend 4832:became a French protectorate as a 4584:Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire 4163:, which survived until 1187, when 3966:, to pay the tax for charity (the 3282:Neo-Babylonian and Persian empires 1206:Timeline of Middle Eastern history 971:, and for Mesopotamia that of the 693:, first in Persia (1908), then in 25: 8253: 7628: 6324: 5326:Palestine Liberation Organization 5312:concluded a peace treaty in 1978. 4662:, and the founding of the modern 4578:Final years of the Ottoman Empire 3812:Siege of Constantinople (717–718) 1315:human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup 1190:Prehistory of the Southern Levant 1030:in the Peninsula, as well as the 911:, which, together with the lower 841:can be used interchangeably with 712:In the 1920s to 1940s, Syria and 8115: 7911: 7659: 6961:(Cornell University Press, 1970) 6485:Beckles Willson, Rachel (2013). 6386:Catherwood, Christopher (2011). 5616:and unilateral withdrawing from 5580:In 2002, U.S. Defense Secretary 5432: 5105: 4970:Allied invasion of Syria–Lebanon 4689:Another turning point came when 4143:, to enter the region. In 1095, 3933:Early social changes under Islam 3505:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 2984:and then the vehicular and mill 1506: 1099:qualifying as distinct languages 944:) and with the exclusion of the 652:capturing Constantinople in 1453 602:expanded to include much of the 7761: 7476:(Oxford University Press, 2013) 7219: 7180: 7149: 7118: 7080: 7054: 7017: 6995: 6964: 6951: 6893:. Greek Institute. p. 98. 6882: 6781: 6746: 6719: 6678: 6583:The Journal of Economic History 6575: 6539: 6515: 6503: 6478: 6433: 6406: 6379: 6352: 6341: 6318: 6303:Priehodová, Edita; et al. 6286:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 6276: 6173: 6123: 6073:Yazbeck Haddad, Yvonne (2014). 6066: 6038: 5918:. I.B. Tauris. pp. 61–62. 5447:dissolution of the Soviet Union 5441:A map of the Middle East (2003) 5379:as a substitute for socialism. 5334:United Nations General Assembly 5026:22 November 1943 – Lebanon 4840:, another French protectorate. 4802:Partition of the Ottoman Empire 4536:Mehmed Talaat Bey (later Pasha) 4520:Committee of Union and Progress 3072:all flourished in this region. 2775:Ancient Mesopotamian underworld 878: Middle East and Near East 626:. From the 7th century onward, 7717:Ancient Civilizations Medicine 7617:, Atlantic Monthly, 466 pp.), 7588:, Cambridge University Press, 7404:; Gilbert, Marc Jason (2011), 7305: 7156:Warf, C.; Charles, G. (2020). 6863:"Le coup d'état du 23 Janvier" 6698:10.7551/mitpress/3981.003.0007 6413:Kuiper, Kathleen, ed. (2010). 6010: 6004:"World Factbook – Kuwait" 5996: 5990:"World Factbook – Jordan" 5982: 5955: 5932: 5892: 5851: 5262:In the mid-to-late 1960s, the 5249:Cypriot intercommunal violence 5202:overthrew the monarchy in 1979 5139:U.S. involvement in the region 4728: 4623:In 1878, as the result of the 4264:The Ottoman Empire (1299–1918) 4174: 3845:. At its greatest extent, the 3576:, and the Byzantine Empire in 3412:spread across the region, the 3143:(2055–1650) and, most notably, 2996:, served as birthplace to the 2750:Ancient near eastern cosmology 1368:and more centralized society. 1101:by this linguistic criterion. 1014:before some began settling in 915:(i.e., Egypt), constitute the 13: 1: 7585:The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 7560:(4 ed.), Penguin Books, 7361:A History of the Arab Peoples 7250:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 7028:. Columbia University Press. 5844: 5537:. After fighting against the 5048:August 16, 1960 – Cyprus 5003:New states after World War II 4974:Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran 4772:The British found an ally in 4725:towards the Arab oil states. 4470:and the establishment of the 4420:established effective control 4306:, who were successors of the 4086:Turks, Crusaders, and Mongols 3778:, a new power in the form of 3176:History of the ancient Levant 2903:History of the Ancient Levant 1078: 1070: 1062: 1054: 1046: 810:contributed to a significant 598:. In the 1st century BC, the 8107:History of the Middle East 7620:The New York Review of Books 7558:A History of the Middle East 7383:A Brief History of the World 6788:El-Rouhayeb, Khaled (2015). 6392:. Little, Brown Book Group. 6361:"Brief History of Assyrians" 6251:10.1371/journal.pone.0041252 6102:De McLaurin, Ronald (1979). 5597:from Iraq by December 2011. 5541:in the 1980s, he formed the 4898: 4881:British Mandate of Palestine 4815:promising the international 4504:massacres against minorities 3555: 3455:Church of the Holy Sepulchre 1210:Timeline of human prehistory 1034:areas beyond the Peninsula. 7: 7319:The Oxford History of Islam 7268:, Free Press, (2001), p. 68 7230:. Independently published. 7226:Rupok, Rifat (2023-11-10). 6817:Mansfield & Pelham 2013 5662: 5264:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party 5057:plan to partition Palestine 5029:1 January 1944 – Syria 4968:. This was followed by the 4962:Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup 4891:, who in 1932, founded the 4660:Turkish War of Independence 4631:as a protectorate from the 4112:. Egypt held out under the 4047:Hindu–Arabic numeral system 3923:Islamic culture and science 3821:The Byzantine provinces of 3810:, they were stopped in the 3804:engulfing the Persian lands 3754: Expansion during the 3744: Expansion during the 3684:Tigris and Euphrates rivers 3304:, then their successor the 2813:Ancient Near East Conflicts 737:plan to partition Palestine 10: 8258: 7345:Essays in Medieval Studies 6932:(6): 39–54. Archived from 6794:Cambridge University Press 5559:September 11, 2001 attacks 5547:1998 U.S. embassy bombings 5253:Turkish invasion of Cyprus 5112:Economy of the Middle East 5109: 4799: 4776:, the hereditary ruler of 4581: 4570: 4267: 4256: 4178: 4089: 3926: 3707: 3548: 3514: 3372: 3349:Christianity took hold in 3285: 3259: 3173: 3093: 3048:), widely regarded as the 3000:with their high degree of 2908:History of the Middle East 1448: 1438: 1377:, who may have resided in 1179: 923: 822:. In the early 2010s, the 8122: 8113: 8025: 7985: 7920: 7909: 7769: 7694:Articles From Our Experts 7582:Quataert, Donald (2000), 7024:McCarthy, Justin (1990). 6889:Tofallis, Kypros (2002). 6767:10.1017/s0020743806412344 6049:. Routledge. p. 33. 6045:J. Stewart, Dona (2008). 5962:Richard, Suzanne (2003). 5610:Israeli West Bank barrier 5569:in 2001 to overthrow the 5425:as justification for the 4834:League of Nations mandate 4652:Turkish National Movement 4512:Second Constitutional Era 4476:1906 revolution in Persia 3962:during the holy month of 3869:that persists today. The 3351:Persian-ruled Mesopotamia 3338:Muslim conquest of Persia 1405:European agriculturalists 1291:earliest human migrations 7336:Guzman, Gregory (1985), 6861:Y.R. (1 February 1913). 6834:Turkey: A Modern History 6740:10.1163/157006008x335930 6359:BetBasoo, Peter (2007). 6282:Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. 6017:Jenkins, Philip (2020). 5710:Near Eastern archaeology 5070:leadership declared the 4600:Modern history of Cyprus 4534:, and a radical lawyer, 4524:Freedom and Accord Party 4464:First Constitutional Era 3273:of 1365–1076 BC and the 3238:maritime trading culture 3206:Kingdom of Aram-Damascus 3089: 1892:Ancient Israel and Judah 1303:about 1.8 million years 816:Fall of the Soviet Union 673:gained control over the 57:, is home to one of the 7502:Excerpt and text search 7462:6th ed. Westview Press. 7192:17 January 2009 at the 6692:, The MIT Press, 2007, 6440:Wickham, Chris (2009). 