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795:
1269:- a 1st-century Nabatean Stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra. He is named by inscriptions on five of the grave facades typical of Hegra as the executing craftsman. On the basis of the inscriptions, four of the facades can be dated to the reigns of kings Aretas IV and Malichus II. 'Abd'obodat was evidently a successful craftsman. He succeeded his father Wahb'allahi and his uncle 'Abdharetat in at least one workshop in the second generation of Nabatean architects. 'Abd'obodat is considered to be the main representative of one of the two main schools of the Nabataean stonemasons, to which his father, his uncle belonged. Two more grave facades are assigned to the school on the basis of stylistic investigations; 'Abd'obodat is probably to be regarded as the stonemason who carried out the work.
1013:
986:
1276:
together with the stonemason 'Aftah. He is therefore assigned to the workshop of the 'Aftah. Nabataean architects and sculptors were in reality contractors, who negotiated the costs of specific tomb types and their decorations. Tombs were therefore executed based on the desires and financial abilities of their future owners. The activities of Halaf'allahi offer an excellent example of this, as he had been commissioned with the execution of a simple tomb for a person who apparently belonged to the lower middle class. However, he was also in charge of completing a more sophisticated tomb for one of the local military officials.
1626:
Gulf areas. The Greek writers who mention these people (including well-informed authorities like
Josephus, who wrote in the 1st century A.D. and knew the area well) frequently call them Arabs. In view of this fact and the clear evidence of Arabic influence in the Nabateans' language, personal names and religion, we can be virtually certain that they were originally a nomadic Arab group who had gradually settled to form a state. This background is reflected in the Greek sources which say that the Nabateans did not build houses originally or drink wine and that they reared sheep and camels.
1272:'Aftah - a Nabatean stonemason who became prominent in the beginning of the third decade of the first century. 'Aftah is attested in inscriptions on eight of the grave facades in Hegra and one grave as the executing stonemason. The facades are dated to the late reign of King Aretas IV. On one of the facades he worked with Halaf'allahi, on another with Wahbu and Huru. A tenth facade without an inscription was attributed to the 'Aftah sculpture school due to technical and stylistic similarities. He is the main representative of one of the two stonemason schools in the city of Hegra.
472:
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1259:- Greek-Nabataean architect and engineer from Damascus, Roman Syria, who flourished during the 2nd century AD. his massive architectural output gained him immense popularity during his time. He is one of the few architects whose name survives from antiquity, and is credited with introducing several Eastern innovations to the Roman Imperial style, such as making the dome a standard.
585:. A confused mass of Nabataeans gave battle but were defeated. Once they had retreated to their defences, Herod laid siege to the camp and over time some of the defenders surrendered. The remaining Nabataean forces offered 500 talents for peace, but this was rejected. Lacking water, the Nabataeans were forced out of their camp and battled but were defeated.
1625:
The
Nabatean people are in fact of rather obscure origin. The earliest settlements were in southern Jordan and Palestine, though it is likely that they came ultimately from the east, possibly from the marginal regions to the north of modern Saudi Arabia. Others would see their origins in the Hijāz or
1004:
i temple was dedicated to
Dushara then the other major temple must have been al-Uzzas. This is just a theory however, based on conjecture, and it can only be said that the temple is likely dedicated to the supreme goddess figure of the Nabateans, but the exact identity of this goddess is uncertain.
836:
and
Romanization of the region but based on extant clothes and textiles found in graves and tombs on Nabatean territory, the clothing worn by the Nabateans during the first and second century were not unlike their neighbour Judaeans. Its hard to say with any certainty what the Nabateans wore in more
790:
Based on coins, inscriptions and non-Nabatean contemporary sources, Nabataean women seem to have had many legal rights. Inscriptions on tombs demonstrate the equality of property rights between man and woman and women's rights in matters of inheritance and also their ability to make decisions about
1262:
Wahb'allahi - a first century stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra. Wahb'allahi was the brother of the stonemason 'Abdharetat and the father of 'Abd'obodat. He is named in an inscription as the responsible stonemason on the oldest datable grave in Hegra in the ninth year of the
Nabataean king
858:
When it comes to the types of clothing and what can be surmised from these finds are that
Nabatean men wore a tunic and a mantle both made of wool.The tunic in a Roman style (sleeveless) and with the mantle cut in a Greek style. This, as stated before, reflects a popular style rather than an ethnic
1602:
In the reign of Caesar
Augustus, towards the end of the first century B.C., the extensive territory of what was to become Roman Arabia comprised the Arab kingdom of the Nabataeans. At that pivotal time in the fortunes of Rome, these Arabs had achieved both a high culture and a powerful monopoly of
1648:
On the other hand, they are repeatedly spoken of as Arabs by ancient writers, not only by those remote from them in time, but also by
Josephus, to whom the distinction between Syrians and Arabs must have been quite familiar. In addition, the names on the inscriptions are Arabic throughout. It has
809:
Archeological evidence strongly suggest that the
Nabataean women had a role in the social and political life by the first century AD, which is shown by the fact that Nabatean queens were depicted on coins, both independentely and together with their spouse the king. The assumption to be made from
1275:
Halaf'allahi - Nabatean stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra in the first century. Halaf'allahi is named in inscriptions on two graves in Hegra as the responsible stonemason in the reign of the
Nabataean king Aretas IV. The first grave, which can be dated to the year 26-27 AD, was created
910:
states that "Nabataeans normally spoke a form of Arabic, while, like the Persians etc., they used Aramaic for formal purposes and especially for inscriptions." Proper names on their inscriptions suggest that they were ethnically Arabs who had come under Aramaic influence, and the Nabataeans had
1231:
set up a research station near Avdat (Evenari, Shenan and Tadmor 1971). He focused on the relevance of runoff rainwater management in explaining the mechanism of the ancient agricultural features, such as terraced wadis, channels for collecting runoff rainwater, and the enigmatic phenomenon of
615:, the Nabataeans lost their warlike and nomadic habits and became a sober, acquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agriculture. The kingdom was a bulwark between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert except in the time of Trajan, who reduced Petra and converted the Nabataean
1042:
annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, Dushara still had an important role despite losing his former royal privilege. The greatest testimony to the status of the god after the fall of the Nabataean Kingdom was during the 1000th anniversary of the founding of Rome where Dushara was celebrated in
873:
The upper class of Nabataean society, what can be seen on coins, show an even stronger Greek and Roman influence. The kings are depicted clean-shaven with long curled hair while queens are depicted wearing headcoverings with curled hair and long tunics and highnecked garments.
