Nansen's Fram expedition

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them only 50 nautical miles (93 km; 58 mi) from Cape Fligely at the northern extremity of Franz Josef Land, if his longitude estimate was accurate. In the warmer weather the ice began to break up, making travel more difficult. Since 24 April dogs had been killed at regular intervals to feed the others, and by the beginning of June only seven of the original 28 remained. On 21 June the pair jettisoned all surplus equipment and supplies, planning to travel light and live off the now plentiful supplies of seal and birds. After a day's travel in this manner they decided to rest on a floe, waterproof the kayaks and build up their own strength for the next stage of their journey. They remained camped on the floe for a whole month.

948:, with a plentiful supply of stones and moss for building materials. They excavated a hole three feet deep, raised walls around it using loose rocks and stones, and stretched walrus skins over the top to form a roof. A chimney was improvised using snow and walrus bones. This shelter, which they called "The Hole", was finally ready on 28 September, and was to be their home for the next eight months. Their situation was uncomfortable, but not life-threatening; there was a plentiful supply of bear, walrus and seal to stock up their larder. The chief enemy was boredom; to pass time they were reduced to reading Nansen's sailing almanac and navigation tables by the light of their blubber lamp, and then reading them again. 522: 40: 815: 853: 937: 385: 20: 1014: 875:

return journey will be quicker than I thought." However, the same diary entry records a mishap that day: both men's watches had stopped. Although Nansen's journal comment is mild, the incident was potentially disastrous. Without the correct time they could not calculate their longitude and thus maintain the correct course to Franz Josef Land. They restarted the watches based on Nansen's guesswork that their longitude was 86°E, but the pair were no longer certain where they were. If they were farther west than Nansen's assumption, they might miss Franz Josef Land altogether, and head for the open Atlantic.

1086: 1152: 725: 3079: 419: 964: 759: 509:, but his technical abilities as a handyman and mechanic impressed Nansen. The oldest man in the party, at 40, was the chief engineer, Anton Amundsen (no relation of Roald). The second engineer, Lars Pettersen, kept his Swedish nationality from Nansen, and although it was soon discovered by his shipmates, he was allowed to remain with the expedition, the only non-Norwegian in the party. The remaining crew members were Peter Henriksen, Bernhard Nordahl and Bernt Bentzen, the last–named joining the expedition in 1215:

had initially dismissed the entire expedition as infeasible, admitted that he had been proved wrong but nevertheless drew attention to "the single blemish"—Nansen's decision to leave his comrades hundreds of miles from land. "It passes comprehension", Greely wrote, "how Nansen could have thus deviated from the most sacred duty devolving on the commander of a naval expedition." Nansen's reputation nevertheless survived; a hundred years after the expedition the British explorer

1183:, declared that the expedition had resolved "the whole problem of Arctic geography". It was now established that the North Pole was located not on land, nor on a permanent ice sheet, but on shifting, unpredictable pack ice. The Arctic Ocean was a deep basin, with no significant land masses north of the Eurasian continent—any hidden expanse of land would have blocked the free movement of ice. Nansen had proved the polar drift theory; furthermore, he had noted the presence of a 236:, which had included three weeks trapped in drifting ice. An expert skier, Nansen was making plans to lead the first crossing of the Greenland icecap, an objective delayed by the demands of his academic studies, but triumphantly achieved in 1888–89. Through these years Nansen remembered the east–west Arctic drift theory and its inherent possibilities for further polar exploration, and shortly after his return from Greenland he was ready to announce his plans. 1025:, Nansen appointed Sverdrup as leader of the rest of the expedition, with orders to continue with the drift towards the Atlantic Ocean unless circumstances warranted abandoning the ship and marching for land. Nansen left precise instructions about keeping up the scientific work, especially the ocean depth soundings and the tests for the thickness of the ice. He concluded: "May we meet in Norway, whether it be on board of this vessel or without her." 433:, with a total sail area of 6,000 square feet (560 m). Its auxiliary engine of 220 horse-power was capable of speeds up to 7 knots (13 km/h; 8.1 mph). However, speed and sailing qualities were secondary to the requirement of providing a safe and warm stronghold for Nansen and his crew during a drift that might extend for several years, so particular attention was paid to the insulation of the living quarters. At around 400 437:, the ship was considerably larger than Nansen had first anticipated, with an overall length of 128 feet (39 m) and a breadth of 36 feet (11 m), a ratio of just over three to one, giving her an unusually stubby appearance. This odd shape was explained by Archer: "A ship that is built with exclusive regard to its suitability for object must differ essentially from any known vessel." On 6 October 1892, at Archer's yard at 844:

mishaps including the loss of the sledgemeter that recorded mileage. However, as the surfaces became uneven and made skiing more difficult, their speeds slowed. A sextant reading on 29 March of 85°56′N indicated that a week's travel had brought them 47 nautical miles (87 km; 54 mi) nearer to the pole, but also showed that their average daily distances were falling. More worryingly, a

1036:, Sverdrup oversaw the repair and overhaul of sledges, and the organisation of provisions should it after all be necessary to abandon ship and march to land. With the arrival of warmer weather as the 1895 summer approached, Sverdrup resumed daily ski practice. Amid these activities a full programme of meteorological, magnetic and oceanographic activities continued under Scott Hansen; 952:

they fashioned themselves simple outer clothing—smocks and trousers—from a discarded sleeping bag, in readiness for the resumption of their journey when the weather grew warmer. On 19 May 1896, after weeks of preparation, they were ready. Nansen left a note in the hut to inform a possible finder: "We are going south west, along the land, to cross over to Spitsbergen".

407:, and had pioneered the design of "double-ended" craft in which the conventional stern was replaced by a point, increasing manoeuvrability. Nansen records that Archer made "plan after plan of the projected ship; one model after another was prepared and abandoned". Finally, agreement was reached on a design, and on 9 June 1891 the two men signed the contract. 956:

their kayaks for the first time since leaving their winter quarters. A week later, Nansen was forced to dive into the icy waters to rescue the kayaks which, still tied together, had drifted away after being carelessly moored. He managed to reach the craft and, with a last effort, to haul himself aboard. Despite his frozen condition he shot and retrieved two

415:, the hardest timber available. The three layers of wood forming the hull provided a combined thickness of between 24 and 28 inches (61 and 71 centimetres), increasing to around 48 inches (1.2 metres) at the bow, which was further protected by a protruding iron stem. Added strength was provided by crossbeams and braces throughout the length of the hull. 1143:; on the way to the reception they passed through a triumphal arch formed by 200 gymnasts. Nansen and his family stayed at the palace as special guests of the king; by contrast, Johansen remained in the background, largely overlooked, and writing that "reality, after all, is not so wonderful as it appeared to me in the midst of our hard life." 861:

Nansen confided in his diary that: "I have become more and more convinced we ought to turn before time." After making camp on 7 April Nansen scouted ahead on snowshoes looking for a path forward, but saw only "a veritable chaos of iceblocks stretching as far as the horizon". He decided that they would go no further north, and would head for

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that Christmas and New Year passed "with the usual hot punch and consequent hangover", and wrote that he was "getting more and more disgusted with drunkenness". By mid-March 1896, the position was 84°25′N, 12°50′E, placing the ship north of Spitsbergen. On 13 June a lead opened and, for the first time in nearly three years,

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Experts were sceptical of all such reports, and Nansen's arrival in Vardø quickly put paid to them. In Vardø, he and Johansen were greeted by Professor Mohn, the originator of the polar drift theory, who was in the town by chance. The pair waited for the weekly mail steamer to take them south, and on

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became a living ship. It was a further two months, on 13 August 1896, before she found open water and, with a blast from her cannon, left the ice behind. She had emerged from the ice just north and west of Spitsbergen, close to Nansen's original prediction, proving him right and his detractors wrong.

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The direction of the drift became northerly, hampering the pair's progress. By 18 April, after 11 days' travel from Farthest North, they had only made 40 nautical miles (74 km; 46 mi) to the south. They now travelled over much more broken terrain with wide open leads of water. On about

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to the pole, though they made no immediate plans. Nansen's first attempts to master dog-driving were an embarrassing failure, but he persevered and gradually achieved better results. He also discovered that the normal cross-country skiing speed was the same as that of dogs pulling loaded sledges. Men

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After the sun disappeared on 25 October the ship was lit by electric lamps from a wind-powered generator. The crew settled down to a comfortable routine in which boredom and inactivity were the main enemies. Men began to irritate each other, and fights sometimes broke out. Nansen attempted to start a

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Nansen wanted the ship in one year; he was eager to get away before anyone else could adopt his ideas and forestall him. The ship's most significant external feature was the roundness of the hull, designed so that there was nothing upon which the ice could get a grip. Bow, stern and keel were rounded

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in London gave £300 (about NOK 6,000). Unfortunately, Nansen had underestimated the financing required—the ship alone would cost more than the total at his disposal. A renewed plea to the Storting produced a further NOK 80,000, and a national appeal raised the grand total to NOK 445,000. According to

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sinking, when ice conditions were right "we shall plough our way in amongst the ice as far as we can." The ship would then drift with the ice towards the pole and eventually reach the sea between Greenland and Spitsbergen. Should the ship founder, a possibility which Nansen thought very unlikely, the

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relics indicated the existence of an ocean current flowing from east to west across the entire Arctic Ocean. The Danish governor of Julianehaab, writing of the find, surmised that an expedition frozen into the Siberian sea might, if its ship were to prove strong enough, cross the polar ocean and land

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continents and the North Pole, and confirmed the general character of the north polar region as a deep, ice-covered sea. Although Nansen retired from exploration after this expedition, the methods of travel and survival he developed with Johansen influenced all the polar expeditions, north and south,

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wondered why Nansen had not returned to the ship when his polar dash was thwarted after a mere three weeks away. "Was he ashamed to go back after so short an absence, or had there been a row ... or did he go off for Franz Josef Land from sensational motives or business reasons?" Adolphus Greely, who

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reached 85°55′N, only 19 nautical miles (35 km; 22 mi) below Nansen's Farthest North mark. From this point on, the drift was generally to the south and west, although progress was for long periods almost imperceptible. Inactivity and boredom led to increased drinking; Scott Hansen recorded

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they ascended a slope and looked about them. It was apparent that they were in an archipelago, but what they could see bore no relation to their incomplete map of Franz Josef Land. They could only continue south in the hopes of finding a geographical feature they could pinpoint with certainty. On 16

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which was due to call that summer. As he approached, Jackson saw "a tall man, wearing a soft felt hat, loosely made, voluminous clothes and long shaggy hair and beard, all reeking with black grease". After a moment's awkward hesitation, Jackson recognised his visitor: "You are Nansen, aren't you?",

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For more than two weeks they followed the shoreline southwards. Nothing they saw seemed to fit with their rudimentary map of Franz Josef Land, and Nansen speculated whether they were in uncharted lands between Franz Josef Land and Spitsbergen. On 4 June a change in conditions allowed them to launch

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followed the line of the ice before stopping in a small bay beyond the 78° mark. On 28 September it became evident that the ice would not break up, and the dogs were moved from the ship to kennels on the ice. On 5 October the rudder was raised to a position of safety and the ship, in Scott Hansen's

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was enthusiastic, deeming it "highly probable that there is a comparatively short and direct route across the Arctic Ocean by way of the North Pole, and that nature herself has supplied a means of communication across it." However, most experienced polar hands were dismissive. The American explorer

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On 13 June walruses attacked and damaged the kayaks, causing another stop for repairs. On 17 June, as they prepared to leave again, Nansen thought he heard a dog bark and went to investigate. He then heard voices, and a few minutes later encountered a human being. It was Frederick Jackson, who had

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On 23 July, the day after leaving the camp, Nansen had the first indisputable glimpse of land. He wrote: "At last the marvel has come to pass—land, land, and after we had almost given up our belief in it!" In the succeeding days the pair struggled towards this land, which seemingly grew no nearer,

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On 3 April, after days of difficult travel, Nansen privately began to wonder if the pole might, after all, be out of reach. Unless the surface improved, their food would not last them to the pole and then on to Franz Josef Land. The next day they calculated their position at a disappointing 86°3';

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for use during the expected water crossings. There were endless trials of special clothing and other gear. Violent and prolonged tremors began to shake the ship on 3 January 1895, and two days later the crew disembarked, expecting the ship to be crushed. Instead the pressure lessened, and the crew

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passed 81°, indicating that the ship's northerly speed was slowly increasing, though it was still barely a mile (1.6 km) a day. With a growing conviction that a sledge journey might be necessary to reach the pole, in September Nansen decreed that everyone would practice skiing for two hours a

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items, along with further finds of driftwood and other debris from Siberia or Alaska that had been identified along the Greenland coast. "Putting all this together," Nansen said, "we are driven to the conclusion that a current flows ... from the Siberian Arctic Sea to the east coast of Greenland,"

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The traditional approach to Arctic exploration had relied on large-scale forces, with a presumption that European techniques could be successfully transplanted into the hostile polar climate. Over the years this strategy had brought little success, and had led to heavy losses of men and ships. By