5860:Egyptian Rock Cut Tombs 5834:History of North Africa 5802:History of Saudi Arabia 5631:popularly known as the 5278:, but was succeeded by 4893:Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 4856:, was installed as the 4721:ensured a shift in the 4051:conquests of south Asia 3857:. It would be the Arab 3324:state in Western Asia. 3170:The Levant and Anatolia 2990:centralized governments 1148:minorities include the 732:culminated in the 1947 59:Cradles of Civilization 8242:Middle Eastern studies 7881:North Syria Federation 7655: 7635:Listen to this article 7574:Rogan, Eugene (2009), 7493:(Westview Press, 1991) 7483:28.3 (2019): 565-587. 7204:Watson, Peter (2006). 6971:Jacobs, M. F. (2014). 6648:"The Mongol Conquests" 5912:Kepel, Gilles (2003). 5858:Dodson, Aidan (1991). 5684:Middle Eastern empires 5627:In the early 2010s, a 5539:Soviets in Afghanistan 5442: 5418:George H. W. Bush 5389: 5313: 5130: 5015: 4910: 4769:against the Ottomans. 4620: 4604:Protectorate of Cyprus 4552: 4550:Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt 4451: 4442:Ottoman reform efforts 4294: 4283: 4253:Early Modern Near East 4230: 3956:five pillars of belief 3946: 3763: 3734: Expansion under 3714:Early Muslim conquests 3604: 3551:Post-classical history 3466: 3392: 3369:Greek and Roman Empire 3124:was unified under the 3109: 3050:cradle of civilization 2808:Cradle of Civilization 2633:Religion and mythology 2628:Religion and mythology 2458:Inscriptional Parthian 2068:Archaeological periods 1492: 1297:, with the pre-modern 1236:Arabian Tectonic Plate 1231: 1202:History of agriculture 1144:. Some of the smaller 1095:mutual intelligibility 1049:14th–8th century BC), 956:(c. 3300–1200 BC) and 920: 903:. The north comprises 880: 751:, and the rise of the 679:French colonial empire 669:towards the West. The 650:, rose to prominence, 46: 35: 27:Middle Eastern History 18:Middle Eastern history 7698:Qatar Digital Library 7654: 7506:Issawi, Charles, ed. 7472:Fawcett, Louise, ed. 7465:Fawaz, Leila Tarazi. 7087:Benny Morris (2008). 7005:. Crethi Plethi. 2009 6329:. Health Guidance.org 6195:10.1353/hub.2006.0045 5951:on February 13, 2005. 5945:Middle East Quarterly 5727:History of Azerbaijan 5440: 5385: 5300: 5272:Salah al-Din al-Bitar 5210:1948 Arab–Israeli War 5157:, allied itself with 5128: 5076:1948 Arab–Israeli War 5010: 4906: 4809:Sykes–Picot Agreement 4739:alliance with Germany 4656:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 4617:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 4615: 4571:Further information: 4548: 4508:Young Turk Revolution 4474:. The authors of the 4450:Middle East Map, 1916 4449: 4371:Industrial Revolution 4349:Rivalry with the West 4289: 4277: 4257:Further information: 4224: 4167:, the founder of the 4055:Scientific Revolution 3944: 3725: 3602: 3549:Further information: 3453: 3431:During the time that 3386: 3302:Neo-Babylonian Empire 3103: 3014:social stratification 2475:Old Persian Cuneiform 2390:Anatolian Hieroglyphs 2268:Proto-Sinaitic Script 2146:Ancient North Arabian 1629:Early Dynastic Period 1458: 1336:There is evidence of 1266:rifting began in the 1226:period. The area of 1224:Pre-Pottery Neolithic 1217: 1176:Prehistoric Near East 932:with the addition of 886: 867: 788:1973 OPEC oil embargo 726:Arab–Israeli conflict 610:later ruled from the 158:Age of the human race 41: 33: 8237:History of West Asia 8211:United Arab Emirates 7898:United Arab Emirates 7686:More spoken articles 7576:The Arabs: A History 7534:, New York: Scribner 7387:The Teaching Company 7280:"The Oily Americans" 7131:. Brandeis. p. 5787:History of Palestine 5475:United Arab Emirates 5427:September 11 attacks 5406:independence in 1961 5394:costly war with Iran 5358:and the collapse of 5276:Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr 5259:remains unresolved. 5090:On August 16, 1960, 4767:Assyrian nationalism 4510:and established the 4415:and its hinterland. 4259:Early modern history 4161:Kingdom of Jerusalem 4100:History of Jerusalem 4075:Umayyad architecture 4071:Abbasid architecture 3851:Mediterranean region 3545:Medieval Middle East 3365:literary tradition. 2988:, created the first 2526:South Arabian Script 2290:Egyptian Hieroglyphs 950:Neolithic Revolution 806:. Additionally, the 53:, also known as the 7538:Monroe, Elizabeth. 7516:Kirk, George Eden. 7402:Schwartz, Stuart B. 7290:on December 4, 2008 7051:, pp. 348–350. 6819:, pp. 141–147. 6728:Die Welt des Islams 6636:, pp. 230–233. 6624:, pp. 146–149. 6610:Stearns et al. 2011 6598:Stearns et al. 2011 6558:Stearns et al. 2011 6242:2012PLoSO...741252G 5452:Persian Gulf states 4877:San Remo Conference 4813:Balfour Declaration 4745:on the side of the 4592:Mandatory Palestine 4211:Battle of Ain Jalut 4129:Battle of Manzikert 3835:Visigothic Hispania 3800:Byzantine territory 3796:Khalid ibn al-Walid 3314:Alexander the Great 3275:Neo-Assyrian Empire 3250:Carthage, in 814 BC 3246:Mediterranean Basin 3180:History of Anatolia 3160:Classical Antiquity 2273:Paleo-Hebrew Script 2261:Phoenician Alphabet 2089:Bronze Age Collapse 1387:lactase persistence 1242:during much of the 1091:varieties of Arabic 699:Persian Gulf states 233:Classical antiquity 8005:Metropolitan areas 7656: 7605:(Routledge, 2018). 7601:Vasiliev, Alexey. 7549:2018-09-21 at the 7530:, Bernard (1995), 7500:(Routledge, 2013) 7074:2018-09-21 at the 6977:Diplomatic History 6367:on 17 October 2013 6006:. 11 January 2023. 5992:. 17 January 2023. 5777:History of Lebanon 5747:History of Georgia 5732:History of Bahrain 5722:History of Armenia 5629:revolutionary wave 5602:Road map for peace 5567:invade Afghanistan 5565:administration to 5506:Oslo Peace Accords 5500:, which conducted 5443: 5390: 5314: 5204:and established a 5163:Gamal Abdel Nasser 5135:founding of Israel 5131: 5016: 4931:Battle of Maysalun 4911: 4664:Republic of Turkey 4621: 4567:Modern Middle East 4553: 4540:emerged victorious 4530:(later Pasha) and 4472:Ottoman Parliament 4452: 4436:Dodecanese islands 4397:sick man of Europe 4337:. Regions such as 4295: 4284: 4231: 4229:of Egypt in Cairo. 4079:Persian literature 3947: 3929:Islamic Golden Age 3764: 3746:Rashidun Caliphate 3718:Iranian Intermezzo 3605: 3525:, ruling from the 3467: 3393: 3353:, particularly in 3347:Church of the East 3343:Roman-Persian Wars 3110: 3108:of Egypt in Luxor. 1919:Neo-Hittite states 1758:Neo-Hittite States 1517:Regions and states 1493: 1459:The symbol of the 1356:was replaced by a 1346:10th millennium BC 1313:, the most common 1295:Levantine corridor 1281:is pushing up the 1232: 1194:Prehistoric Cyprus 1186:Prehistory of Iran 960:(c. 1200–500 BC). 936:(which is the non- 921: 881: 857:area and adjacent 808:Iranian Revolution 794:, and the rise of 753:petroleum industry 47: 36: 8224: 8223: 8073: 8072: 7652: 7595:978-1-139-44591-7 7567:978-0-7181-9967-8 7496:Issawi, Charles. 7436:978-1-921209-23-9 7415:978-0-13-136020-4 7394:Stearns, Peter N. 7379:Stearns, Peter N. 7371:978-0-571-30249-9 7329:978-0-19-510799-9 7314:Esposito, John L. 7237:979-8-8672-7847-2 7169:978-3-030-40675-2 7142:978-0-87451-962-4 6989:10.1093/dh/dhu031 6847:978-1-86064-958-5 6803:978-1-107-04296-4 6796:. pp. 1–10. 6646:Rossabi, Morris. 