596:
An ally of the Roman Empire, the Nabataean kingdom flourished throughout the 1st century. Its power extended far into Arabia along the Red Sea to Yemen, and Petra was a cosmopolitan marketplace, though its commerce was diminished by the rise of the Eastern trade-route from
1220:', which could easily consist of only one or two rain events, the area around the tree was broken up. When the rain came, all the water that collected in the funnel would flow down toward the fruit tree and sink into the ground. The ground, which was largely
1215:
Although not as dry as at present, the area occupied by the Nabataeans was still a desert and required special techniques for agriculture. One was to contour an area of land into a shallow funnel and to plant a single fruit tree in the middle. Before the
967:. Therefore, from a Nabataean perspective, Dhushara was probably associated with the heavens. However, one theory which connects Dushara with the forest gives a different idea of the god. The eagle was one of the symbols of Dushara. It was widely used in
821:, marrying a female member of the Nabatean royal family reinforced a ruler's position or one whose claim to the throne was not as strong as his wife's. The Nabatean royal house like the Ptolemaic and Seleucids later adopted sibling marriage.
725:(book II) described them as a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors, preeminent among the nomads of Arabia, eschewing agriculture, fixed houses, and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits a profitable trade with the seaports in
414:
letters, and Aramaic continued as the language of their coins and inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom and profited by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward over the more fertile country east of the
982:, another Arabian god, was identified. "His throne" was frequently mentioned in inscriptions, certain interpretations of the text consider it as a reference for Dhushara's wife, goddess Harisha. She was probably a solar deity.
1095:. Their most common monuments to the gods, commonly known as "god blocks", involved cutting away the whole top of a hill or cliff face so as to leave only a block behind. However, over time the Nabataeans were influenced by
810:
this were that they ruled together and that the Nabatean queens and other female members were given or already had political importance and status. One can surmise other Nabatean women also benefited from this by extension.
2039:
1671:
The Nabateans were a nomadic Arab people who migrated in the sixth century B.C.E. from the northern area of modern-day Jordan to the region south of the Dead Sea that was to become the heartland of their sedentary
1156:
In surviving Nabataean documents, Aramaic legal terms are followed by their equivalents in Arabic. That could suggest that the Nabataeans used Arabic in their legal proceedings but recorded them in Aramaic.
960:, and was the official god of the Nabataean Kingdom who enjoyed special royal patronage. His official position is reflected in multiple inscriptions that render him as "The god of our lord" (The King).
745:
from the Dead Sea. Their arid country was their best safeguard, for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water which they excavated in the rocky or clay-rich soil were carefully concealed from invaders.
1088:, a boy was sacrificed annually and was buried underneath an altar. Some scholars have extrapolated this practice to the rest of the Nabataeans, but this view is contested due to the lack of evidence.
532:, who was a friend of Aretas, was despatched by Scaurus to the King to buy peace. In so obtaining peace, King Aretas retained all his possessions, including Damascus, and became a Roman vassal.
657:
instead. By the 5th century AD, they had converted to Christianity. The new Arab invaders, who soon pressed forward into their seats, found the remnants of the Nabataeans transformed into
1232:"Tuleilat el-Anab". Evenari showed that the runoff rainwater collection systems concentrate water from an area that is five times larger than the area in which the water actually drains.
407:
cited Hieronymus in his report, and added the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade."
3372:
719:. They suggest that the Nabataeans' trade routes and the origins of their goods were regarded as trade secrets, and disguised in tales that should have strained outsiders' credulity.
2988:
948:
The extent of Nabataean trade resulted in cross-cultural influences that reached as far as the Red Sea coast of southern Arabia. The major gods worshiped at Petra were notably
882:
account of Nabatean men going outside "without tunics girdles about their loins, and with slippers on their feet – even the kings, though in their case the colour is purple."
1180:
824:
Nabatean women lost many of the rights they had, when the kingdom of Nabatea came under the influence – both political and cultural – of the Roman empire and Roman law.
707:
Many examples of graffiti and inscriptions—largely of names and greetings—document the area of Nabataean culture, which extended as far north as the north end of the
1153:' Syriac form script as a probable candidate. However, John F. Healey states that: "The Nabataean origin of the Arabic script is now almost universally accepted".
813:
Though admittedly Nabatean culture seems to have favored male succession rather than female or equal succession, it seems plausible that like their neighbouring
559:, sent Canathans to the aid of the Nabataeans, and this force crushed Herod's army, which then fled to Ormiza. One year later, Herod's army overran Nabataea.
3399:
1786:
The Nabataean Arabs, one of the most gifted peoples of the ancient world, are today known only for their hauntingly beautiful rock-carved capital — Petra.
486:
in their struggles against the Seleucid monarchs. They then became rivals of the Judaean dynasty, and a chief element in the disorders that invited
2973:
2300:
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in 106 AD. Nabataeans' individual culture, easily identified by their characteristic finely potted painted ceramics, was adopted into the larger
2799:
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The name Dushara is from the Arabic "Dhu ash-Shara": which simply means "the one of Shara", a mountain range south-east of Petra also known as
3350:
3345:
2128:
588:
Aretas, IV king of Nabatea, defeated Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, in a battle after he intended to divorce his daughter Phasaelis
3319:
Schmid, Stephan G. (2001). "The Nabataeans: Travellers between Lifestyles". In MacDonald, Burton; Adams, Russell; Bienkowski, Piotr (eds.).
577:
After an earthquake in Judaea, the Nabateans rebelled and invaded Judea, but Herod at once crossed the Jordan river to Philadelphia (modern
2555:
The Nabateans in the Early Hellenistic Period : The Testimony of Posidippus of Pella, Topoi. Orient-Occident Année 2006 14-1 pp. 48.
