976:
146:— they can even use carbon oxides as fuel — making them more attractive for fueling with gases made from coal. Because they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types, scientists believe that they could even be capable of internal reforming of coal, assuming they can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal, a dirtier
847:
decrease corrosion rate) and allow for use of cheaper component materials. At the same time, a decrease in temperature would decrease ionic conductivity of the electrolyte and thus, the anode materials need to compensate for this performance decline (e.g. by increasing power density). Other researchers have looked into enhancing creep resistance by using a Ni
877:
limit this dissolution. Magnesium oxide serves to reduce the solubility of Ni in the cathode and decreases precipitation in the electrolyte. Alternatively, replacement of the conventional cathode material with a LiFeO2-LiCoO2-NiO alloy has shown promising performance results and almost completely avoids the problem of Ni dissolution of the cathode.
17:
804:
917:
is a very corrosive electrolyte and this ratio of carbonates provides the lowest corrosion rate. Due to these issues, recent studies have delved into replacing the potassium carbonate with a sodium carbonate. A Li/Na electrolyte has shown to have better performance (higher conductivity) and improves
846:
of the anode at the high operating temperatures of the fuel cell. Recent research has looked at using nano Ni and other Ni alloys to increase the performance and decrease the operating temperature of the fuel cell. A reduction in operating temperature would extend the lifetime of the fuel cell (i.e.
157:
The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components
876:
when the cathode is in contact with the carbonate electrolyte. This dissolution leads to precipitation of Ni metal in the electrolyte and since it is electrically conductive, the fuel cell can get short circuited. Therefore, current studies have looked into the addition of MgO to the NiO cathode to
171:
Molten carbonate FCs are a recently developed type of fuel cell that targets small and large energy distribution/generation systems since their power production is in the 0.3-3 MW range. The operating pressure is between 1-8 atm while the temperatures are between 600 and 700 °C. Due to the
176:
during reforming of the fossil fuel (methane, natural gas), MCFCs are not a completely green technology, but are promising due to their reliability and efficiency (sufficient heat for co-generation with electricity). Current MCFC efficiencies range from 60 to 70%.
813:
Due to the high operating temperatures of MCFC's, the materials need to be very carefully selected to survive the conditions present within the cell. The following sections cover the various materials present in the fuel cell and recent developments in research.
955:
but will be reduced by up to 50% compared to diesel engines running on marine bunker fuel. The exhaust temperature is 400 °C, hot enough to be used for many industrial processes. Another possibility is to make more electric power via a
1200:
Nguyen, Hoang Viet Phuc; Othman, Mohd Roslee; Seo, Dongho; Yoon, Sung Pil; Ham, Hyung Chul; Nam, Suk Woo; Han, Jonghee; Kim, Jinsoo (2014-08-04). "Nano Ni layered anode for enhanced MCFC performance at reduced operating temperature".
556:
893:) matrix to contain the liquid between the electrodes. The high temperatures of the fuel cell is required to produce sufficient ionic conductivity of carbonate through this electrolyte. Common MCFC electrolytes contain 62% Li
871:
within the NiO crystal structure). The pore size within the cathode is in the range of 7-15 μm with 60-70% of the material being porous. The primary issue with the cathode material is dissolution of NiO since it reacts with
930:) in the material during cell operation. The phase change accompanies a volume decrease in the electrolyte which leads to lower ionic conductivity. Through various studies, it has been found that an alumina doped α-LiAlO
950:
in 2006. The unit weighs 2 tonnes and can produce 240 kW of electric power from various gaseous fuels, including biogas. If fueled by fuels that contain carbon such as natural gas, the exhaust will contain
473:
374:
545:
154:
be delivered to the cathode along with the oxidizer, they can be used to electrochemically separate carbon dioxide from the flue gas of other fossil fuel power plants for sequestration.
131:. Due to the high temperatures at which MCFCs operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.
909:. A greater fraction of Li carbonate is used due to its higher ionic conductivity but is limited to 62% due to its lower gas solubility and ionic diffusivity of oxygen. In addition, Li
269:
108:(PAFCs). Molten carbonate fuel cells can reach efficiencies approaching 60%, considerably higher than the 37–42% efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the
1443:
830:(3-6 μm, 45-70% material porosity) Ni based alloy. Ni is alloyed with either Chromium or Aluminum in the 2-10% range. These alloying elements allow for formation of LiCrO
799:{\displaystyle E=E^{o}+{\frac {RT}{2F}}log{\frac {P_{H_{2}}P_{O_{2}}^{\frac {1}{2}}}{P_{H_{2}O}}}+{\frac {RT}{2F}}log{\frac {P_{CO_{2},cathode}}{P_{CO_{2},anode}}}}
1416:
960:. Depending on feed gas type, the electric efficiency is between 12% and 19%. A steam turbine can increase the efficiency by up to 24%. The unit can be used for
1051:
1026:
1438:
1083:
1426:
922:). In addition, scientists have also looked into modifying the matrix of the electrolyte to prevent issues such as phase changes (γ-LiAlO
385:
1318:
Fang, Baizeng; Liu, Xinyu; Wang, Xindong; Duan, Shuzhen (1998-01-15). "The mechanism of surface modification of a MCFC anode".