6325:Lyons, Albert S. 5975:978-1-57506-083-5 5925:978-1-84511-257-8 5869:978-0-7478-0128-3 5812:History of Turkey 5772:History of Kuwait 5767:History of Jordan 5762:History of Israel 5737:History of Cyprus 5528:covert operations 5517:Operation Cyclone 5490:Camp David Summit 5366:to emigrate from 5126: 4885:including in 1936 4641:High Commissioner 4625:Cyprus Convention 4532:Ahmed Cemal Pasha 4468:1876 constitution 4418:The British also 4363:Great Turkish War 4280:its client states 4141:Holy Roman Empire 3984:Mosque of Cordoba 3886:Emirate of Sicily 3855:Mediterranean Sea 3776:warfare (602–628) 3704:Islamic caliphate 3613:Himyarite Kingdom 3503:. The subsequent 3418:Macedonian Empire 3395:In 66–63 BC, the 3375:Macedonian Empire 3310:Macedonian Empire 3306:Achaemenid Empire 3240:that established 3210:Kingdom of Israel 3162:, beginning with 3002:division of labor 2998:first city-states 2958: 2957: 2487:Manichaean Script 2463:Manichaean Script 2341:Hittite Cuneiform 2319:Cypriot Syllabary 2307:Elamite Cuneiform 1897:Ancient Palestine 1806:Kish Civilization 1681:Achaemenid Empire 1649:Ptolemaic Kingdom 1612:Babylonian Empire 1500:ancient Near East 1477:Seals of Hezekiah 1441:Ancient Near East 1435:Ancient Near East 1311:Haplogroup J-P209 1182:Prehistoric Egypt 1130:Arabian Peninsula 1114:Iranian religions 893:Semitic languages 596:Achaemenid Empire 580: 579: 532: 531: 524:Political history 149: 137: 107: 103:Pleistocene epoch 16:(Redirected from 8249: 8119: 8100: 8093: 8086: 8077: 8076: 7960:Modern conflicts 7915: 7756: 7749: 7742: 7733: 7732: 7676: 7674: 7663: 7662: 7653: 7643: 7641: 7636: 7611:Worth, Robert F. 7598: 7578: 7570: 7535: 7520:(Methuen, 1964) 7481:Security Studies 7439: 7418: 7389: 7374: 7351: 7342: 7332: 7299: 7298: 7296: 7295: 7286:. Archived from 7275: 7269: 7262: 7256: 7255: 7249: 7241: 7223: 7217: 7202: 7196: 7184: 7178: 7177: 7153: 7147: 7146: 7122: 7116: 7115: 7109: 7107: 7084: 7078: 7061:Elizabeth Monroe 7058: 7052: 7046: 7040: 7039: 7021: 7015: 7014: 7012: 7010: 6999: 6993: 6992: 6968: 6962: 6957:Frank G. Weber, 6955: 6949: 6948: 6946: 6944: 6939:on 19 April 2014 6938: 6923: 6914: 6905: 6904: 6886: 6880: 6879: 6877: 6875: 6858: 6852: 6851: 6830:Erik-Jan Zürcher 6826: 6820: 6814: 6808: 6807: 6785: 6779: 6778: 6750: 6744: 6743: 6723: 6717: 6716: 6715: 6714: 6682: 6676: 6670: 6664: 6663: 6661: 6659: 6643: 6637: 6631: 6625: 6619: 6613: 6607: 6601: 6595: 6589: 6579: 6573: 6567: 6561: 6555: 6549: 6543: 6537: 6531: 6525: 6519: 6513: 6507: 6501: 6500: 6482: 6476: 6475: 6467: 6458: 6457: 6437: 6431: 6430: 6410: 6404: 6403: 6383: 6377: 6376: 6374: 6372: 6356: 6350: 6348:worldhistory.org 6345: 6339: 6338: 6336: 6334: 6322: 6316: 6315: 6309: 6300: 6287: 6280: 6274: 6273: 6263: 6253: 6221: 6215: 6214: 6177: 6171: 6170: 6160: 6143:(5): 1023–1034. 6127: 6121: 6120: 6099: 6093: 6092: 6070: 6064: 6063: 6042: 6036: 6035: 6014: 6008: 6007: 6000: 5994: 5993: 5986: 5980: 5979: 5959: 5953: 5952: 5947:. Archived from 5936: 5930: 5929: 5909: 5903: 5896: 5890: 5883: 5874: 5873: 5855: 5822:History of Yemen 5807:History of Syria 5797:History of Malta 5792:History of Qatar 5742:History of Egypt 5513:Afghan jihadists 5502:suicide bombings 5377:Arab nationalism 5354:The fall of the 5245:Turkish Cypriots 5230:1982 Lebanon War 5222:War of Attrition 5206:theocratic state 5127: 4981:Arab nationalism 4939:Kingdom of Egypt 4927:First Revolution 4723:balance of power 4682:in place of the 4676:Turkish alphabet 4561:First Balkan War 4528:Ismail Enver Bey 4481:Islamic scholars 4367:Great Divergence 4159:and founded the 4125:Byzantine Empire 4096:Mongol conquests 3917:balance of power 3784:Muslim conquests 3753: 3743: 3733: 3680:Fertile Crescent 3609:Kingdom of Aksum 3523:Byzantine Empire 3517:Byzantine Empire 3300:and non-Persian 3271:Assyrian Empires 3256:Assyrian empires 3230:Nabatean kingdom 3218:Kingdom of Ammon 3214:Kingdom of Judah 3194:ancient Anatolia 3192:, as well as to 3186:Fertile Crescent 3077:Sargon the Great 3020:, and organized 2950: 2943: 2936: 2538:Cuneiform Script 2200:Imperial Aramaic 2139:Nabataean Script 2134:Nabataean Arabic 1521:Fertile Crescent 1510: 1495: 1494: 1379:Northeast Africa 1375:agriculturalists 1350:hunter-gatherers 1283:Zagros Mountains 1238:was part of the 1220:fertile crescent 1198:Natufian culture 1126:Muslim conquests 1118:ethnic religions 1080: 1072: 1064: 1056: 1048: 917:Fertile Crescent 877: 871: 648:western Anatolia 608:Byzantine Empire 592:Assyrian Empires 572: 565: 558: 547: 541: 502:Age of Discovery 409: 408: 177:Earliest records 163:Recorded history 139: 127: 99: 97: 86: 65: 64: 21: 8257: 8256: 8252: 8251: 8250: 8248: 8247: 8246: 8227: 8226: 8225: 8220: 8120: 8109: 8104: 8074: 8069: 8021: 7981: 7916: 7907: 7832:Northern Cyprus 7804:Iraqi Kurdistan 7765: 7760: 7702:British Library 7690: 7689: 7678: 7672: 7670: 7667:This audio file 7664: 7657: 7648: 7645: 7639: 7638: 7634: 7631: 7626: 7596: 7568: 7551:Wayback Machine 7453:History Compass 7447: 7445:Further reading 7442: 7437: 7423:Wawro, Geoffrey 7416: 7372: 7356:Hourani, Albert 7340: 7330: 7308: 7303: 7302: 7293: 7291: 7276: 7272: 7264:Bergen, Peter, 7263: 7259: 7243: 7242: 7238: 7224: 7220: 7203: 7199: 7194:Wayback Machine 7185: 7181: 7170: 7154: 7150: 7143: 7123: 7119: 7105: 7103: 7101: 7085: 7081: 7076:Wayback Machine 7059: 7055: 7047: 7043: 7036: 7022: 7018: 7008: 7006: 7001: 7000: 6996: 6969: 6965: 6956: 6952: 6942: 6940: 6936: 6921: 6915: 6908: 6901: 6887: 6883: 6873: 6871: 6859: 6855: 6848: 6827: 6823: 6815: 6811: 6804: 6786: 6782: 6751: 6747: 6724: 6720: 6712: 6710: 6708: 6684: 6683: 6679: 6671: 6667: 6657: 6655: 6644: 6640: 6632: 6628: 6620: 6616: 6608: 6604: 6596: 6592: 6588:(1), p. 79–96 . 6580: 6576: 6568: 6564: 6556: 6552: 6544: 6540: 6532: 6528: 6520: 6516: 6508: 6504: 6497: 6483: 6479: 6468: 6461: 6454: 6438: 6434: 6427: 6411: 6407: 6400: 6384: 6380: 6370: 6368: 6357: 6353: 6346: 6342: 6332: 6330: 6323: 6319: 6307: 6301: 6290: 6281: 6277: 6222: 6218: 6178: 6174: 6128: 6124: 6114: 6100: 6096: 6085: 6071: 6067: 6057: 6043: 6039: 6029: 6015: 6011: 6002: 6001: 5997: 5988: 5987: 5983: 5976: 5960: 5956: 5939:Martin Kramer. 5937: 5933: 5926: 5910: 5906: 5897: 5893: 5884: 5877: 5870: 5856: 5852: 5847: 5839:History of Asia 5782:History of Oman 5757:History of Iraq 5752:History of Iran 5665: 5614:suicide bombers 5582:Donald Rumsfeld 5535:Osama bin Laden 5521:Reagan Doctrine 5519:as part of the 5498:Second Intifada 5435: 5423:Osama bin Laden 5292:Bashar al-Assad 5120: 5118: 5108: 5072:State of Israel 5005: 4966:Anglo-Iraqi War 4960:. In 1941, the 4901: 4850:Kingdom of Iraq 4804: 4798: 4731: 4684:Arabic alphabet 4643:and to London. 4610: 4580: 4575: 4569: 4444: 4351: 4315:Abbasid caliphs 4272: 4266: 4261: 4255: 4187: 4179:Main articles: 4177: 4114:Fatimid caliphs 4102: 4088: 3982:and the former 3939: 3927:Main articles: 3925: 3867:ethnic identity 3839:Battle of Tours 3802:and completely 3762: 3751: 3749: 3741: 3739: 3731: 3720: 3706: 3615:in what is now 3568:in what is now 3562:Sasanian Empire 3558: 3553: 3547: 3519: 3513: 3381: 3373:Main articles: 3371: 3318:Ptolemaic Egypt 3294: 3286:Main articles: 3284: 3264: 3258: 3248:, most notably 3226:Kingdom of Edom 3222:Kingdom of Moab 3182: 3174:Main articles: 3172: 3164:Ptolemaic Egypt 3098: 3092: 3030: 2980:, invented the 2972:(as opposed to 2954: 2925: 2924: 2803:Genetic History 2793: 2785: 2784: 2630: 2620: 2619: 2580: 2572: 2571: 2560:Ugaritic Script 2509:Phrygian Script 2195:Western Aramaic 2190:Eastern Aramaic 2109: 2101: 2100: 2069: 2061: 2060: 1934:Seleucid Empire 1691:Sasanian Empire 1686:Parthian Empire 1607:Assyrian Empire 1577:Sumerian Empire 1557:Akkadian Empire 1523: 1518: 1453: 1447: 1445:Ancient history 1439:Main articles: 1437: 1427:in the Central 1348:, a culture of 1212: 1178: 942:Northern Africa 926: 887:The historical 879: 875: 873: 869: 847:ancient history 812:Islamic revival 665:, shifting the 659:Safavid dynasty 624:Sasanian Empire 576: 545: 539: 534: 533: 528: 488: 487: 478: 464: 445: 426: 425: 406: 396: 395: 394: 378: 364: 355: 341: 327: 326: 316: 306: 305: 304: 295: 281: 262: 243: 242: 223: 203: 193: 192: 191: 172: 153: 152: 138: 126: 118: 95: 84: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8255: 8245: 8244: 8239: 8222: 8221: 8219: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8144: 8139: 8134: 8129: 8123: 8121: 8114: 8111: 8110: 8103: 