711:, and testify to widespread literacy; but except for a few letters no Nabataean literature has survived, nor was any noted in antiquity.
2023:
847:
That is based on finds of similar clothing and textiles being found in both places. Among the most common colors were yellow made from
1649:
therefore been concluded that they were Arabs who, because Arabic had not yet developed into a written language, made use of Aramaic.
862:
Nabataean women wore long tunics along with scarves and mantles. These scarves were loosely woven and sported fringes at the bottom.
581:) and both sides set up camp. The Nabataeans under Elthemus refused to give battle, so Herod forced the issue when he attacked their
269:
Described as fiercely independent by contemporary Greco-Roman accounts, the Nabataeans were annexed into the Roman Empire by Emperor
794:
791:
their own property. That set the Nabateans apart from the attitudes on a woman's role in society by their neighbours in the region.
521:
1826:
715:
analysis has suggested that Nabataean culture may have had multiple influences. Classical references to the Nabataeans begin with
1235:
Another study was conducted by Y. Kedar in 1957, which also focused on the mechanism of the agriculture systems, but he studied
266:
centered around a loosely controlled trading network that brought considerable wealth and influence across the ancient world.
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knew that Alexander would attack, so was able to ambush Alexander's forces near Gaulane destroying the Judean army (90 BC).
285:. They have been described as one of the most gifted peoples of the ancient world and one of the "most unjustly forgotten".
3390:
2332:
547:, started a war against Nabataea. The war began with Herod plundering Nabataea with a large cavalry force, and occupying
3441:
3098:
Abd'obodat. In: Rainer Vollkommer (Herausgeber): Künstlerlexikon der Antike. Über 3800 Künstler aus drei Jahrtausenden
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Rainer Vollkommer (Hrsg.): Künstlerlexikon der Antike . Over 3800 artists from three millennia. Nikol, Hamburg 2007
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tribe and were built to describe the temple they were inscribed in and to recognize the authority of the emperors
528:
to lift the siege of Petra, partly because of the difficult terrain and the fact that he had run out of supplies.
2179:, mostly economic documents in Greek, date to the 6th century: Glen L. Peterman, "Discovery of Papyri in Petra",
262:
The Nabateans emerged as a distinct civilization and political entity between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC, with
3238:
The Makhteshim Country: A Laboratory of Nature: Geological and Ecological Studies in the Desert Region of Israel
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emerged. There are different opinions concerning the development of the Arabic script. J. Starcky considers the
3192:
1243:
and create an infrastructure for agricultural activity. This theory has also been explored by E. Mazor, of the
106:
1012:
3426:
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241:
2880:
Nabataean to Arabic: Calligraphy and script development among the pre-Islamic Arabs by John F. Healey p. 44.
2158:
990:
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Women also participated in religious activities, and had a right to visit the temples and make sacrifices.
1239:, and claimed that the ancient agriculture systems were intended to increase the accumulation of loess in
1134:. Therefore, Aramaic was used for commercial and official purposes across the Nabataean political sphere.
505:. It was this king who, after putting down a local rebellion, invaded and occupied the Nabataean towns of
3436:
3123:
Aftah. In: Rainer Vollkommer (editor): Künstlerlexikon der Antike. Over 3800 artists from three millennia
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997:
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Dusharas consort at Petra is considered to have been al-Uzza and the goddess has been associated with
3431:
3384:
2040:"The submerged Nabataean temple in Puteoli at Pozzuoli, Italy: first campaign of underwater research"
1949:. Vol. 1. Trans. G. A. Williamson 1959. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin. p. 40.
1891:
388:
3304:. Hagop Kevorkian Series on Near Eastern Art and Civilization. New York: New York University Press.
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in North Arabia. The city of Petra was brought to the attention of Westerners by the Swiss explorer
2803:
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968:
682:
3364:
2994:
1461:
1256:
1055:). He was venerated in his Arabian name with a Greek fashion in the reign of an Arabian emperor,
903:
375:
influence. The first mention of the Nabataeans dates from 312/311 BC, when they were attacked at
911:
already some trace of Aramaic culture when they first appear in history. Some of the authors of
520:
The Roman military was not very successful in their campaigns against the Nabataeans. In 62 BC,
30:
For the name used by Islamicate authors to designate the native inhabitants of Mesopotamia, see
2546:
Arabs, Arabias and Arabic before Late Antiquity, Topoi. Orient-Occident Année 2009 16-1 p. 309.
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Nabataean inscriptions from Hegra suggest that Dushara was linked either with the sun, or with
479:
Petra was rapidly built in the 1st century BC, and developed a population estimated at 20,000.
232:
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Language and Identity: Arabic and Aramaic, Scripta Classica Israelica vol. XXIII 2004, p. 185.
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Law and Religion between Petra and Edessa: Studies in Aramaic Epigraphy on the Roman Frontier
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An eagle on the tomb facade that represents the guardianship of Dushara against intruders at
498:
2917:
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J. W. Eadie, J. P. Oleson (1986) "The Water-Supply Systems of Nabatean and Roman Ḥumayma",
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392:
2013:
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By the 3rd century AD, the Nabataeans had stopped writing in Aramaic and begun writing in
8:
635:
634:
Five Greek-Nabataean bilingual inscriptions are known dating to AD 165–169, known as the
471:
274:
2771:. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World (136) (print ed.). BRILL. pp. 161–163 .
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3271:
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The Ancient Arabs: Nomads on the Borders of the Fertile Crescent, 9th-5th Centuries B.C
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2854:
Arabs in the Shadow of Israel: The Unfolding of God's Prophetic Plan for Ishmael's Line
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Macdonald, M. C. A. (1999). "Personal names in the Nabataean realm: a review article".
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that was heavily influenced by Arabic forms and words. When communicating with other
1032:
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Not much is known for certain about the fashions of ancient Nabateans and before the
814:
495:
444:
263:
208:
84:
24:
631:, in southern Italy, that reached its end around the establishment of the province.