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Johansen was rescued, and the pair taken to the base at Cape Flora, where they posed for photographs (in one instance re-enacting the Jackson–Nansen meeting) before taking baths and haircuts. Both men seemed in good health, despite their ordeal; Nansen had put on 21 pounds (9.5 kg) in weight

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At Christmas the pair celebrated with chocolate and bread from their sledging rations. On New Year's Eve Johansen recorded that Nansen finally adopted the familiar form of address, having until then maintained formalities ("Mr Johansen", "Professor Nansen") throughout the journey. In the New Year

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The latitude calculated on 9 May, 84°3′N, was disappointing—Nansen had hoped they were farther south. However, as May progressed they began to see bear tracks, and by the end of the month seals, gulls and whales were plentiful. By Nansen's calculations, they had reached 82°21′N on 31 May, placing

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Nansen supervised the construction of a vessel with a rounded hull and other features designed to withstand prolonged pressure from ice. The ship was rarely threatened during her long imprisonment, and emerged unscathed after three years. The scientific observations carried out during this period

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The change of direction to south-west provided much better travelling conditions, probably because the course to Franz Josef Land was broadly parallel to the lines of disturbance in the ice instead of perpendicular to them. Progress was swift: "If this goes on," Nansen recorded on 13 April, "the

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reading that day suggested that they were at only 85°15′N, and they had no means of knowing which of the readings was correct. They realised that they were fighting a southerly drift, and that distances travelled did not necessarily equate to northerly progression. Johansen's diary indicated his

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On 14 March, with the ship at 84°4′N, the pair finally began their polar march. This was their third attempt to leave the ship; on 26 February and again on the 28th, damage to sledges had forced them to return after travelling short distances. After these mishaps Nansen thoroughly overhauled his

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break through this deadness, this inertia, and find some outlet for my energies." And later: "Can't something happen? Could not a hurricane come and tear up this ice?" Only after the turn of the year, in January 1894, did the northerly direction become generally settled. The 80° mark was finally

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Throughout the expedition Nansen continued to experiment with equipment and techniques, altering the designs of skis and sledges and investigating types of clothing, tents and cooking apparatus, thereby revolutionising methods of Arctic travel. In the era of polar exploration which followed his

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observation showed that the pair had travelled 65 nautical miles (120 km; 75 mi) towards the pole at a daily average of over nine nautical miles (17 km; 10 mi). This had been achieved despite very low temperatures, typically around −40 °F (−40 °C), and small scale

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for 1922, in recognition of his work on behalf of refugees. Hjalmar Johansen never settled back into normal life. After years of drifting, debt and drunkenness he was given the opportunity, through Nansen's influence, to join Roald Amundsen's South Pole expedition in 1910. Johansen quarreled

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although by the end of July they could hear the distant sound of breaking surf. On 4 August they survived a polar bear attack; two days later they reached the edge of the ice, and only water lay between them and the land. On 6 August they shot the last two dogs, converted the kayaks into a

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probably passing across the Pole. It seemed that the obvious thing to do was "to make our way into the current on that side of the Pole where it flows northward, and by its help to penetrate into those regions which all who have hitherto worked against have sought in vain to reach."

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August Nansen tentatively identified a headland as Cape Felder, marked on Payer's maps as on the western coast of Franz Josef Land. Nansen's objective was now to reach a hut with supplies at a location known as Eira Harbour, at the southern end of the islands. An expedition led by

1244:, and in 1898 took the ship, with a new crew, to the Canadian Arctic for four years' exploration. In later years Sverdrup helped to raise funds that enabled the ship to be restored and housed in a permanent museum. He died in November 1930, seven months after Nansen's death. 745:

Based on the uncertain direction and slow speed of the drift, Nansen calculated that it might take the ship five years to reach the pole. In January 1894 he had first discussed with both Henriksen and Johansen the possibility of making a sledge journey with the dogs, from

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equipment, minimised the travelling stores, recalculated weights and reduced the convoy to three sledges, before giving the order to start again. A supporting party accompanied the pair and shared the first night's camp. The next day, Nansen and Johansen skied on alone.

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On 17 February 1895 Nansen began a farewell letter to his wife, Eva, writing that should he come to grief "you will know that your image will be the last I see." He was also reading everything he could about Franz Josef Land, his intended destination after the pole. The

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in 1897, and to a full professorship in oceanography in 1908. He became independently wealthy as a result of the publication of his expedition account; in his later career he served the newly independent kingdom of Norway in different capacities, and was awarded the

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The pair initially traveled mainly over flat snowfields. Nansen had allowed 50 days to cover the 356 nautical miles (660 km; 410 mi) to the pole, requiring an average daily journey of seven nautical miles (13 km; 8.1 mi). On 22 March a

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had constructed it in 1881. However, contrary winds and loose ice made further progress in the kayak hazardous, and on 28 August Nansen decided that, with another polar winter drawing near, they should stay where they were and await the following spring.

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called it "an illogical scheme of self-destruction"; his assistant, Lieutenant David Brainerd, called it "one of the most ill-advised schemes ever embarked on", and predicted that it would end in disaster. Sir Allen Young, a veteran of the searches for

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since the start of the expedition, and Johansen 13 pounds (5.9 kg). In honour of his rescuer, Nansen named the island where he had wintered "Frederick Jackson Island". For the next six weeks Nansen had little to do but await the arrival of

1191:, who later became the leading oceanographer of his time. From its programme of scientific observation the expedition provided the first detailed oceanographic information from the area; in due course the scientific data gathered during the 997:, worrying that he might have to spend the winter at Cape Flora, and sometimes regretting that he and Johansen had not pressed on to Spitsbergen. Johansen noted in his journal that Nansen had changed from the overbearing personality of the 667:, the most northerly point of the Eurasian continental mass. Heavy ice slowed the expedition's progress, and at the end of August it was held up for four days while the ship's boiler was repaired and cleaned. The crew also experienced the 712:

had her first experience of ice pressure. Archer's design was quickly vindicated as the ship rose and fell, the ice being unable to grip the hull. Otherwise the first weeks in the ice were disappointing, as the unpredictable drift moved

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finally arrived in Christiania on 9 September, escorted into the harbour by a squadron of warships and welcomed by thousands—the largest crowds the city had ever seen, according to Huntford. Nansen and his crew were received by

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newspaper, but the project soon fizzled out through lack of interest. Small tasks were undertaken and scientific observations maintained, but there was no urgency. Nansen expressed his frustration in his journal: "I feel I