8102: 8095: 8088: 8080: 8071: 8070: 8068: 8067: 8062: 8061: 8060: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8029: 8027: 8023: 8022: 8020: 8019: 8018: 8017: 8007: 8002: 7997: 7991: 7989: 7983: 7982: 7980: 7979: 7977:Water conflict 7974: 7972:Water politics 7969: 7964: 7963: 7962: 7957: 7947: 7946: 7945: 7935: 7930: 7928:Climate change 7924: 7922: 7918: 7917: 7910: 7908: 7906: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7889: 7888: 7883: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7862: 7861: 7854: 7840: 7835: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7807: 7806: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7775: 7773: 7767: 7766: 7759: 7758: 7751: 7744: 7736: 7730: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7705: 7679: 7665: 7658: 7646: 7633: 7632: 7630: 7629:External links 7627: 7625: 7624: 7607: 7606: 7599: 7594: 7579: 7571: 7566: 7553: 7536: 7524: 7514: 7504: 7494: 7487: 7477: 7470: 7463: 7456: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7440: 7435: 7419: 7414: 7390: 7375: 7370: 7352: 7333: 7328: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7301: 7300: 7270: 7257: 7236: 7218: 7197: 7179: 7168: 7148: 7141: 7117: 7099: 7079: 7053: 7041: 7034: 7016: 6994: 6983:(4): 776–785. 6963: 6950: 6906: 6899: 6881: 6868:L'Illustration 6853: 6846: 6821: 6809: 6802: 6780: 6745: 6734:(2): 196–221. 6718: 6706: 6677: 6665: 6638: 6626: 6614: 6612:, p. 159. 6602: 6600:, p. 171. 6590: 6574: 6562: 6560:, p. 138. 6550: 6538: 6526: 6514: 6502: 6495: 6477: 6459: 6452: 6446:. Penguin UK. 6432: 6425: 6405: 6398: 6378: 6351: 6340: 6317: 6288: 6275: 6216: 6189:(3): 307–316. 6172: 6149:10.1086/386295 6122: 6112: 6094: 6083: 6065: 6055: 6037: 6027: 6009: 5995: 5981: 5974: 5954: 5931: 5924: 5904: 5891: 5885:Robin Wright, 5875: 5868: 5849: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5842: 5841: 5836: 5825: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5713: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5664: 5661: 5587:United Nations 5563:George W. Bush 5481:in the 1980s. 5434: 5431: 5387:Saddam Hussein 5310:Menachem Begin 5288:Hafez al-Assad 5280:Saddam Hussein 5257:Cyprus dispute 5241:Greek Cypriots 5226:Yom Kippur War 5190:militant Islam 5171:Saddam Hussein 5159:Arab socialist 5107: 5104: 5100:United Nations 5054:United Nations 5050: 5049: 5046: 5043: 5036: 5033: 5030: 5027: 5004: 5001: 4900: 4897: 4800:Main article: 4797: 4794: 4774:Sharif Hussein 4747:Central Powers 4730: 4727: 4633:Ottoman Empire 4596:Mandatory Iraq 4579: 4576: 4573:Modern history 4568: 4565: 4490:abolished the 4488:Abdul Hamid II 4460:Young Ottomans 4443: 4440: 4413:Constantinople 4373:and growth of 4350: 4347: 4329:, and most of 4300:Selim the Grim 4291:Selim the Grim 4270:Ottoman Empire 4265: 4262: 4254: 4251: 4247:Ottoman Empire 4176: 4173: 4087: 4084: 4073:expanded upon 3924: 3921: 3750: 3740: 3730: 3705: 3702: 3594:Zoroastrianism 3557: 3554: 3546: 3543: 3515:Main article: 3512: 3509: 3501:Constantinople 3370: 3367: 3292:Persian Empire 3283: 3280: 3260:Main article: 3257: 3254: 3244:cities in the 3171: 3168: 3152: 3151: 3144: 3141:Middle Kingdom 3137: 3094:Main article: 3091: 3088: 3040:, in southern 3029: 3026: 2982:potter's wheel 2978:writing system 2956: 2955: 2953: 2952: 2945: 2938: 2930: 2927: 2926: 2923: 2922: 2920:List of Cities 2917: 2916: 2915: 2905: 2900: 2898:Early Alphabet 2895: 2890: 2889: 2888: 2883: 2875: 2874: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2855: 2854: 2853: 2848: 2840: 2839: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2815: 2810: 2805: 2800: 2794: 2791: 2790: 2787: 2786: 2783: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2743: 2742: 2741: 2740: 2739: 2738: 2728: 2718: 2717: 2716: 2711: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2692: 2691: 2690: 2689: 2684: 2674: 2673: 2672: 2657: 2652: 2651: 2650: 2645: 2631: 2626: 2625: 2622: 2621: 2618: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2587: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2574: 2573: 2570: 2569: 2564: 2563: 2562: 2552: 2547: 2542: 2541: 2540: 2530: 2529: 2528: 2518: 2513: 2512: 2511: 2501: 2496: 2495: 2494: 2489: 2482:Middle Persian 2479: 2478: 2477: 2467: 2466: 2465: 2460: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2434: 2433: 2423: 2422: 2421: 2416: 2411: 2406: 2405: 2404: 2394: 2393: 2392: 2382: 2377: 2376: 2375: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2344: 2343: 2333: 2328: 2323: 2322: 2321: 2311: 2310: 2309: 2304: 2302:Linear Elamite 2294: 2293: 2292: 2282: 2277: 2276: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2264: 2263: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2238: 2228: 2227: 2226: 2224:Avestan Script 2216: 2215: 2214: 2213: 2212: 2210:Aramaic Script 2202: 2197: 2192: 2187: 2177: 2176: 2175: 2174: 2173: 2168: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2143: 2142: 2141: 2131: 2121: 2116: 2110: 2107: 2106: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2098: 2093: 2092: 2091: 2081: 2076: 2070: 2067: 2066: 2063: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2023: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1973: 1968: 1963: 1958: 1947: 1946: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1905: 1904: 1899: 1894: 1884: 1883: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1862: 1857: 1856: 1855: 1850: 1845: 1840: 1830: 1829: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1813: 1796: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1755: 1750: 1745: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1694: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1668: 1657: 1656: 1651: 1646: 1641: 1639:Middle Kingdom 1636: 1631: 1620: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1599: 1594: 1589: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1567:Gutian Dynasty 1564: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1519: 1516: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1503: 1502: 1489:Zoroastrianism 1436: 1433: 1272:Eurasian Plate 1177: 1174: 1146:ethnoreligious 1142:Zoroastrianism 1122:Edict of Milan 1001:Horn of Africa 925: 922: 901:Arabian Desert 889:Semitic region 874: 868: 855:Semitic people 814:(Tajdid). The 792:Yom Kippur War 734:United Nations 681:extended into 671:British Empire 644:Ottoman Empire 632:Seljuq dynasty 600:Roman Republic 578: 577: 575: 574: 567: 560: 552: 549: 548: 536: 535: 530: 529: 527: 526: 521: 516: 515: 514: 504: 498: 495: 494: 490: 489: 486: 485: 479: 477: 476: 471: 469:Southeast Asia 465: 463: 462: 457: 452: 446: 444: 443: 438: 433: 427: 424: 423: 418: 412: 407: 402: 401: 398: 397: 393: 392: 391: 390: 379: 377: 376: 371: 369:Southeast Asia 365: 363: 362: 356: 354: 353: 348: 342: 340: 339: 334: 328: 325: 324: 318: 317: 312: 311: 308: 307: 303: 302: 296: 294: 293: 288: 286:Southeast Asia 282: 280: 279: 274: 269: 263: 261: 260: 255: 250: 244: 241: 240: 238:Late antiquity 235: 230: 224: 222: 221: 216: 211: 205: 204: 199: 198: 195: 194: 190: 189: 184: 179: 173: 171: 170: 160: 154: 151: 150: 120: 119: 114: 113: 110: 109: 81: 80: 74: 73: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8254: 8243: 8240: 8238: 8235: 8234: 8232: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8124: 8118: 8112: 8108: 8101: 8096: 8094: 8089: 8087: 8082: 8081: 8078: 8066: 8063: 8059: 8056: 8055: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8030: 8028: 8024: 8016: 8013: 8012: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7995:Ethnic groups 7993: 7992: 7990: 7988: 7984: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7952: 7951: 7948: 7944: 7941: 7940: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7925: 7923: 7919: 