2231:
2081:. Variorum collected studies series. Farnham, GB: Ashgate Variorum. pp. 1–26.
2051:
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1142:
1123:
1122:
The Nabataeans spoke an Arabic dialect but, for their inscriptions, used a form of
1052:
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678:
404:
145:
78:
20:
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411:
212:
184:
3355:
2027:. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 146 to 147.
1103:
and their Gods became anthropomorphic and were represented with human features.
1000:
on the basis that if the divine couple of Petra was Dushara and al-Uzza and the
953:
891:
327:
1558:
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1205:
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61:
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2018:
1855:
Atlas of Vanishing Places: The lost worlds as they were and as they are today
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Babatha's Orchard: The Yadin Papyri and an Ancient Jewish Family Tale Retold
1266:
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Nabataean farming, capturing 50 acres of run-off water for one acre of crops
929:
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463:
3378:
2176:
2132:
1302:
1217:
1100:
1039:
1001:
979:
942:
895:
770:). The yeast-leavened bread is made with a high quality wheat flour called
761:
734:
726:
647:
616:
548:
416:
278:
111:
2106:. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 51–56.
2055:
1532:
1520:
3058:
Healey, John (1994). "The Nabataean Tomb Inscriptions of Mada'in Salih".
2104:
Rome, Persia, and Arabia: shaping the Middle East from Pompey to Muhammad
1453:
1320:
1127:
638:. They are ascribed to an auxiliary military unit drawn the Roman-allied
598:
562:
529:
501:, many Nabataeans were forcefully converted to Judaism by Hasmonean king
432:
384:
376:
2442:
Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices And Rites In The Second Temple Period
459:
The Roman province of Arabia Petraea, created from the Nabataean kingdom
2892:
Arabic in Context: Celebrating 400 years of Arabic at Leiden University
2643:
1771:
1743:
1406:, Byzantine agricultural town with contested Nabataean, Roman precursor
1067:
964:
906:, and others believe Nabataeans spoke Arabic as their native language.
611:
536:
483:
424:
399:
officer, mentioned the Nabataeans in a battle report. About 50 BC, the
309:
3188:
1092:
1024:
1017:
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ancient times since their art before this period was non-figurative.
712:
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670:
666:
662:
544:
368:
303:
282:
252:
2281:
2038:
Stefanile, Michele; Silani, Michele; Tardugno, Maria Luisa (2024).
1942:
1432:
1326:
1071:
1048:
1047:
by striking coins in his name, Actia Dusaria (linking the god with
989:
Nabatean baetyl (possibly a replica of the actual artifact) at the
912:
708:
628:
582:
514:
428:
396:
372:
47:
3323:. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press. pp. 367–426.
3212:
Rome and the Arabian Frontier: From the Nabataeans to the Saracens
3161:
2388:
Rome and the Arabian Frontier: From the Nabataeans to the Saracens
1023:
Numerous Nabatean bas-relief busts of the Northern Syrian goddess
699:
3267:
3232:(Leiden, Brill, 2001) (Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, 136).
2012:
1397:
1201:
1150:
949:
848:
779:
742:
658:
552:
455:
333:
256:
215:. Their settlements—most prominently the assumed capital city of
53:
16:
Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the Southern Levant
2723:
Mahdi al-Zoubi: Nabataean Practices for Tombs Protection - p. 3.
2280:
Archaeometry (MAA), Mediterranean Archaeology and (2013-01-01).
1130:
peoples, they, like their neighbors, used Aramaic, the region's
1111:
3375:—the only collection of ancient Nabataean art outside of Jordan
3263:
3077:
Zbigniew, Fiema (1987). "Remarks on the Sculptors from Ḥegra".
2564:
John F. Healey, 'Were the Nabataeans Arabs?' Aram 1 (1989), 43.
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T&T Clark Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism Volume Two
1734:
1732:
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172:
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1355:/Jawf), trade hub at southeastern end of Wadi Sirhan corridor
1339:
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in Syria, but were attacked and routed. Cleopatra's general,
491:
450:
380:
364:
350:
313:
220:
216:
204:
126:
2605:
The Pagan God: Popular Religion in the Greco-Roman Near East
1729:
1633:
The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ
1552:
1240:
1063:
1005:
Excavated from The Temple of the Winged Lions was the "Eye
775:
606:
506:
246:
160:
1630:
Schürer, Emil; Millar, Fergus; Vermes, Geza (2015-03-26).
1145:, but it used a distinctive cursive script from which the
971:
as a source of protection for the tombs against thievery.
344:
2669:
2466:
Stuckenbruck, Loren T.; Gurtner, Daniel M. (2019-12-26).
1656:
Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East
1466:
1062:
Other gods worshipped in Nabatea during this period were
551:. After this defeat, the Nabataean forces regrouped near
154:
1035:. Atargatis was amalgated into the worship of Al-‘Uzzá.
3351:
Hecht Museum - Exhibitions | The Nabateans in the Negev
3260:
The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion
2037:
3346:
Hecht Museum - Catalogues | The Nabateans in the Negev
2943:
Brinkman, Gelb, Civil, Oppenheim & Reiner (1980).
2576:
An Outline of the Grammar of the Safaitic Inscriptions
2247:
2245:
1224:, would seal up when it got wet and retain the water.
3235:
2800:"Biblical Archaeology Review, May/June 2016, page 20"
2253:
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
878:
seems to have been associated with the king based on
175:
151:
148:
1872:
1443:
1431:
A now submerged Nabataean temple in Puteoli (modern
765:
251:) to the Arabian borderland that stretched from the
198:
166:
157:
3408:—Ursula Hackl, Hanna Jenni, and Christoph Schneider
3381:—Ancient Desert Agriculture Systems Revived (ADASR)
2919:
The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia
2465:
2242:
1629:
163:
60:in the desert regions around the Roman province of
19:"Nabataean" redirects here. For the languages, see
3297:
3262:. Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta. Vol. 100.
2279:
915:inscriptions identified themselves as Nabataeans.