984:, the southernmost island of the archipelago. Jackson's own account records that his first reaction to this sudden meeting was to assume the figure to be a shipwrecked sailor, perhaps from the expedition's supply ship 671:

phenomenon, where a ship's forward progress is impeded by energy dissipation caused by a layer of fresh water lying on top of heavier salt water. On 9 September a wide stretch of ice-free water opened up, and next day

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For his Greenland expedition of 1888–89 Nansen had departed from the traditional dependence on large-scale personnel, ships and backup, relying instead on a small well-trained group. Using the same principle for the

193:, before being crushed and sunk on 13 June 1881. Her crew escaped in boats and made for the Siberian coast; most, including De Long, subsequently perished either during the boat journey or in the wastelands of the 782:, and then cross to Spitsbergen where they hoped to find a ship to take them home. Three days later Nansen asked Hjalmar Johansen, the most experienced dog-driver among the crew, to join him on the polar journey. 1199:

return, explorers routinely sought Nansen's advice as to methods and equipment—although sometimes they chose not to follow it, usually to their cost. According to Huntford, the South Pole heroes Amundsen,

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in Franz Josef Land. Nansen recorded the latitude of their final northerly camp as 86°13.6′N, almost three degrees (169.6 nautical miles or 314.1 kilometres) beyond Greely's previous Farthest North mark.

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return to Christiania in August 1896. Back row, l. to r.: Blessing, Nordhal, Mogstad, Henriksen, Pettersen, Johansen. Seated: Bentzen, Scott Hansen, Sverdrup, Amundsen (with dog), Jacobsen, Nansen, Juell

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day. On 16 November he revealed his intention to the crew: he and one companion would leave the ship and start for the pole when the 83° mark was passed. After reaching the pole the pair would make for

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moved north and east towards the New Siberian Islands. Nansen's hope was to find open water to 80° north latitude and then enter the pack; however, on 20 September ice was sighted just south of 78°.

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violently with Amundsen at the expedition's base camp, and was omitted from the South Pole party. He died by suicide within a year of his return from Antarctica. Otto Sverdrup remained as captain of

265:(then called Christiania). After drawing attention to the failures of the many expeditions which had approached the North Pole from the west, he considered the implications of the discovery of the 1047:

gave successive depths of 6,000 feet (1,800 m), 9,000 and 12,000 feet (2,700 and 3,700 m), a progression which indicated that no undiscovered land mass was nearby. On 15 November 1895

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off, and the sides smoothed so that, in Nansen's words, the vessel would "slip like an eel out of the embraces of the ice". To give exceptional strength the hull was sheathed in South American

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on the southwest coast of Greenland. These items, frozen into the drifting ice, included clothing bearing crew members' names and documents signed by De Long; they were indisputably genuine.

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finally arrived; on 7 August, with Nansen and Johansen aboard, she sailed south and on 13 August reached Vardø. A batch of telegrams was sent, informing the world of Nansen's safe return.

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Nansen's plan required a small, strong and manoeuvrable ship, powered by sail and an engine, capable of carrying fuel and provisions for twelve men for five years. The vessel would follow

831:, and was incompletely mapped. It was, however, apparently the home of countless bears and seals, and Nansen saw it as an excellent food source on his return journey to civilization. 121:. The wreckage had obviously been carried across the polar ocean, perhaps across the pole itself. Based on this and other debris recovered from the Greenland coast, the meteorologist 305:, did not believe that a ship could be built to withstand the crushing pressure of the ice: "If there is no swell the ice must go through her, whatever material she is made of." Sir 5975: 286:

Expedition had had sufficient provisions, and had remained on the ice-floe on which the relics were found, the result would doubtless have been very different from what it was."

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left Christiania on 24 June 1893, seen on her way by a cannon salute from the fort and the cheers of thousands of well-wishers. This was the first of a series of farewells as

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reached 86°34′N, having left Franz Josef Land with dogs and sledges on 11 March. The party barely made it back; one of their support groups of three men vanished entirely.

84:, and waited for the drift to carry her towards the pole. Impatient with the slow speed and erratic character of the drift, after 18 months Nansen and a chosen companion, 1131:, south of Hammerfest, and was now continuing with her to Tromsø. The next day, Nansen and Johansen sailed into Tromsø and joined their comrades in an emotional reunion. 751:

could travel under their own power, skiing, rather than riding on the sledge, and loads could be correspondingly increased. This, according to biographer and historian

489:, took charge of meteorological and magnetic observations. The ship's doctor, and the expedition's botanist, was Henrik Blessing, who graduated in medicine just before 1074: 818:

Nansen and Johansen finally depart on their polar journey, 14 March 1895. Nansen is the tall figure, second from left; Johansen is standing second from right.

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After days of celebration and recuperation the ship left Tromsø on 26 August. The voyage south was a triumphal procession, with receptions at every port.

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while completing his doctoral studies. Nansen was already captivated by the frozen north; two years earlier he had experienced a four-month voyage on the

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voyage, Nansen chose a party of just twelve from the thousands of applications that poured in from all over the world. One applicant was the 20-year-old

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failing spirits: "My fingers are all destroyed. All mittens are frozen stiff ... It is becoming worse and worse ... God knows what will happen to us".

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In the course of the expedition, rumours circulated that Nansen had reached the North Pole, the first as early as April 1894, in the French Newspaper

554: Nansen and Johansen's march to Farthest North, 86°13.6′N, and subsequent retreat to Cape Flora in Franz Josef Land, March 1895 – June 1896 317:

called Nansen's project "the most adventurous programme ever brought under the notice of the Royal Geographical Society". The Swedish philanthropist

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driving the ice to the right of the wind direction, due to the effect of the Earth's rotation. This discovery would be developed by Nansen's pupil,

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had entered the ice. Johansen carved his and Nansen's initials on it, with the latitude and date. A day or two later they spotted the tracks of an

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20 April they were cheered by the sight of a large piece of driftwood stuck in a floe, the first object from the outside world they had seen since

403:, Norway's leading shipbuilder and naval architect. Archer was well known for a particular hull design that combined seaworthiness with a shallow 329:

in 1878–79, was sufficiently impressed to offer to meet Nansen's costs. With Norwegian nationalism on the rise, however, this gesture from their

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The hut on Franz Josef Land, covered in snow, in which Nansen and Johansen spent the winter of 1895–96. A drawing, based on Nansen's photograph.