7914: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7878: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7860: 7859: 7855: 7853: 7852: 7848: 7847: 7846: 7845: 7841: 7839: 7836: 7834: 7833: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7805: 7802: 7801: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7776: 7774: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7757: 7752: 7750: 7745: 7743: 7738: 7737: 7734: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7709: 7706: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7692: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7668: 7622: 7621: 7616: 7612: 7609: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7597: 7591: 7587: 7586: 7580: 7577: 7572: 7569: 7563: 7559: 7554: 7552: 7548: 7545: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7523: 7519: 7515: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7492: 7488: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7475: 7471: 7468: 7464: 7461: 7457: 7454: 7450: 7449: 7438: 7432: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7417: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7398:Adas, Michael 7395: 7391: 7388: 7384: 7380: 7376: 7373: 7367: 7363: 7362: 7357: 7353: 7350: 7346: 7339: 7334: 7331: 7325: 7321: 7320: 7315: 7311: 7310: 7289: 7285: 7281: 7274: 7267: 7266:Holy War Inc. 7261: 7253: 7247: 7239: 7233: 7229: 7222: 7215: 7214:0-06-093564-2 7211: 7207: 7201: 7195: 7191: 7188: 7183: 7176: 7171: 7165: 7161: 7160: 7152: 7144: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7129: 7121: 7114: 7102: 7100:9780300126969 7096: 7092: 7091: 7083: 7077: 7073: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7057: 7050: 7045: 7037: 7035:9780231939782 7031: 7027: 7020: 7004: 6998: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6967: 6960: 6954: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6920: 6913: 6911: 6902: 6900:9780905313238 6896: 6892: 6885: 6870: 6869: 6864: 6857: 6849: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6825: 6818: 6813: 6805: 6799: 6795: 6792:. Cambridge: 6791: 6784: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6761:(2): 263–81. 6760: 6756: 6749: 6741: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6722: 6709: 6707:9780262282888 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6681: 6674: 6673:Quataert 2000 6669: 6653: 6649: 6642: 6635: 6630: 6623: 6618: 6611: 6606: 6599: 6594: 6587: 6584: 6578: 6571: 6566: 6559: 6554: 6547: 6546:Esposito 1999 6542: 6535: 6530: 6523: 6522:Esposito 1999 6518: 6511: 6510:Esposito 1999 6506: 6498: 6496:9781107036567 6492: 6488: 6481: 6473: 6466: 6464: 6455: 6453:9780141908533 6449: 6445: 6444: 6436: 6428: 6426:9781615302109 6422: 6418: 6417: 6409: 6401: 6399:9781849018074 6395: 6391: 6390: 6382: 6366: 6362: 6355: 6349: 6344: 6328: 6321: 6313: 6306: 6299: 6297: 6295: 6293: 6285: 6279: 6271: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6236:(7): e41252. 6235: 6231: 6227: 6220: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6184: 6183:Human Biology 6176: 6168: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6126: 6119: 6115: 6113:9780030525964 6109: 6105: 6098: 6091: 6086: 6084:9780199862634 6080: 6076: 6069: 6062: 6058: 6056:9781135980795 6052: 6048: 6041: 6034: 6030: 6028:9781538124185 6024: 6020: 6013: 6005: 5999: 5991: 5985: 5977: 5971: 5967: 5966: 5958: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5935: 5927: 5921: 5917: 5916: 5908: 5901: 5895: 5888: 5882: 5880: 5871: 5865: 5861: 5854: 5850: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5831: 5830: 5829: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5719: 5718: 5717: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5666: 5660: 5658: 5654: 5653:Islamic State 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5625: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5606:Yasser Arafat 5603: 5598: 5596: 5590: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5576: 5575:War on Terror 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5554: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5482: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5455: 5453: 5448: 5439: 5433:1990s–present 5430: 5428: 5424: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5378: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5352: 5350: 5346: 5345:Iran–Iraq War 5341: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5322:Yasser Arafat 5319: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5260: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5233: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5214:1956 Suez War 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5193: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5178: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5117: 5113: 5106:Modern states 5103: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5088: 5086: 5082: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5064: 5062: 5058: 5055: 5047: 5044: 5041: 5037: 5034: 5031: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5013: 5009: 5000: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4946: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4923:Saad Zaghloul 4920: 4916: 4909: 4908:Saad Zaghloul 4905: 4896: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4873: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4825: 4820: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4803: 4793: 4789: 4787: 4784:, who led an 4783: 4779: 4775: 4770: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4726: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4715:nationalizing 4710: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4687: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4644: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4574: 4564: 4562: 4558: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4484: 4482: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4448: 4439: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4346: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4311: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4292: 4288: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4260: 4250: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4228: 4223: 4219: 4217: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4191:Mongol Empire 4186: 4182: 4172: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4153:First Crusade 4150: 4146: 4145:Pope Urban II 4142: 4136: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4121: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4083: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3920: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3897: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3874: 3872: 3871:Seljuq Empire 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3819: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3790:, led by the 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3760: 3757: 3747: 3737: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3701: 3698: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3660: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3601: 3597: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3552: 3542: 3540: 3536: 3535:lingua franca 3532: 3528: 3524: 3518: 3508: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3481: 3476: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3433:mystery cults 3429: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3414:Greek culture 3411: 3410:Roman culture 3406: 3402: 3398: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3376: 3366: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3330: 3325: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3293: 3289: 