2673:Nabatu. The Nabataeans through their inscriptions
956:. Dushara was the supreme deity of the Nabataean
3413:
3391:"Solving the Enigma of Petra and the Nabataeans"
2987:Johnson, Douglas L.; Lewis, Laurence A. (2007).
2915:
2197:Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan
56:(ruled AD 117–138), showing the location of the
2676:. Edicions Universitat Barcelona. p. 118.
2601:
2597:
2595:
2208:Marjo Lehtinen (December 2002) "Petra Papyri",
1898:. Canadian Museum of Civilization. 7 April 2006
1091:The Nabataeans used to represent their gods as
2876:
2874:
2830:. University of California Press. p. 52.
2823:
2665:
2663:
2302:Routledge Handbook on Women in the Middle East
1160:The name may be derived from the same root as
2670:Francisco del Río Sánchez (4 December 2015).
2631:
2629:
2627:
2625:
2298:
1250:
1084:, written in the 3rd century, states that in
467:Silver drachm of Malichos II with Shaqilat II
3230:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus
2986:
2972:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2769:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus
2696:
2639:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans
2592:
2496:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus
1801:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans
1767:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans
1763:
1740:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans
1526:
1514:
1227:In the mid-1950s, a research team headed by
785:
513:and imposed a tribute of an unknown amount.
2952:. Oriental Institute, Chicago. p. 22.
2909:
2871:
2660:
2635:
2299:Joseph, Suad; Zaatari, Zeina (2022-12-30).
2159:"The Dead Sea Scrolls - Browse Manuscripts"
2079:Literacy and identity in pre-Islamic Arabia
1757:
661:. Their lands were divided between the new
3236:Krasnov, Boris R.; Mazor, Emanuel (2001).
2990:Land Degradation: Creation and Destruction
2817:
2690:
2622:
2608:. Princeton University Press. p. 83.
2000:. Josephus. pp. 18.109-118 or 18.5.1.
1425:
1378:Incense Route – Desert Cities in the Negev
387:'s officer Athenaeus in the course of the
46:
2922:. Cambridge University Press. p. 2.
2573:
2519:Rome and the Arabs, Dumbarton Oaks, p. 9.
2264:
2221:
2163:The Dead Sea Scrolls - Browse Manuscripts
2076:
1851:
1683:
1583:
737:(today's Yemen), as well as a trade with
3254:
3076:
2850:
2438:
1941:
1878:
1590:. Harvard University Press. p. 12.
1110:
1011:
984:
928:
864:
839:
793:
698:
561:
482:The Nabataeans were allies of the first
470:
462:
454:
3020:Finding Ancient Rome: Walks in the city
3017:
2844:
2411:
2195:P. M. Bikai (1997) "The Petra Papyri",
1916:
1076:Sacrifices of animals were common, and
3414:
3318:
3182:
3120:
3095:
3057:
3032:
2762:
2735:
2492:
2286:M. Alzoubi, E. Al Masri, F. Al Ajlouny
2101:
1797:
1704:
1652:
1606:
1280:
475:Silver drachm of Obodas II with Hagaru
3295:
3060:Journal of Semitic Studies Supplement
2731:
2729:
2361:Women in Pre-Islamic Arabia: Nabataea
2330:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2010:
1858:. White Lion Publishing. p. 52.
1824:
1613:. Taylor & Francis. p. 216.
367:tribe who had come under significant
293:
3385:Petra: Lost City of Stone Exhibition
3209:
2384:
2357:
1659:. Infobase Publishing. p. 483.
566:Colossal Nabataean columns stand in
438:
410:They wrote a letter to Antigonus in
3406:Quellen zur Geschichte der Nabatäer
3066:(Oxford University Press): 154–162.
2895:. BRILL. 21 June 2017. p. 79.
2528:Rome in the East, Routledge, p. 65.
1921:. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
1636:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 57.
1527:
1515:
1118:, the largest tomb at Mada'in Saleh
188:
13:
3361:—links on Petra and the Nabataeans
2916:Roger D. Woodard (10 April 2008).
2726:
2415:Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader
2319:
1603:the traffic in perfume and spices.
1421:: excavated Nabataean trading port
859:style exclusive to the Nabateans.
774:that is finely milled and free of
87:(commercial and official purposes)
14:
3463:
3357:The Bulletin of Nabataean Studies
3339:
3145:
2703:. Apa Publications. p. 395.
2126:
2077:Macdonald, Michael C. A. (2009).
2011:Smith, William Robertson (1911).
1141:itself also developed out of the
855:. Blue textiles were also found.
3400:Nabataeans a nation civilization
3387:—Canadian Museum of Civilization
2857:. Kregel Academic. p. 172.
2697:Rough Guides (1 November 2016).
2602:Javier Teixidor (8 March 2015).
2282:"WOMAN IN THE NABATAEAN SOCIETY"
1852:Elborough, Travis (2019-09-17).
1446:
1193:
1179:
802:of Nabatea depicted on a drachma
423:, and in about 85 BC their king
343:
326:
302:
144:
52:A map of the Roman empire under
3154:
3139:
3114:
3089:
3079:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
3070:
3051:
3026:
3011:
2980:
2936:
2883:
2792:
2756:
2717:
2567:
2558:
2549:
2540:
2531:
2522:
2513:
2486:
2459:
2432:
2405:
2378:
2351:
2331:Esler, Philip F. (2017-02-15).
2292:
2273:
2267:Annals of the Caliphs' Kitchens
2258:
2215:
2202:
2189:
2169:
2151:
2120:
2095:
2070:
2031:
2004:
1990:
1981:
1972:
1963:
1935:
1910:
1884:
1684:Bowersock, Glen Warren (1994).
1584:Bowersock, Glen Warren (1994).
851:and a bright red produced from
591:
2739:The Religious Life of Nabataea
1987:Josephus 1:377–391, pp. 78–79.
1978:Josephus 1:363–377, pp. 75–77.
1845:
1818:
1791:
1677:
1577:
1480:
1170:
207:people who inhabited northern
1:
2578:. Leiden: Brill. p. 19.
2385:Graf, David F. (2019-04-23).