501:, the only position by then available. Likewise Adolf Juell, with 20 years' experience at sea as mate and captain, took the post of cook on the 1352: 1175:

Although it did not achieve the objective of reaching the North Pole, the expedition made major geographical and scientific discoveries. Sir

1103:. In September 1895 Eva Nansen was informed that messages signed by Nansen had been discovered, "sent from the North Pole". In February 1896 616:

arrived on 18 July. After the final provisions were taken on board, Nansen, Sverdrup, Hansen and Blessing spent their last hours ashore in a

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Nansen gave no explanation of this decision, beyond stating that the shorter route was safer and would enable an earlier start to the drift.

477:, an experienced sailor who had taken part in the Greenland crossing. Theodore Jacobsen, who had experience in the Arctic as skipper of a 5137: 3460: 538:

route eastward from Vardø along the Siberian coast, turning north at the New Siberian Islands to enter the pack ice, July–September 1893

6581: 4098: 353:), Nansen was awarded a grant of NOK 200,000; the balance was raised from private contributions which included 20,000 kroner from 6874: 1247:

Nansen's farthest north record lasted for just over five years. On 24 April 1900 a party of three from an Italian expedition led by

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Nansen's speech ended with a peroration: "May Norwegians show the way! May it be the Norwegian flag that first flies over our Pole!

1248: 1111:, in Siberia, from a supposed Nansen agent, claiming that Nansen had reached the pole and found land there. Charles P. Daly of the 209: 3741: 7029: 6093: 5099: 3512: 6769: 6759: 333:

provoked hostility in the Norwegian press; Nansen decided to rely solely on Norwegian support, and declined Dickson's proposal.

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in South Greenland. These theories were read with interest by the 23-year-old Fridtjof Nansen, then working as a curator at the

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expertise in his methods of travel, had ensured that his expedition was completed without a single casualty or major mishap.

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was preying on Nansen's mind; however, on 20 August he received news that Sverdrup had brought the ship to the tiny port of

7095: 4428: 3391: 3289: 3260: 497:, an army reserve lieutenant and dog-driving expert, was so determined to join the expedition that he agreed to sign on as 5293: 129:, which led Nansen to believe that a specially designed ship could be frozen in the pack ice and follow the same track as 7105: 6376: 6057: 5879: 5769: 5538: 4127: 4076: 5827: 5408: 5347: 2699: 313:

in 1839–43, was of the same opinion, and thought the risks were not worth taking. However, the equally experienced Sir

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and then to the North Russian settlement of Khabarova where the first batch of dogs was brought on board. On 3 August

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route to the New Siberian Islands by way of the Bering Strait, he would make a shorter journey, taking Nordenskiöld's

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the next day. Few ships had sailed the Kara Sea before, and charts were incomplete. On 18 August, in the area of the

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organised his own expedition to Franz Josef Land after being rejected by Nansen, and had based his headquarters at

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As the base for their winter quarters, Nansen and Johansen found a beach in a sheltered cove on what is now called

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drift in the ice from the New Siberian Islands north and west to Spitsbergen, September 1893 – August 1896

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days, and was now subdued and polite, adamant that he would never undertake such a journey again. On 26 July

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The Arctic Ocean, showing a theoretical course of a drift from the New Siberian Islands to the Atlantic Ocean

145:

drift and Nansen's sledge journey proved conclusively that there were no significant land masses between the

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went back on board and resumed preparations for Nansen's journey. After the excitement it was noted that

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applied, but Nansen wanted only Norwegians, so Jackson organised his own expedition to Franz Josef Land.

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Nansen's status was never seriously challenged, although he did not escape criticism. American explorer

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Exploration, Celebrity, and the Making of a Transnational Hero: Fridtjof Nansen and the Fram Expedition

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voyage "one of the most inspiring examples of courageous intelligence in the history of exploration".

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called this "startling news" and, "if true, the most important discovery that has been made in ages."

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Before the start of the voyage Nansen decided to deviate from his original plan: instead of following

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party would camp on a floe and allow itself to be carried towards safety. Nansen observed: "If the

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from Tromsø. Sverdrup rowed across for news, and learned that nothing had been heard from Nansen.

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Nansen's own account, he made up the remaining deficiency from his own resources. His biographer

322: 126: 466:, future conqueror of the South Pole, whose mother stopped him from going. The English explorer 7014: 6804: 6450: 6016: 3948: 434: 5283: 7060: 6909: 6884: 6854: 6455: 6424: 6229: 6182: 6081: 5885: 5804: 5747: 5496: 5490: 5340: 5298: 5260: 5240: 4835: 4610: 4446: 4356: 4338: 4255: 4226: 4216: 4104: 4041: 3815: 3252: 1332:

Nansen was prepared to admit the possibility of undiscovered land on the North American side.

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Nansen's original opinion had been that 170 gross register tonnage would be sufficient.

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The crew spent the following months preparing for the forthcoming dash for the pole. On the

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voyage was Nansen's final expedition. He was appointed to a research professorship at the

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in northern Norway, where Nansen and Johansen returned to Norwegian soil on 13 August 1896

8: 6693: 6430: 6352: 5817: 5740: 5656: 5437: 5429: 5378: 5018: 4976: 4471: 4434: 4323: 4087: 3957: 3760: 3565: 1200: 856:

Artist's impression of Nansen and Johansen's northernmost camp, 86°13.6′N on 7 April 1895

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in gyratory fashion, sometimes north, sometimes south; by 19 November, after six weeks,

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words, was "well and truly moored for the winter". The position was 78°49′N, 132°53′E.

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Nansen called this first land "Hvidtenland" ("White Island"). After making camp on an

902:

showing the route of Nansen and Johansen through the islands, August 1895 to June 1896

70:. In the face of much discouragement from other polar explorers, Nansen took his ship 6954: 6939: 6523: 6329: 6323: 6279: 6264: 6193: 6165: 6073: 6010: 5920: 5892: 5872: 5810: 5718: 5682: 5556: 5523: 5516: 5469: 5451: 5368: 5117: 4986: 4934: 4840: 4793: 4721: 4710: 4422: 4412: 4404: 4300: 4290: 4201: 4196: 4179: 4145: 4012: 3999: 3820: 3726: 3684: 3679: 3469: 3361: 3342: 3320: 3237: 3202: 3180: 3161: 3100: 3065: 3040: 1236: 1204: 981: 968: 894: 182: 92:

and sledges and made for the pole. They did not reach it, but they achieved a record

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records that the final deficit of NOK 12,000 was cleared by two wealthy supporters,

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latitude of 86°13.6′N before a long retreat over ice and water to reach safety in

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Nansen's original estimate for the total cost of the expedition was 300,000

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stoker and dog-driving expert, Nansen's chosen companion for the North Pole dash

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To captain the ship and act as the expedition's second-in-command Nansen chose

463: 404: 249: 93: 3390: 3131:"Dr. Nansen's Arctic trip: has nature supplied a route around the North Pole?" 1534: 7079: 6989: 6979: 6964: 6864: 6844: 6834: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6636: 6626: 6616: 6467: 6409: 6404: 6394: 6344: 6339: 6315: 6259: 6136: 6130: 6125: 5724: 5635: 5628: 5383: 5178: 5157: 5025: 4803: 4773: 4741: 4736: 4573: 4479: 4362: 4157: 3970: 3920: 3913: 3905: 3810: 3719: 3554: 3153: 3032: 1216: 1044: 1040:

had become a moving oceanographic, meteorological and biological laboratory.