3279: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3263: 3253: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3181: 3177: 3167: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3149: 3145: 3142: 3138: 3135: 3131: 3130: 3129: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3107: 3102: 3097: 3096:Ancient Egypt 3087: 3085: 3080: 3078: 3073: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3034:civilizations 3032:The earliest 3025: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2951: 2946: 2944: 2939: 2937: 2932: 2931: 2929: 2928: 2921: 2918: 2914: 2911: 2910: 2909: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2893:Cuneiform Law 2891: 2887: 2884: 2882: 2879: 2878: 2876: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2858: 2856: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2829: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2806: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2796: 2795: 2789: 2788: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2771: 2768: 2766: 2763: 2761: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2751: 2748: 2747: 2746: 2737: 2734: 2733: 2732: 2729: 2727: 2724: 2723: 2722: 2719: 2715: 2712: 2710: 2707: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2680: 2679: 2678: 2675: 2671: 2668: 2667: 2666: 2663: 2662: 2661: 2658: 2656: 2653: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2640: 2639: 2636: 2635: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2623: 2616: 2613: 2611: 2608: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2591: 2588: 2586: 2583: 2582: 2576: 2575: 2568: 2565: 2561: 2558: 2557: 2556: 2553: 2551: 2548: 2546: 2543: 2539: 2536: 2535: 2534: 2531: 2527: 2524: 2523: 2522: 2521:South Arabian 2519: 2517: 2514: 2510: 2507: 2506: 2505: 2502: 2500: 2497: 2493: 2492:Pazend Script 2490: 2488: 2485: 2484: 2483: 2480: 2476: 2473: 2472: 2471: 2468: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2455: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2439: 2436: 2432: 2431:Lydian Script 2429: 2428: 2427: 2424: 2420: 2417: 2415: 2412: 2410: 2407: 2403: 2402:Lycian Script 2400: 2399: 2398: 2395: 2391: 2388: 2387: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2374: 2373:Carian Script 2371: 2370: 2369: 2366: 2365: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2346: 2342: 2339: 2338: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2320: 2317: 2316: 2315: 2312: 2308: 2305: 2303: 2300: 2299: 2298: 2295: 2291: 2288: 2287: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2259: 2258: 2257: 2254: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2234: 2233: 2232: 2229: 2225: 2222: 2221: 2220: 2217: 2211: 2208: 2207: 2206: 2203: 2201: 2198: 2196: 2193: 2191: 2188: 2186: 2183: 2182: 2181: 2178: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2147: 2144: 2140: 2137: 2136: 2135: 2132: 2130: 2127: 2126: 2125: 2122: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2111: 2105: 2104: 2097: 2094: 2090: 2087: 2086: 2085: 2082: 2080: 2077: 2075: 2072: 2071: 2065: 2064: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2049: 2047: 2044: 2042: 2039: 2037: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2024: 2022: 2019: 2017: 2014: 2012: 2009: 2007: 2004: 2002: 1999: 1997: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1987: 1984: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1967: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1957: 1954: 1953: 1952: 1951: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1935: 1932: 1930: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1893: 1890: 1889: 1888: 1885: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1867: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1858: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1835: 1834: 1831: 1827: 1824: 1822: 1819: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1808: 1807: 1804: 1803: 1802: 1801: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1769: 1766: 1764: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1749: 1746: 1744: 1741: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1700: 1699: 1698: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1663: 1662: 1661: 1655: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1635: 1632: 1630: 1627: 1626: 1625: 1624: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1529: 1528: 1527: 1522: 1514: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1504: 1501: 1497: 1496: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1469:Aramean flags 1466: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1446: 1442: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1399: 1398:North African 1395: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1373: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1338:rock carvings 1334: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1306: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1292: 1287: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1258:Epoch of the 1257: 1254:), until the 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1240:African Plate 1237: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1150:Shabak people 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1087:upper classes 1084: 1076: 1068: 1060: 1052: 1044: 1040: 1039:lingua franca 1035: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 997:Ancient Yemen 994: 990: 986: 985:Mediterranean 982: 981:precipitation 978: 974: 970: 966: 961: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 897:Arabian Plate 894: 890: 885: 866: 862: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 835: 833: 829: 825: 821: 820:War on Terror 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 780: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 710: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 672: 668: 667:power balance 664: 660: 655: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 573: 568: 566: 561: 559: 554: 553: 551: 550: 544: 538: 537: 525: 522: 520: 517: 513: 512:Postmodernity 510: 509: 508: 505: 503: 500: 499: 497: 496: 492: 491: 484: 481: 480: 475: 472: 470: 467: 466: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 447: 442: 441:South America 439: 437: 436:North America 434: 432: 429: 428: 422: 419: 417: 414: 413: 411: 410: 405: 400: 399: 389: 386: 385: 384: 381: 380: 375: 372: 370: 367: 366: 361: 358: 357: 352: 349: 347: 344: 343: 338: 335: 333: 330: 329: 323: 320: 319: 315: 314:Postclassical 310: 309: 301: 298: 297: 292: 289: 287: 284: 283: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 264: 259: 258:South America 256: 254: 253:North America 251: 249: 246: 245: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 225: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 206: 202: 197: 196: 188: 187:Proto-writing 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 174: 168: 164: 161: 159: 156: 155: 147: 143: 136: 135: 131: 125: 122: 121: 117: 112: 111: 106: 105: 104: 93: 89: 83: 82: 79: 78:Human history 76: 75: 71: 67: 66: 63: 60: 56: 52: 45: 40: 32: 19: 8196:Saudi Arabia 8106: 7987:Demographics 7967:Human rights 7949: 7871:Saudi Arabia 7856: 7850: 7843: 7831: 7618: 7614: 7602: 7584: 7575: 7557: 7539: 7531: 7517: 7507: 7497: 7490: 7480: 7473: 7466: 7459: 7452: 7426: 7405: 7382: 7360: 7348: 7344: 7318: 7292:. Retrieved 7288:the original 7283: 7273: 7265: 7260: 7227: 7221: 7205: 7200: 7182: 7173: 7158: 7151: 7127: 7120: 7111: 7104:. Retrieved 7089: 7082: 7064: 7056: 7044: 7025: 7019: 7007:. Retrieved 6997: 6980: 6976: 6966: 6958: 6953: 6941:. Retrieved 6934:the original 6929: 6925: 6890: 6884: 6872:. Retrieved 6866: 6856: 6837: 6833: 6824: 6812: 6789: 6783: 6758: 6754: 6748: 6731: 6727: 6721: 6711:, retrieved 6689: 6680: 6668: 