1825:Grant, Michael (2011-12-30).
1571:
1387:), city with Nabataean temple
1267:'Abd'obodat son of Wahballahi
1245:Weizmann Institute of Science
1106:
1093:featureless pillars or blocks
2736:Alpass, Peter (2013-06-13).
2493:Healey, J. F. (2015-08-27).
2129:"The Nabateans in the Negev"
1804:. Harvard University Press.
1690:. Harvard University Press.
1553:
1505:
1495:
991:Jordan Archaeological Museum
665:Arab tribal kingdoms of the
247:
7:
3395:Biblical Archaeology Review
2765:"Ritual Actions: Offerings"
2337:. Oxford University Press.
1774:. pp. centerfold, 14.
1607:Healey, John (2023-05-31).
1533:
1521:
1439:
918:
885:
766:
619:into the Roman province of
199:
10:
3468:
3300:Nabatean Archaeology Today
3175:
2358:Fāsī, Hatūn Ajwād (2007).
2224:Journal of Semitic Studies
2186:1 (March 1994), pp. 55–57.
2181:The Biblical Archaeologist
1770:. London, United Kingdom:
1542:
1311:, settlement and sanctuary
1284:
1251:Architects and stonemasons
922:
869:Aretas IV and Shaqilath II
827:
692:
688:
448:
442:
288:
236:
29:
18:
3442:Arabs in the Roman Empire
3321:The Archaeology of Jordan
2700:The Rough Guide to Jordan
2574:Al-Jallad, Ahmed (2015).
2472:. Bloomsbury Publishing.
2412:Richard, Suzanne (2003).
2265:Nasrallah, Nawal (2007).
2212:Vol.65 No. 4 pp. 277–278.
1896:Petra: Lost City of Stone
1490:
786:Women in Nabatean culture
389:Third War of the Diadochi
125:
120:
99:
94:
74:
69:
45:
3447:Ancient Israel and Judah
3162:"Nabataea: Medain Saleh"
2995:Rowman & Littlefield
2763:Healey, John F. (2001).
2439:Ḥak̲lîlî, Rāḥēl (2005).
2305:. Taylor & Francis.
2210:Near Eastern Archaeology
1892:"A City Carved in Stone"
1754:. Retrieved 8 July 2016.
1473:
1016:A Nabatean sculpture of
760:, contains a recipe for
683:Johann Ludwig Burckhardt
524:accepted a bribe of 300
3296:Negev, Avraham (1986).
3210:Graf, David F. (1997).
3183:Ephʿal, Israel (1984).
3121:Keller, Daniel (2007).
3096:Keller, Daniel (2007).
3033:Keller, Daniel (2007).
3018:Landart, Paula (2015).
2946:The Assyrian Dictionary
2824:John F. Healey (1990).
2024:Encyclopædia Britannica
1998:Antiquities of the Jews
1828:Jews In The Roman World
1462:List of Nabataean kings
1426:Outside the Middle East
1257:Apollodorus of Damascus
1200:Remains of a Nabataean
998:Temple of Winged Lions
904:Michael C. A. Macdonald
522:Marcus Aemilius Scaurus
363:The Nabataeans were an
3379:Archaeological Studies
3214:. Aldershot: Ashgate.
3037:. Nikol. p. 947.
2236:10.1093/jss/xliv.2.251
1917:Johnson, Paul (1987).
1746:. pp. 14, 17, 30, 31.
1653:Stokes, Jamie (2009).
1562:
1346:Northwest Saudi Arabia
1119:
1020:
993:
945:
870:
844:
803:
764:Nabatean water bread (
704:
703:Nabataean trade routes
574:
543:, with the support of
535:In 32 BC, during King
476:
468:
460:
3373:Cincinnati Art Museum
3290:Encyclopedia of Islam
2102:Fisher, Greg (2020).
2056:10.15184/aqy.2024.107
1969:Josephus 1:61, p. 48.
1919:A History of the Jews
1798:Taylor, Jane (2002).
1764:Taylor, Jane (2001).
1738:Taylor, Jane (2001).
1167:, to shine brightly.
1114:
1015:
988:
932:
868:
843:
797:
767:khubz al-ma al-nabati
756:, the earliest known
702:
565:
474:
466:
458:
449:Further information:
121:Related ethnic groups
3427:Ancient Arab peoples
3274:. pp. 448–450.
3125:. Nikol. p. 6.
2646:. pp. 124–151.
2636:Jane Taylor (2001).
1469:, ancient Arab tribe
1393:, town, road station
1372:Negev Desert, Israel
1263:Aretas IV (1 BC-AD).
750:Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq
393:Hieronymus of Cardia
277:. They converted to
3367:Jewish Encyclopedia
3148:Nabatean Necropolis
2139:on 20 November 2018
1281:Archeological sites
1027:were identified by
890:Historians such as
636:Ruwafa inscriptions
490:'s intervention in
383:without success by
275:Greco-Roman culture
42:
3437:Arab ethnic groups
3272:Peeters Publishers
3240:. Sofia: Pensoft.