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that would facilitate fast travel over rough sea ice terrain and constructed

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The idea for the expedition had arisen after items from the American vessel

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continued to drift westward, finally emerging in the North Atlantic Ocean.

67: 33: 1028:

Sverdrup's main task now was to keep his crew busy. He ordered a thorough

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contrast, Nansen's method of using small, trained crews, and harnessing

560: Nansen and Johansen's return to Vardø from Cape Flora, August 1896 141:, which subsequently became the main focus of Nansen's scientific work. 7034: 6334: 6237: 6221: 6063: 5996: 5897: 5306: 5255: 5215: 4537: 4263: 4191: 4133: 3526: 3494: 1120: 977: 884: 845: 681: 676:

rounded Cape Chelyuskin—the second ship to do so, after Nordenskiöld's

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in 1881, were discovered three years later off the south-west coast of

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route to the New Siberian Islands, and in the approximate position of

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called briefly at Spitsbergen, where the Swedish explorer-engineer

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were all that was available to Nansen at the start of his journey.

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Farthest North record of 83°24, and on 8 January was at 83°34′N.

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Shipwreck at Cape Flora: The Expeditions of Benjamin Leigh Smith

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on 1 July (where there was a great banquet in Nansen's honour),

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appeared on the opposite side of the world, in the vicinity of

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by lashing sledges and skis across them, and raised a sail.

721:

was south of the latitude at which she had entered the ice.

691:, where a second batch of dogs was waiting to be picked up, 687:

After being prevented by ice from reaching the mouth of the

16:

1893–1896 attempt by Fridtjof Nansen to reach the North Pole

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weighed anchor and moved cautiously eastward, entering the

262: 43:

Period map showing the regions traversed by the expedition

2909: 2743: 2741: 2151: 2139: 2127: 2009: 2007: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1727: 1725: 1647: 1645: 1294:, the next ship purpose-built for polar exploration after 2831: 2804: 2559: 2547: 2525: 2523: 1864: 1774: 1681: 1657: 1618: 1567: 1543: 1489: 1474: 2726: 2655: 2619: 2595: 2397: 2361: 2262: 2238: 2226: 1462: 1390: 5252: 2993: 2957: 2870: 2860: 2858: 2738: 2689: 2687: 2508: 2496: 2484: 2457: 2445: 2385: 2349: 2337: 2313: 2301: 2175: 2163: 2079: 2055: 2031: 2004: 1992: 1968: 1917: 1900: 1876: 1852: 1840: 1801: 1722: 1642: 1579: 2821: 2819: 2535: 2520: 2067: 1934: 1932: 1813: 1750: 1698: 1298:, had a length-to-beam ratio of more than five to one. 3113: 2945: 2899: 2897: 2474: 2472: 2279: 2277: 2204: 2202: 1830: 1828: 1608: 1606: 1450: 1420: 1378: 1123:

to an enthusiastic reception. The lack of news about

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sailed round the coast and moved northward, reaching

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delta, an uncharted island was discovered and named