6656:. Retrieved 6651: 6641: 6629: 6617: 6605: 6593: 6585: 6582: 6577: 6570:Hourani 2013 6565: 6553: 6541: 6529: 6517: 6505: 6486: 6480: 6471: 6442: 6435: 6415: 6408: 6388: 6381: 6369:. Retrieved 6365:the original 6354: 6343: 6331:. Retrieved 6320: 6312:HAL Archives 6311: 6283: 6278: 6233: 6229: 6219: 6186: 6182: 6175: 6140: 6136: 6125: 6117: 6103: 6097: 6088: 6074: 6068: 6060: 6046: 6040: 6032: 6018: 6012: 5998: 5984: 5964: 5957: 5949:the original 5944: 5934: 5914: 5907: 5899: 5894: 5886: 5859: 5853: 5827: 5826: 5715: 5714: 5626: 5599: 5591: 5579: 5552: 5532: 5511:Many of the 5510: 5494:Ariel Sharon 5486:Bill Clinton 5483: 5456: 5444: 5416:. President 5391: 5356:Soviet Union 5353: 5342: 5315: 5306:Jimmy Carter 5286:, and later 5268:Michel Aflaq 5261: 5234: 5220:, 1967–1970 5194: 5179: 5161:rulers like 5151:Soviet Union 5149:(1969), the 5143:anti-Western 5132: 5096:Makarios III 5089: 5065: 5061:Jordan River 5051: 5020:World War II 5017: 4993:Jewish state 4989:Adolf Hitler 4978: 4947: 4912: 4874: 4858:King of Iraq 4828: 4821: 4805: 4790: 4771: 4749:against the 4732: 4711: 4695:Saudi Arabia 4688: 4680:Latin script 4645: 4637:British rule 4622: 4554: 4496:constitution 4485: 4453: 4424:Persian Gulf 4417: 4403:in 1830 and 4379: 4352: 4312: 4296: 4232: 4195:Mamluk Egypt 4193:, excluding 4188: 4137: 4122: 4106:Seljuq Turks 4103: 4000: 3996:Zoroastrians 3952:architecture 3948: 3898: 3875: 3827:North Africa 3820: 3765: 3662:The nomadic 3661: 3606: 3580:(modern-day 3559: 3520: 3478: 3468: 3463:Christianity 3430: 3405:Roman Empire 3394: 3379:Roman Empire 3326: 3295: 3265: 3183: 3153: 3150:(1550–1069). 3136:(2686–2181), 3111: 3081: 3074: 3064:)—and later 3044:(modern-day 3031: 2959: 2907: 2792:Other topics 2765:Cosmic ocean 2744: 2638:Mesopotamian 1948: 1797: 1695: 1658: 1621: 1524: 1396:Fulani, the 1394:West African 1370: 1335: 1309: 1300:Homo erectus 1298: 1288: 1276: 1260:Cenozoic Era 1233: 1218:Area of the 1103: 1036: 1020:Persian Gulf 1012:pastoralists 962: 930:Western Asia 927: 842: 838: 836: 828:western Iraq 781: 722:World War II 711: 697:(1938), the 695:Saudi Arabia 675:Persian Gulf 656: 646:, rooted in 620:Christianity 581: 546: 421:Contemporary 416:Early modern 182:Protohistory 134:Contemporary 128: 101: 100: 96: 48: 8033:Archaeology 7763:Middle East 7306:Works cited 6634:Guzman 1985 5889:, pp. 65–66 5716:By country: 5633:Arab Spring 5364:Soviet Jews 5318:Anwar Sadat 5302:Anwar Sadat 5284:Salah Jadid 5218:Six-Day War 5186:fundamental 5182:Six-Day War 4954:1936 treaty 4786:Arab Revolt 4743:World War I 4735:Enver Pasha 4729:World War I 4500:Young Turks 4409:Balkan Wars 4241:. Based in 4203:Möngke Khan 4175:Mongol rule 4035:Hippocrates 3970:), and the 3901:Middle Ages 3863:Middle Ages 3847:Arab Empire 3823:Roman Syria 3788:Arab armies 3726:Age of the 3625:Mesopotamia 3267:Mesopotamia 3156:Late Period 3148:New Kingdom 3134:Old Kingdom 3122:Upper Egypt 3114:Nile valley 3106:Ramesses II 3066:Babylonians 3042:Mesopotamia 3010:mathematics 2962:agriculture 2881:Hittitology 2871:Mathematics 2846:Assyriology 2826:Mathematics 2798:Archaeology 2470:Old Persian 2314:Eteocypriot 2205:Old Aramaic 1944:Roman Syria 1939:Coele-Syria 1743:Hayasa-Azzi 1654:Roman Egypt 1644:New Kingdom 1634:Old Kingdom 1526:Mesopotamia 1421:pastoralism 1391:Sub-Saharan 1244:Phanerozoic 1228:Mesopotamia 1128:beyond the 1112:, and most 1016:city states 905:Mesopotamia 843:Middle East 824:Arab Spring 784:Six-Day War 745:pan-Arabism 588:Mesopotamia 388:Renaissance 51:Middle East 8231:Categories 8181:Gaza Strip 8015:Irreligion 7682:Audio help 7673:2008-03-28 7294:2008-07-08 7049:Lewis 1995 6713:2023-01-21 6622:Wawro 2008 6534:Wawro 2008 5845:References 5695:oil crises 5110:See also: 5040:Suez Canal 4958:Suez Canal 4582:See also: 4492:parliament 4375:capitalism 4308:Aq Qoyunlu 4268:See also: 4225:Statue of 4090:See also: 3903:after the 3878:Al-Andalus 3859:Caliphates 3816:Bulgarians 3770:Roman and 3766:While the 3708:See also: 3692:Ghassanids 3584:) and the 3471:Alexandria 3422:Alexandria 3234:Phoenician 3228:, and the 3104:Statue of 3084:Enheduanna 2968:-mediated 2857:Babylonia 2831:Technology 2821:Egyptology 2755:Flat earth 2745:Cosmology 2705:Anatolian 2643:Babylonian 2579:Literature 2550:Taymanitic 2499:Philistine 2256:Phoenician 2166:Taymanitic 2129:Old Arabic 2084:Bronze Age 2079:Copper Age 2074:Chronology 2041:Ghassanids 1718:Carchemish 1461:winged sun 1449:See also: 1340:along the 1180:See also: 1170:Shia Islam 1168:branch of 1158:Samaritans 991:and later 987:, such as 969:Nile River 965:Irrigation 954:Bronze Age 940:region of 853:-speaking 834:uprising. 775:, and the 761:per capita 743:tensions, 634:displaced 606:, and the 519:Futurology 460:South Asia 360:South Asia 277:South Asia 214:Bronze Age 209:Copper Age 167:Common Era 142:10,000 BCE 88:Prehistory 8185:West Bank 8177:Palestine 8048:Etiquette 7933:Democracy 7858:West Bank 7844:Palestine 7771:Countries 7722:Assyrians 7710:from the 7246:cite book 7175:villages. 7009:24 August 6775:162679546 6371:24 August 6333:24 August 5622:Hezbollah 5508:of 1993. 5479:civil war 5360:communism 5349:Khuzestan 5074:. In the 4899:1920–1945 4866:Assyrians 4846:Palestine 4755:Gallipoli 4733:In 1914, 4707:crude oil 4678:based on 4672:caliphate 4365:. In the 4359:Lithuania 4319:Afsharids 4216:Ilkhanate 4207:Karakorum 4181:Ilkhanate 4157:Jerusalem 4155:captured 4149:Holy Land 4067:mapmaking 4059:chemistry 4049:in their 4027:Aristotle 4015:astronomy 3913:Holy Land 3768:Byzantine 3761:, 661–750 3759:Caliphate 3748:, 632–661 3738:, 622–632 3710:Caliphate 3657:Heraclius 3649:Palestine 3590:Hellenism 3556:Pre-Islam 3531:Euphrates 3480:heretical 3459:Jerusalem 3333:Sassanids 3329:Parthians 3288:Babylonia 3070:Assyrians 3058:Akkadians 3054:Sumerians 3038:Sumerians 3006:astronomy 2994:law codes 2877:Hittites 2861:Astronomy 2760:Firmament 2677:Canaanite 2670:Nabataean 2380:Kalasmaic 2231:Canaanite 2151:Dadanitic 2108:Languages 1996:Ḥaḍramawt 1902:Phoenicia 1793:Commagene 1768:Phrygians 1587:Babylonia 1485:Faravahar 1473:Israelite 1383:Near East 1372:Neolithic 1354:fishermen 1256:Oligocene 1248:Paleozoic 1166:Ismailist 1154:Mandaeans 1138:Yazdânism 1106:Abrahamic 989:Phoenicia 977:Euphrates 859:Anatolian 839:Near East 837:The term 800:Wahhabism 730:Palestine 616:Euphrates 604:Near East 584:Sumerians 507:Modernity 474:West Asia 455:East Asia 374:West Asia 351:East Asia 291:West Asia 272:East Asia 228:Axial Age 130:Neolithic 124:Timelines 92:Stone Age 55:Near East 44:Near East 8010:Religion 8000:Genetics 7955:Timeline 7684: · 7547:Archived 7425:(2008), 7381:(2007), 7358:(2013), 7316:(1999), 7190:Archived 7072:Archived 6832:(2004). 