2827:The Early Alphabet
2014:"Nabataeans"
1413:South Sinai, Egypt
1323:, mountaintop site
1309:Khirbet edh-Dharih
1139:Nabataean alphabet
1120:
1038:However, when the
1021:
994:
946:
925:Nabataean religion
871:
845:
804:
778:and is baked in a
705:
575:
503:Alexander Jannaeus
477:
469:
461:
294:Hellenistic period
203:) were an ancient
40:
32:Nabataeans of Iraq
3365:NABATÆANS in the
3330:978-1-84127-136-1
3311:978-0-8147-5760-4
3247:978-954-642-135-7
3228:Healey, John F.,
3221:978-0-86078-658-0
3202:978-0-685-74243-3
3193:Hebrew University
3132:978-3-937872-53-7
3107:978-3-937872-53-7
3044:978-3-937872-53-7
3004:978-0-7425-1948-0
2959:978-0-918986-17-7
2929:978-1-139-46934-0
2902:978-90-04-34304-7
2864:978-0-8254-9363-8
2837:978-0-520-07309-8
2778:978-90-04-10754-0
2749:978-90-04-21623-5
2710:978-0-241-29849-7
2683:978-84-475-3748-8
2653:978-1-86064-508-2
2615:978-1-4008-7139-1
2585:978-90-04-28929-1
2506:978-90-04-30148-1
2479:978-0-567-66095-4
2452:978-90-04-12373-1
2425:978-1-57506-083-5
2398:978-0-429-78455-2
2371:978-1-4073-0095-5
2344:978-0-19-107990-0
2312:978-1-351-67643-4
2113:978-0-415-72880-5
2088:978-0-7546-5965-5
1956:978-0-14-044420-9
1943:Josephus, Flavius
1928:978-0-297-79091-4
1865:978-1-78131-895-9
1838:978-1-78022-281-3
1811:978-0-674-00849-6
1781:978-1-86064-508-2
1643:978-0-567-50161-5
1620:978-1-000-94209-5
1551:
1487:Nabataean Aramaic
1315:Khirbet et-Tannur
1208:, southern Israel
1009:" or "Eye-Idol".
900:Robert G. Hoyland
815:Ptolemaic dynasty
496:popular historian
445:Nabataean Kingdom
439:Nabataean Kingdom
245:
197:
132:
131:
85:Nabataean Aramaic
25:Nabataean Aramaic
3459:
3432:Tribes of Arabia
3334:
3315:
3303:
3285:
3256:Lipiński, Edward
3251:
3225:
3206:
3191:: Magnes Press,
3170:
3169:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3146:Negev, Abraham.
3143:
3137:
3136:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3030:
3024:
3023:
3015:
3009:
3008:
2984:
2978:
2977:
2971:
2963:
2951:
2940:
2934:
2933:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2887:
2881:
2878:
2869:
2868:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2821:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2802:. Archived from
2796:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2785:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2733:
2724:
2721:
2715:
2714:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2667:
2658:
2657:
2633:
2620:
2619:
2599:
2590:
2589:
2571:
2565:
2562:
2556:
2553:
2547:
2544:
2538:
2535:
2529:
2526:
2520:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2436:
2430:
2429:
2409:
2403:
2402:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2364:. Archaeopress.
2355:
2349:
2348:
2328:
2317:
2316:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2262:
2256:
2249:
2240:
2239:
2219:
2213:
2206:
2200:
2193:
2187:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2135:. Archived from
2124:
2118:
2117:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2016:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1994:
1988:
1985:
1979:
1976:
1970:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1888:
1882:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1761:
1755:
1736:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1651:
1628:
1605:
1581:
1565:
1556:
1546:
1544:
1536:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1508:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1492:
1484:
1456:
1451:
1450:
1197:
1183:
1143:Aramaic alphabet
1033:Khirbet et-Tannû
769:
733:and spices from
723:Diodorus Siculus
717:Diodorus Siculus
679:Kingdom of Kinda
419:. They occupied
405:Diodorus Siculus
347:
330:
306:
250:
240:
238:
227:)—gave the name
202:
192:
190:
182:
181:
178:
177:
174:
171:
168:
165:
162:
159:
156:
153:
150:
79:Nabataean Arabic
50:
43:
39:
21:Nabataean Arabic
3467:
3466:
3462:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3412:
3411:
3342:
3337:
3331:
3312:
3282:
3248:
3222:
3203:
3178:
3173:
3160:
3159:
3155:
3144:
3140:
3133:
3119:
3115:
3108:
3094:
3090:
3075:
3071:
3056:
3052:
3045:
3031:
3027:
3016:
3012:
3005:
2985:
2981:
2965:
2964:
2960:
2949:
2941:
2937:
2930:
2914:
2910:
2903:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2879:
2872:
2865:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2822:
2818:
2809:
2807:
2798:
2797:
2793:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2734:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2711:
2695:
2691:
2684:
2668:
2661:
2654:
2634:
2623:
2616:
2600:
2593:
2586:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2550:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2491:
2487:
2480:
2464:
2460:
2453:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2418:. Eisenbrauns.
2410:
2406:
2399:
2383:
2379:
2372:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2329:
2320:
2313:
2297:
2293:
2278:
2274:
2263:
2259:
2250:
2243:
2220:
2216:
2207:
2203:
2194:
2190:
2175:The carbonized
2174:
2170:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2142:
2140:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2075:
2071:
2036:
2032:
2009:
2005:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1940:
1936:
1929:
1915:
1911:
1901:
1899:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1877:
1873:
1866:
1850:
1846:
1839:
1823:
1819:
1812:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1762:
1758:
1737:
1730:
1720:
1718:
1710:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1682:
1678:
1667:
1644:
1621:
1598:
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1503:, vocalized as
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1442:
1428:
1400:), road station
1353:Dumat al-Jandal
1289:
1283:
1253:
1237:soil management
1229:Michael Evenari
1213:
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1147:Arabic alphabet
1109:
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758:Arabic cookbook
754:Kitab al-Tabikh
697:
691:
673:Arabs, and the
644:Marcus Aurelius
594:
541:Herod the Great
494:. According to
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427:became lord of
391:; at that time
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17:
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5:
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3150:. p. 219.
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2019:Chisholm, Hugh
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1108:
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1082:De Abstenentia
923:Main article:
920:
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784:
693:Main article:
690:
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623:. There was a
621:Arabia Petraea
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443:Main article:
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379:or perhaps at
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3292:, Volume VII.
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2391:. Routledge.
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1879:Lipiński 2000
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1697:9780674777569
1693:
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1672:civilization.