620:, being beaten with birch twigs by two young girls. 608:, a week later. The last Norwegian port of call was 2969: 2882: 2816: 2643: 2631: 2583: 2421: 2409: 2373: 2325: 2289: 2250: 2214: 2187: 2115: 2091: 2043: 1956: 1944: 1929: 1789: 1669: 1630: 1366: 257:In February 1890 Nansen addressed a meeting of the 137:contributed significantly to the new discipline of 66:by harnessing the natural east–west current of the 3229: 2894: 2672: 2469: 2274: 2199: 1980: 1825: 1762: 1603: 1591: 133:wreckage, thus reaching the vicinity of the pole. 1710: 1555: 1516: 1438: 1353:"Popular Science Monthly, Volume 57, August 1900" 7077: 2780: 2770: 2768: 1043:As the drift proceeded the ocean became deeper; 1017:A lead of water opens in front of Fram, May 1896 150:which followed in the subsequent three decades. 80:in the eastern Arctic Ocean, froze her into the 3017:"History of Geology: Fridtjof Nansen 1861–1930" 769:On 19 May, two days after the celebrations for 3253:"Nansen and the Drift of the Fram (1893–1896)" 869: 570:voyage from Spitsbergen to Tromsø, August 1896 345:. After giving a passionate speech before the 6575: 3454: 3115:"Fridtjof Nansen: The Nobel Peace Prize 1922" 2765: 1073:was preparing for the balloon flight that he 3374: 2837: 289:When Nansen's plans became public knowledge 1195:voyage would run to six published volumes. 1146: 989:and received the reply "Yes, I am Nansen." 623:The first leg of the journey eastward took 445:after a brief ceremony. The ship was named 392:, as agreed between Nansen and shipbuilder 6582: 6568: 3461: 3447: 399:To design and build his ship Nansen chose 441:, the ship was launched by Nansen's wife 370:and an English expatriate, Charles Dick. 181:for Arctic exploration, and commanded by 6519:Pole of Inaccessibility research station 1150: 1084: 1080: 1012: 962: 935: 893: 851: 813: 757: 723: 520: 505:voyage. Ivar Mogstad was an official at 417: 383: 248: 210:Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters 157: 113:, which had sunk off the north coast of 38: 18: 6094:Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition 3333: 3284:. London: Archibald Constable & Co. 2876: 1254: 1057:Later that same day a ship was sighted— 1008: 342: 7078: 6665:Austro-Hungarian North Pole expedition 3250: 2825: 703: 429:The ship was rigged as a three-masted 422:Colin Archer, designer and builder of 197:delta. Three years later, relics from 6563: 5238: 3480: 3468: 3442: 3053: 2439: 809: 588:along the northern coast of Siberia. 575: 165:at the time of his Greenland crossing 6589: 3261:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 3193: 2987: 2939: 2927: 2864: 2759: 2732: 2693: 2666: 2625: 2601: 2514: 2502: 2490: 2463: 2451: 2427: 2415: 2391: 2379: 2355: 2343: 2331: 2319: 2307: 2295: 2256: 2220: 2193: 2181: 2169: 2121: 2097: 2085: 2061: 2049: 2037: 2013: 1974: 1962: 1950: 1938: 1923: 1911: 1882: 1858: 1846: 1807: 1795: 1731: 1675: 1651: 1636: 1585: 1444: 1432: 485:mate, and a young naval lieutenant, 185:, entered the pack ice north of the 5880:Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition 4077:Norse colonization of North America 3355: 3341:. London: Bloomsbury Publications. 3314: 3236:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3215: 3174: 3152: 3094: 3085: 2999: 2975: 2963: 2951: 2903: 2888: 2747: 2649: 2637: 2589: 2541: 2529: 2478: 2283: 2208: 2073: 1986: 1834: 1768: 1756: 1716: 1612: 1597: 1384: 1372: 1290:By way of comparison, Scott's ship 604:on 5 July and Tromsø, north of the 303:Sir John Franklin's lost expedition 54:of 1893–1896 was an attempt by the 13: 5409:United States Exploring Expedition 3417: 3274: 3160:. London: Hodder & Stoughton. 3031: 2915: 2849: 2810: 2798: 2720: 2678: 2613: 2577: 2565: 2553: 2403: 2367: 2268: 2244: 2232: 2157: 2145: 2133: 2109: 2025: 1998: 1894: 1870: 1819: 1783: 1744: 1704: 1692: 1663: 1624: 1573: 1561: 1549: 1522: 1495: 1483: 1468: 1456: 1399: 960:as he paddled the catamaran back. 355:King Oscar II of Norway and Sweden 208:In a lecture given in 1884 to the 14: 7122: 6483:Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station 5851:Australasian Antarctic Expedition 3257:Beaufort Gyre Exploration Project 3227: 2786: 220:, argued that the finding of the 6684:Baldwin-Ziegler Polar Expedition 6377:Amundsen's South Pole expedition 5770:Amundsen's South Pole expedition 3281:Farthest North, Volumes I and II 3077: 3054:Capelotti, Peter Joseph (2013). 3014: 2774: 1326: 1075:hoped would take him to the pole 931: 525:Routes taken during the 1893–96 216:, one of the founders of modern 3179:. London: Robinson Publishing. 3099:. London: Granta Publications. 1737: 1310: 1301: 1284: 1275: 1266: 827:had been discovered in 1873 by 239: 88:, left the ship with a team of 3360:. London: Chatham Publishing. 3319:. London: Constable & Co. 2709:, "Nansen's North Pole Search" 1345: 967:The Nansen–Jackson meeting at 388:Section and Plan drawings for 259:Norwegian Geographical Society 32:on 2 July 1893, bound for the 1: 6679:Jackson–Harmsworth expedition 5756:Japanese Antarctic Expedition 5691:Scottish Antarctic Expedition 5239: 3429:The Journal of Modern History 2112:, pp. 511, 518, Vol. II. 1113:American Geographical Society 765:, held in the ice, March 1894 153: 6647:Russian Arctic National Park 6113:Soviet Antarctic Expeditions 5929:Shackleton–Rowett Expedition 5735:French Antarctic Expeditions 5665:Swedish Antarctic Expedition 5551:Belgian Antarctic Expedition 3669:Lady Franklin Bay Expedition 3423:Jones, Max (1 March 2021). " 3358:The Voyages of the Discovery 3290:"Nansen's North Pole Search" 3175:Holland, Clive, ed. (1994). 3088:Sverdrup's Arctic Adventures 3039:. New York: Viking Penguin. 2801:, pp. 631–637, Vol. II. 2723:, pp. 506–507, Vol. II. 2580:, pp. 490–492, Vol. II. 1511:, "Dr. Nansen's Arctic trip" 1207:were all Nansen's acolytes. 507:Gaustad psychiatric hospital 309:, who had sailed south with 7: 7096:History of Franz Josef Land 5198:Nuclear-powered icebreakers 4877:Austro-Hungarian Expedition 3742:Andrée's balloon expedition 3223:. London: G. Bell and Sons. 3062:University of Calgary Press 2028:, pp. 248–250, Vol. I. 1897:, pp. 142–143, Vol. I. 870:Retreat to Franz Josef Land 659:was now moving towards the 10: 7127: 7106:19th century in the Arctic 4399:Franklin's lost expedition 4099:Christian IV's expeditions 3481: 3090:. London: Longmans, Green. 