6270:22815981 6230:PLOS ONE 6211:13347549 6203:17216803 6167:15069642 5828:General: 5663:See also 5595:withdrew 5557:and the 5543:al-Qaida 5473:and the 5459:cronyism 5414:Gulf War 5251:and the 5155:Cold War 5081:refugees 5014:of Egypt 4972:and the 4935:revolted 4889:Ibn Saud 4870:Turkmens 4824:Damascus 4782:Muhammad 4763:Armenian 4494:and the 4456:Tanzimat 4434:and the 4393:Bulgaria 4304:Safavids 4243:Anatolia 4239:Ottomans 4133:Anatolia 4092:Crusades 4011:geometry 4003:medicine 3988:Abbasids 3909:Crusades 3808:Anatolia 3772:Sassanid 3736:Muhammad 3688:Lakhmids 3578:Anatolia 3566:Persians 3399:general 3391:, 117 AD 3363:Assyrian 3322:Seleucid 3320:and the 3242:colonial 3126:Pharaohs 3056:and the 2966:currency 2913:Timeline 2842:Assyria 2836:Medicine 2736:Ossetian 2731:Scythian 2696:Armenian 2655:Egyptian 2648:Sumerian 2615:Ugaritic 2605:Sumerian 2590:Egyptian 2585:Akkadian 2567:Urartian 2555:Ugaritic 2533:Sumerian 2516:Samalian 2504:Phrygian 2453:Parthian 2414:Pisidian 2285:Egyptian 2236:Ammonite 2171:Thamudic 2161:Safaitic 2114:Akkadian 2096:Iron Age 2046:Salīḥids 2021:Nabataea 1909:Alashiya 1865:Hurrians 1833:Amorites 1783:Bithynia 1738:Kaskians 1713:Hittites 1708:Hurrians 1703:Hattians 1697:Anatolia 1617:Adiabene 1597:Kassites 1572:Simurrum 1465:Assyrian 1381:and the 1331:IJ-M429* 1252:Cenozoic 1156:and the 1043:Akkadian 1026:and the 1005:Adnanite 958:Iron Age 946:Caucasus 907:and the 804:Islamism 796:Salafism 757:cronyism 741:Cold War 677:, while 493:See also 337:Americas 322:Timeline 219:Iron Age 116:Holocene 70:a series 68:Part of 8167:Lebanon 8127:Bahrain 8065:Studies 8043:Cuisine 8026:Culture 7950:History 7938:Economy 7921:Society 7826:Lebanon 7779:Bahrain 7671: ( 7642:minutes 7542:(1963) 7510:(1966) 7106:13 July 7067:(1963) 6943:14 July 6874:28 July 6658:20 July 6261:3399854 6238:Bibcode 6158:1181965 5571:Taliban 5555:bombing 5467:Bahrain 5372:Ukraine 5266:led by 5247:led to 5224:, 1973 5216:, 1967 5200:clergy 5068:Zionist 4985:Zionism 4838:Lebanon 4817:Zionist 4751:Entente 4703:Algeria 4654:led by 4516:in 1908 4428:Lebanon 4422:of the 4405:Tunisia 4401:Algeria 4389:Romania 4339:Albania 4331:Hungary 4327:Balkans 4227:Baybars 4169:Ayyubid 4165:Saladin 4039:Ptolemy 4019:anatomy 4007:algebra 3980:Al-Aqsa 3976:mosques 3964:Ramadan 3894:Palermo 3890:Normans 3882:Baghdad 3861:of the 3841:by the 3792:Caliphs 3756:Umayyad 3728:Caliphs 3664:Bedouin 3645:Lebanon 3629:Armenia 3621:Red Sea 3564:of the 3529:to the 3527:Balkans 3426:Ægyptus 3355:Assyria 3262:Assyria 3022:warfare 3018:slavery 2726:Persian 2721:Iranian 2709:Hittite 2701:Hurrian 2665:Arabian 2660:Semitic 2600:Persian 2595:Hittite 2419:Sidetic 2358:Kassite 2353:Kaskian 2348:Hurrian 2336:Hittite 2297:Elamite 2280:Eblaite 2251:Moabite 2241:Edomite 2219:Avestan 2185:Armazic 2180:Aramaic 2156:Hismaic 2119:Amorite 2051:Lakhmid 2011:Qatabān 1924:Nabatea 1880:Mitanni 1773:Diauehi 1753:Colchis 1748:Shupria 1733:Luwians 1671:Lullubi 1602:Chaldea 1582:Assyria 1542:Subartu 1425:milking 1366:economy 1279:Eurasia 1264:Red Sea 1110:Gnostic 1097:, thus 1059:Aramaic 1032:Bedouin 1009:nomadic 938:Maghreb 924:General 851:Aramaic 773:Bahrain 739:. Amid 718:Soviets 707:Algeria 683:Lebanon 663:Hungary 614:to the 612:Balkans 450:Oceania 346:Oceania 267:Oceania 201:Ancient 146:Present 8206:Turkey 8162:Kuwait 8157:Jordan 8152:Israel 8132:Cyprus 8038:Cinema 7943:Energy 7893:Turkey 7821:Kuwait 7816:Jordan 7811:Israel 7784:Cyprus 7592: 7564: 7544:online 7522:online 7512:online 7469:(2014) 7433: 7412: 7368: 7326: 7234: 7212: 7166: 7139: 7097: 7069:online 7032: 6897: 6844: 6800: 6773: 6704: 6493: 6450: 6423: 6396: 6268: 6258: 6209: 6201: 6165: 6155: 6110: 6081: 6053: 6025: 5972: 5922: 5866: 5647:, and 5549:, the 5530:ever. 5471:Kuwait 5398:Kuwait 5368:Russia 5255:. 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The 2974:barter 2817:Egypt 2714:Luwian 2682:Hebrew 2610:Syriac 2545:Sutean 2448:Palaic 2443:Mysian 2438:Median 2426:Lydian 2409:Milyan 2397:Lycian 2385:Luwian 2368:Carian 2331:Hattic 2326:Gutian 2246:Hebrew 2124:Arabic 2036:Tanukh 2026:Himyar 2016:Lihyan 2006:Thamud 1966:Gerrha 1956:Dilmun 1950:Arabia 1929:Iturea 1887:Canaan 1870:Urkesh 1860:Ugarit 1853:Yamhad 1848:Amurru 1843:Mukish 1800:Levant 1788:Pontus 1778:Urartu 1728:Assuwa 1723:Arzawa 1562:Armani 1537:Hamazi 1475:royal 1429:Sahara 1417:Fulani 1413:Tuareg 1409:Fulani 1403:, and 1401:Tuareg 1362:Sahara 1327:F-M89* 1323:J-M172 1319:J-M267 1268:Eocene 1208:, and 1152:, the 1083:middle 1075:Arabic 1051:Hebrew 1022:, the 993:Greece 973:Tigris 909:Levant 876: 870: 786:, the 769:Kuwait 749:Israel 724:. The 705:, and 640:Mongol 543:Future 483:Europe 431:Africa 404:Modern 383:Europe 332:Africa 300:Europe 248:Africa 8216:Yemen 8201:Syria 8191:Qatar 8137:Egypt 8058:Dance 8053:Music 7903:Yemen 7876:Syria 7866:Qatar 7789:Egypt 7528:Lewis 7341:(PDF) 6937:(PDF) 6922:(PDF) 6771:S2CID 6308:(PDF) 6207:S2CID 5649:Libya 5645:Yemen 5637:Syria 5463:Qatar 5402:Basra 5198:Shi'a 5167:Egypt 5147:Libya 5042:area) 5018:When 4950:Cairo 4919:Egypt 4915:Syria 4862:Kurds 4830:Syria 4778:Mecca 4699:Libya 4432:Libya 4235:Timur 4118:Turks 4110:Hejaz 4031:Galen 3968:zakāt 3806:. In 3780:Islam 3672:Mecca 3668:idols 3653:Egypt 3641:Syria 3637:China 3633:India 3617:Yemen 3491:into 3489:split 3397:Roman 3298:Medes 3118:Lower 3090:Egypt 3062:Syria 2986:wheel 2970:trade 2780:Mashu 2687:Punic 2363:Luwic 2056:Kinda 2031:Hatra 2001:Awsān 1991:Qedar 1986:Maʿīn 1976:Tylos 1961:Magan 1875:Urshu 1838:Qatna 1826:Nagar 1763:Lydia 1676:Medes 1623:Egypt 1592:Tukri 1547:Suhum 1532:Sumer 1358:grain 1246:Eon ( 1162:Druze 1093:lack 1067:Greek 1028:Hejaz 934:Egypt 765:Qatar 714:Egypt 703:Libya 687:Syria 628:Islam 8172:Oman 8147:Iraq 8142:Iran 7851:Gaza 7838:Oman 7799:Iraq 7794:Iran 7590:ISBN 7562:ISBN 7431:ISBN 7410:ISBN 7366:ISBN 7324:ISBN 7284:Time 7252:link 7232:ISBN 7210:ISBN 7164:ISBN 7137:ISBN 7108:2013 7095:ISBN 7030:ISBN 7011:2013 6945:2012 6926:Liwa 6895:ISBN 6876:2014 6842:ISBN 6798:ISBN 6702:ISBN 6660:2013 6491:ISBN 6448:ISBN 6421:ISBN 6394:ISBN 6373:2013 6335:2013 6266:PMID 6199:PMID 6163:PMID 6108:ISBN 6079:ISBN 6051:ISBN 6023:ISBN 5970:ISBN 5920:ISBN 5864:ISBN 5693:The 5641:Iraq 5618:Gaza 5553:Cole 5551:USS 5370:and 5308:and 5270:and 5243:and 5188:and 5175:Iraq 5169:and 5114:and 4983:and 4917:and 4868:and 4844:and 4842:Iraq 4759:Arab 4719:OPEC 4341:and 4183:and 3972:hajj 3960:fast 3697:Hira 3674:and 3627:and 3574:Iraq 3572:and 3570:Iran 3497:West 3495:and 3493:East 3485:Rome 3473:and 3441:Isis 3377:and 3290:and 3198:Ebla 3178:and 3146:The 3139:The 3132:The 3120:and 3068:and 3046:Iraq 3008:and 2992:and 2964:and 2770:Abzu 1981:Saba 1971:Awal 1914:Aram 1821:Mari 1816:Armi 1811:Ebla 1798:The 1666:Elam 1660:Iran 1552:Uruk 1498:The 1481:ankh 1467:and 1443:and 1411:and 1352:and 1342:Nile 1329:and 1321:and 1289:The 1234:The 1140:and 1085:and 1024:Najd 975:and 913:Nile 832:ISIL 685:and 636:Arab 582:The 49:The 6985:doi 6763:doi 6736:doi 6694:doi 6256:PMC 6246:doi 6191:doi 6153:PMC 6145:doi 5577:". 5525:CIA 5324:'s 5235:In 5173:in 5165:in 4999:". 4737:'s 4691:oil 3457:in 3312:of 3116:of 2886:Law 2866:Law 2851:Law 777:UAE 728:in 691:oil 8233:: 8183:, 7696:– 7640:37 7400:; 7396:; 7385:, 7347:, 7343:, 7282:. 7248:}} 7244:{{ 7172:. 7135:. 7133:74 7110:. 7063:, 6981:38 6979:. 6975:. 6928:. 6924:. 6909:^ 6865:. 6840:. 6838:ff 6769:. 6759:38 6757:. 6732:48 6730:. 6700:, 6688:, 6650:. 6586:29 6462:^ 6310:. 6291:^ 6264:. 6254:. 6244:. 6232:. 6228:. 6205:. 6197:. 6187:78 6185:. 6161:. 6151:. 6141:74 6139:. 6135:. 6116:. 6087:. 6059:. 6031:. 5943:. 5878:^ 5643:, 5639:, 5469:, 5465:, 5429:. 5410:UN 5340:. 5304:, 5294:. 5228:, 5212:, 5177:. 5102:. 4976:. 4945:. 4895:. 4864:, 4761:, 4602:, 4598:, 4594:, 4590:, 4586:, 4483:. 4387:, 4383:, 4310:. 4120:. 4094:, 4061:, 4037:, 4033:, 4029:, 4017:, 4013:, 4009:, 4005:, 3931:, 3825:, 3818:. 3786:, 3712:, 3647:, 3643:, 3596:. 3447:. 3439:, 3252:. 3224:, 3220:, 3216:, 3212:, 3208:, 3166:. 3024:. 3016:, 1431:. 1305:BP 1274:. 1262:. 1204:, 1200:, 1196:, 1192:, 1188:, 1184:, 1172:. 1108:, 1079:c. 1071:c. 1063:c. 1055:c. 1047:c. 1041:: 779:. 771:, 767:, 701:, 144:– 132:– 94:) 72:on 8187:) 8179:( 8099:e 8092:t 8085:v 7755:e 7748:t 7741:v 7688:) 7680:( 7675:) 7644:) 7637:( 7349:2 7297:. 7254:) 7240:. 7216:. 7145:. 7038:. 7013:. 6991:. 6987:: 6947:. 6930:3 6903:. 6878:. 6850:. 6806:. 6777:. 6765:: 6742:. 6738:: 6696:: 6675:. 6662:. 6499:. 6456:. 6429:. 6402:. 6375:. 6337:. 6272:. 6248:: 6240:: 6234:7 6213:. 6193:: 6169:. 6147:: 5978:. 5928:. 5872:. 4357:- 4282:. 3465:. 3361:– 2949:e 2942:t 2935:v 1491:. 1250:– 1077:( 1069:( 1061:( 1053:( 1045:( 919:. 798:/ 571:e 564:t 557:v 540:↓ 169:) 165:( 148:) 140:( 108:) 98:( 90:( 85:↑ 20:)

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History of the Middle East

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