1668:
1666:9781438126760
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1597:9780674777569
1593:
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1539:Ancient Greek
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1360:Mada'in Saleh
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1305:/Siq al-Barid
1304:
1300:
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1287:Incense route
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1026:
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987:
983:
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978:, with which
977:
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935:Mada'in Saleh
931:
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908:John F. Healy
905:
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893:
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834:Hellenization
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695:Incense Route
686:
684:
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677:vassals, the
676:
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669:vassals, the
668:
664:
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627:community in
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264:their kingdom
260:
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233:Ancient Greek
230:
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219:(present-day
218:
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137:
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68:
64:(lower right)
63:
59:
55:
49:
44:
33:
26:
22:
3402:—Petra Crown
3394:
3366:
3356:
3320:
3299:
3289:
3259:
3237:
3229:
3211:
3184:
3166:nabataea.net
3165:
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2982:
2945:
2938:
2918:
2911:
2891:
2885:
2853:
2846:
2826:
2819:
2808:. Retrieved
2804:the original
2794:
2782:. Retrieved
2768:
2758:
2738:
2719:
2699:
2692:
2672:
2638:
2604:
2575:
2569:
2560:
2551:
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2227:
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2217:
2209:
2204:
2196:
2191:
2183:
2180:
2177:Petra papyri
2171:
2162:
2153:
2141:. Retrieved
2137:the original
2133:Hecht Museum
2122:
2103:
2097:
2078:
2072:
2050:(400): e20.
2047:
2043:
2033:
2022:
2006:
1997:
1992:
1983:
1974:
1965:
1946:
1937:
1918:
1912:
1900:. Retrieved
1895:
1886:
1874:
1854:
1847:
1827:
1820:
1800:
1793:
1785:
1766:
1759:
1739:
1719:. Retrieved
1715:
1712:"Nabataeans"
1706:
1687:Roman Arabia
1686:
1679:
1670:
1655:
1647:
1632:
1624:
1609:
1601:
1587:Roman Arabia
1586:
1579:
1482:
1303:Little Petra
1234:
1226:
1218:rainy season
1214:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1136:
1131:
1121:
1090:
1081:
1075:
1061:
1037:
1022:
1002:Qasr al Bint
995:
973:
962:
947:
943:Saudi Arabia
896:Warwick Ball
892:Irfan Shahîd
889:
876:Purple cloth
872:
861:
857:
846:
831:
823:
812:
808:
805:
789:
771:
753:
748:
735:Arabia Felix
727:frankincense
721:
706:
652:
648:Lucius Verus
633:
624:
617:client state
610:
609:. Under the
595:
592:Roman period
587:
576:
534:
519:
499:Paul Johnson
481:
478:
417:Jordan River
409:
362:
279:Christianity
268:
261:
228:
139:
135:
133:
112:Christianity
57:
37:Ethnic group
3085:(1): 52–53.
1525:, singular
1516:ٱلْأَنْبَاط
1454:Asia portal
1321:Sela (Edom)
1171:Agriculture
1051:victory at
599:Myos Hormos
530:Hyrcanus II
433:Coele-Syria
385:Antigonus I
281:during the
189:ٱلْأَنْبَاط
3416:Categories
2810:2016-05-27
2644:I.B.Tauris
2143:7 February
1902:7 February
1772:I.B.Tauris
1744:I.B.Tauris
1742:. London:
1721:August 31,
1716:livius.org
1572:References
1537:; compare
1396:Mampshis (
1285:See also:
965:Mount Seir
612:Pax Romana
539:'s reign,
537:Malichus I
484:Hasmoneans
425:Aretas III
403:historian
369:Babylonian
310:Al-Khazneh
136:Nabataeans
107:polytheism
41:Nabataeans
3288:"Nabat",
3189:Jerusalem
3100:. Nikol.
2968:cite book
2742:. BRILL.
2499:. BRILL.
2445:. BRILL.
2064:0003-598X
2044:Antiquity
1831:. Orion.
1563:Nabataeus
1554:Nabataîos
1548:romanized
1543:Ναβαταῖος
1534:an-Nabaṭī
1522:al-ʾAnbāṭ
1493:,
1204:north of
1068:Balshamin
1025:Atargatis
1018:Atargatis
819:Seleucids
762:fermented
713:Onomastic
685:in 1812.
675:Himyarite
671:Ghassanid
667:Byzantine
663:Qahtanite
625:Nabataean
545:Cleopatra
253:Euphrates
242:romanized
200:al-ʾAnbāṭ
194:romanized
140:Nabateans
104:Nabataean
70:Languages
3422:Nabataea
3258:(2000).
2784:30 March
2269:. Brill.
1945:(1981).
1491:𐢕𐢃𐢋𐢈
1440:See also
1435:), Italy
1433:Pozzuoli
1383:Obodas (
1329:, temple
1327:Wadi Rum
1317:, temple
1162:Akkadian
1151:Lakhmids
1107:Language
1078:Porphyry
1049:Augustus
954:Al-‘Uzzá
919:Religion
913:Safaitic
886:Language
880:Strabo's
817:and the
709:Dead Sea
659:peasants
557:Athenion
515:Obodas I
429:Damascus
397:Seleucid
373:Aramaean
336:in Petra
248:Nabatēnḗ
237:Ναβατηνή
229:Nabatene
211:and the
95:Religion
81:(native)
3268:Belgium
3176:Sources
2021:(ed.).
1550::
1398:Mamshit
1358:Hegra (
1351:Dumah (
1297:Raqmu (
1202:cistern
1124:Aramaic
976:Mercury
950:Dushara
849:saffron
828:Fashion
780:tandoor
743:bitumen
689:Culture
629:Puteoli
605:on the
553:Canatha
526:talents
334:Ad Deir
289:History
257:Red Sea
255:to the
244::
196::
54:Hadrian
3452:Gilead
3359:online
3327:
3308:
3278:
3264:Leuven
3244:
3218:
3199:
3129:
3104:
3041:
3001:
2956:
2926:
2899:
2861:
2834:
2775:
2746:
2707:
2680:
2650:
2612:
2582:
2503:
2476:
2449:
2422:
2395:
2368:
2341:
2309:
2110:
2085:
2062:
1953:
1925:
1862:
1835:
1808:
1778:
1750:
1694:
1663:
1640:
1617:
1594:
1528:النبطي
1511:Arabic
1506:Nabāṭū
1404:Shivta
1301:) and
1292:Jordan
1165:nabatu
1097:Greece
1072:Obodat
1057:Philip
1053:Actium
1045:Bostra
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