889:(molten carbonate) which consists of a sodium(Na) and potassium(K) carbonate. This electrolyte is supported by a ceramic (LiAlO
1291:
Antolini, Ermete (December 2011). "The stability of molten carbonate fuel cell electrodes: A review of recent improvements".
1228:
Kim, Yun-Sung; Lim, Jun-Heok; Chun, Hai-Soo (2006-01-01). "Creep mechanism of porous MCFC Ni anodes strengthened by Ni3Al".
280:
1470:
1421:
85:(BASE). Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of 650 °C (roughly 1,200 °F) and above, non-precious
1508:
1120:
1030:
484:
1391:
1089:
1348:
Kulkarni, A.; Giddey, S. (2012-06-08). "Materials issues and recent developments in molten carbonate fuel cells".
1651:
127:
electrolyte membrane fuel cells, MCFCs don't require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to
1606:
82:
1646:
203:
1529:
1699:
1616:
1559:
1059:
989:
1432:
1636:
81:
composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic matrix of
1626:
1544:
1503:
868:
135:
105:
1631:
1539:
1463:
1264:
1172:
1141:
1621:
1554:
1534:
1094:
1021:
1641:
1580:
1549:
1513:
1149:
994:
36:
1564:
1115:
864:
55:
1265:"Development and Characterisation of Cathode Materials for the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell"
8:
1720:
1585:
1456:
943:
839:
51:
934:
matrix would improve the phase stability while maintaining the fuel cell's performance.
1493:
1373:
70:
1331:
1365:
1245:
158:
as well as fuel cell designs that increase cell life without decreasing performance.
63:
1377:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1357:
1327:
1304:
1300:
1237:
1214:
1210:
919:
104:
Improved efficiency is another reason MCFCs offer significant cost reductions over
139:
16:
918:
the stability of the cathode when compared to a Li/K electrolyte (Li/K is more
150:
source than many others, into hydrogen. Alternatively, because MCFCs require CO
143:
1361:
851:
Al alloy anode to reduce mass transport of Ni in the anode when in operation.
1714:
1601:
1369:
1249:
981:
957:
947:
1444:
Presentation to Fourth Annual
Conference on Carbon Capture and Sequestration
867:
or of a porous Ni that is converted to a lithiated nickel oxide (lithium is
1611:
961:
113:
886:
147:
78:
66:
43:
1399:
109:
1241:
1479:
843:
32:
1663:
827:
128:
120:
90:
74:
1417:
LLNL: The Carbon/Air Fuel Cell
Conversion of Coal-Derived Carbons
975:
860:
124:
98:
77:
applications. MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an
47:
1448:
823:
468:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}O_{2}+CO_{2}+2e^{-}=CO_{3}^{2-}}
94:
86:
1439:
Molten carbonate fuel cells distributed generation challenge
59:
1435:
integrate, install and operate all fuel cell technologies
838:
at the grain boundaries, which increases the materials'
42:
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) were developed for
369:{\displaystyle H_{2}+CO_{3}^{2-}=H_{2}O+CO_{2}+2e^{-}}
559:
487:
388:
283:
206:
971:
1392:"Fuel cell technology introduces ultra clean ships"
1199:
116:, overall fuel efficiencies can be as high as 85%.
798:
539:
467:
368:
263:
1712:
1027:Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
540:{\displaystyle H_{2}+{\frac {1}{2}}O_{2}=H_{2}O}
1317:
1347:
1464:
1084:"Tutorial: Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)"
134:Molten carbonate fuel cells are not prone to
1262:
1173:"The anode and the electrolyte in the MCFC"
1471:
1457:
1227:
1290:
1203:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
15:
1350:Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry
264:{\displaystyle CH_{4}+H_{2}O=3H_{2}+CO}
1713:
1422:DoD Fuel Cell - Fuel Cell Descriptions
1320:Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
20:Scheme of a molten-carbonate fuel cell
1452:
1343:
1341:
1286:
1284:
1170:
1088:National Fuel Cell Research Center -
1078:
1076:
197:Internal Reformer (methane example):
1429:presented on the Hannover Fair 2006
1007:
859:On the other side of the cell, the
13:
1509:Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
1338:
1281:
1121:United States Department of Energy
1031:United States Department of Energy
14:
1732:
1410:
1073:
826:material typically consists of a
1090:University of California, Irvine
974:
937:
1652:Unitized regenerative fuel cell
1384:
1311:
863:material is composed of either
1478:
1305:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.07.009
1256:
1221:
1215:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.03.253
1193:
1164:
1134:
1108:
1044:
880:
83:beta-alumina solid electrolyte
1:
1647:Solid oxide electrolyzer cell
1332:10.1016/S0022-0728(97)00202-7
1263:Wijayasinghe, Athula (2004).
1142:"High Temperature Fuel Cells"
1000:
166:
1530:Direct borohydride fuel cell
808:
180:
161:
7:
1617:Membrane electrode assembly
1560:Reformed methanol fuel cell
990:Glossary of fuel cell terms
967:
25:Molten-carbonate fuel cells
10:
1737:
1637:Protonic ceramic fuel cell
1607:Electro-galvanic fuel cell
1499:Molten carbonate fuel cell
854:
106:phosphoric acid fuel cells
39:of 600 °C and above.
1695:
1662:
1627:Photoelectrochemical cell
1594:
1573:
1545:Direct methanol fuel cell
1522:
1504:Phosphoric acid fuel cell
1486:
1362:10.1007/s10008-012-1771-y
946:presented an MCFC at the
274:Anode (hydrogen example):
50:(produced as a result of
1632:Proton-exchange membrane
1540:Direct-ethanol fuel cell
842:resistance and prevents
817:
1622:Membraneless Fuel Cells
1555:Metal hydride fuel cell
1535:Direct carbon fuel cell
1171:Boden, Andreas (2007).
123:, phosphoric acid, and
37:operate at temperatures
31:) are high-temperature
1642:Regenerative fuel cell
1581:Enzymatic biofuel cell
800:
541:
469:
370:
265:
21:
1550:Formic acid fuel cell
1514:Solid oxide fuel cell
1150:University of Babylon
1116:"Types of Fuel Cells"
1052:"Types of Fuel Cells"
1022:"Types of Fuel Cells"
995:Hydrogen technologies
801:
542:
470:
371:
266:
19:
1433:Logan Energy Limited
1056:Fuel Cell Energy.com
885:MCFC's use a liquid
865:Lithium metatitanate
557:
485:
386:
281:
204:
56:biomass gasification
1586:Microbial fuel cell
1427:MTU 240kW fuel cell
1402:on 31 January 2008.
1209:(23): 12285–12290.
944:MTU Friedrichshafen
942:The German company
654:
464:
317:
52:anaerobic digestion
1494:Alkaline fuel cell
796:
628:
537:
465:
447:
366:
300:
261:
101:, reducing costs.
73:, industrial, and
71:electrical utility
22:
1708:
1707:
1356:(10): 3123–3146.
1299:(12): 4274–4293.
1242:10.1002/aic.10630
794:
699:
676:
652:
597:
509:
397:
114:captured and used
1728:
1565:Zinc–air battery
1473:
1466:
1459:
1450:
1449:
1404:
1403:
1398:. Archived from
1388:
1382:
1381:
1345:
1336:
1335:
1315:
1309:
1308:
1288:
1279:
1278:
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1132:
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1128:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1093:. Archived from
1080:
1071:
1070:
1068:
1067:
1058:. Archived from
1048:
1042:
1041:
1039:
1038:
1018:
984:
979:
978:
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803:
802:
797:
795:
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550:Nernst Equation:
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519:
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292:
270:
268:
267:
262:
251:
250:
232:
231:
219:
218:
193:
192:
188:
172:production of CO
1736:
1735:
1731:
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1727:
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140:carbon monoxide
89:can be used as
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1411:External links
1409:
1406:
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1383:
1337:
1326:(1–2): 65–68.
1310:
1293:Applied Energy
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1236:(1): 359–365.
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1574:Biofuel cells
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1230:AIChE Journal
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1117:
1111:
1097:on 2018-10-08
1096:
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1079:
1077:
1062:on 2013-08-25
1061:
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983:
982:Energy portal
977:
972:
965:
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959:
958:steam turbine
949:
948:Hannover Fair
945:
938:MTU fuel cell
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921:
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1273:2 November
1185:1 November
1156:1 November
1127:2015-11-02
1101:2015-11-02
1066:2015-11-02
1037:2016-03-18
1001:References
926:to α-LiAlO
167:Background
110:waste heat
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1370:1432-8488
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