3019:. Emporia State University 3008: 2852:, pp. 12–13, Vol. II. 2616:, pp. 73–78, Vol. II. 2160:, pp. 88–90, Vol. II. 2148:, pp. 83–85, Vol. II. 2136:, pp. 79–80, Vol. II. 1538:, "Will Nansen Come Back?" 1181:Royal Geographical Society 1021:Before his departure from 377: 359:Royal Geographical Society 336: 62:to reach the geographical 7056:Ernst Krenkel Observatory 7048: 6712: 6655: 6597: 6216: 5947: 5534: 5274: 5251: 5247: 5234: 4753:Great Northern Expedition 4647: 4429:Rae–Richardson expedition 4178: 4023: 3629:British Arctic Expedition 3521: 3493: 3489: 3476: 3378:. Encyclopædia Britannica 3221:The Lure of Unknown Lands 2918:, pp. 52–53, Vol. I. 1873:, pp. 82–97, Vol. I. 1786:, pp. 78–81, Vol. I. 1695:, pp. 62–68, Vol. I. 1666:, pp. 59–60, Vol. I. 1627:, pp. 54–57, Vol. I. 1576:, pp. 47–48, Vol. I. 1552:, pp. 42–45, Vol. I. 1498:, pp. 32–33, Vol. I. 1486:, pp. 30–31, Vol. I. 1471:, pp. 15–29, Vol. I. 1421:The Nobel Foundation 1922 1402:, pp. 17–22, Vol. I. 1232:University of Christiania 1179:, president of Britain's 1155:Expedition members after 516: 177:gunboat converted by the 6689:Ziegler Polar expedition 6037:British Antarctic Survey 6031:Captain Arturo Prat Base 5276:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 3392:"Will Nansen Come Back?" 3095:Fleming, Fergus (2002). 1147:Assessment and aftermath 680:in 1878—and entered the 7091:Expeditions from Norway 6513:Pole of inaccessibility 6176:Antarctic Treaty System 4517:2nd Grinnell expedition 3412:(subscription required) 3315:Preston, Diana (1997). 3310:(subscription required) 3015:Aber, James A. (2006). 2942:, pp. 560 and 571. 2813:, p. 633, Vol. II. 2568:, p. 476, Vol. II. 2556:, p. 468, Vol. II. 2406:, p. 298, Vol. II. 2370:, p. 276, Vol. II. 2271:, p. 145, Vol. II. 2247:, p. 142, Vol. II. 2235:, p. 127, Vol. II. 1249:the Duke of the Abruzzi 452: 373: 244: 3086:Fairley, T.C. (1959). 2001:, p. 378, Vol. I. 1321:Leigh Smith's 1881 map 1160: 1094: 1018: 972: 941: 903: 857: 819: 766: 733: 572: 513:at very short notice. 435:gross register tonnage 426: 396: 254: 166: 125:developed a theory of 44: 36: 6183:Transglobe Expedition 6082:Operation Deep Freeze 5491:Challenger expedition 4357:Coppermine expedition 3878:Drifting ice stations 3356:Savours, Ann (2001). 1822:, p. 31, Vol. I. 1747:, p. 60, Vol. I. 1707:, p. 69, Vol. I. 1459:, p. 15, Vol. I. 1154: 1119:18 August arrived in 1088: 1081:Reunion and reception 1016: 966: 939: 897: 855: 817: 771:Norway's National Day 761: 727: 524: 449:, meaning "Forward". 421: 387: 252: 161: 42: 22: 7015:Wiener Neustadt 6632:Cape Mary Harmsworth 3317:A First Rate Tragedy 3232:The Last Great Quest 3158:The Noose of Laurels 3097:Ninety Degrees North 1255:Notes and references 1107:ran a dispatch from 1009:Drift (second phase) 925:Benjamin Leigh Smith 742:passed on 22 March. 347:Parliament of Norway 331:union partner Sweden 191:New Siberian Islands 78:New Siberian Islands 6855:Hochstetter Islands 6353:South magnetic pole 5019:Brusilov expedition 4128:Danish colonization 3566:North magnetic pole 3228:Jones, Max (2003). 3002:, pp. 316–332. 2966:, pp. 293–295. 2750:, pp. 264–265. 2735:, pp. 435–436. 2669:, pp. 423–428. 2628:, pp. 315–319. 2604:, pp. 433–434. 2544:, pp. 165–166. 2532:, pp. 261–262. 2517:, pp. 410–412. 2505:, pp. 403–404. 2493:, pp. 397–398. 2466:, pp. 378–383. 2454:, pp. 375–379. 2394:, pp. 365–368. 2358:, pp. 346–351. 2346:, pp. 343–346. 2322:, pp. 334–336. 2310:, pp. 333–334. 2184:, pp. 308–313. 2172:, pp. 302–307. 2088:, pp. 275–278. 2076:, pp. 246–247. 2064:, pp. 268–269. 2040:, pp. 260–261. 2016:, pp. 257–258. 1977:, pp. 247–252. 1926:, pp. 238–239. 1914:, pp. 234–237. 1885:, pp. 225–233. 1861:, pp. 222–223. 1849:, pp. 206–207. 1810:, pp. 221–222. 1759:, pp. 237–238. 1734:, pp. 192–197. 1654:, pp. 183–184. 1588:, pp. 180–182. 1387:, pp. 218–229. 802:had drifted beyond 704:Drift (first phase) 487:Sigurd Scott Hansen 325:'s conquest of the 321:, who had financed 169:In September 1879, 7086:Arctic expeditions 6985:Royal Society 6642:Queen Victoria Sea 6044:Operation Windmill 6025:Operation Highjump 5000:Rusanov expedition 4905:A. E. Nordenskiöld 4649:North East Passage 4453:McClure expedition 3376:"V. Walfrid Ekman" 3251:Krishfield, Rick. 3217:Jackson, Frederick 3201:. London: Abacus. 3140:. 13 November 1892 1743:Archer, quoted in 1189:Vagn Walfrid Ekman 1161: 1105:The New York Times 1095: 1019: 973: 942: 904: 858: 820: 810:March for the Pole 789:model, they built 767: 734: 728:Hjalmar Johansen, 586:North-East Passage 576:Journey to the ice 573: 427: 397: 327:North-East Passage 323:Baron Nordenskiöld 315:Leopold McClintock 292:The New York Times 255: 167: 45: 37: 7069: 7068: 6805:Etheridge Islands 6557: 6556: 6553: 6552: 6549: 6548: 6011:Operation Tabarin 5873:Far Eastern Party 5719:Nimrod Expedition 5230: 5229: 5226: 5225: 4789:M. Pronchishcheva 4711:Siberian Cossacks 4180:Northwest Passage 3513:Research stations 3470:Polar exploration 3367:978-1-86176-149-1 3348:978-0-7475-7253-4 3335:Riffenburgh, Beau 3326:978-0-09-479530-3 3243:978-0-19-280483-9 3208:978-0-349-11492-7 3186:978-1-84119-099-0 3167:978-0-340-41276-3 3106:978-1-86207-535-1 3071:978-1-55238-705-4 3046:978-0-670-82491-5 2954:, pp. 12–16. 1435:, pp. 21–27. 1375:, pp. 89–95. 1237:Nobel Peace Prize 1205:Ernest Shackleton 982:Northbrook Island 468:Frederick Jackson 183:George W. De Long 7118: 7111:1890s in science 6905:La Ronciere 6785:Brownian Islands 6591:Franz Josef Land 6584: 6577: 6570: 6561: 6560: 6058:Ronne Expedition 5543: 5537: 5401:Dumont d'Urville 5249: 5248: 5236: 5235: 4784:V. Pronchishchev 3491: 3490: 3478: 3477: 3463: 3456: 3449: 3440: 3439: 3413: 3410: 3408: 3406: 3396: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3371: 3352: 3330: 3311: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3294: 3285: 3276:Nansen, Fridtjof 3271: 3269: 3267: 3247: 3235: 3224: 3212: 3195:Huntford, Roland 3190: 3171: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3135: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3117:. NobelPrize.org 3110: 3091: 3082: 3081: 3075: 3050: 3037:The Arctic Grail 3028: 3026: 3024: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2985: 2979: 2973: 2967: 2961: 2955: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2892: 2886: 2880: 2874: 2868: 2862: 2853: 2847: 2841: 2838:V. Walfrid Ekman 2835: 2829: 2823: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2736: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2703: 2697: 2691: 2682: 2676: 2670: 2664: 2653: 2647: 2641: 2635: 2629: 2623: 2617: 2611: 2605: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2569: 2563: 2557: 2551: 2545: 2539: 2533: 2527: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2500: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2467: 2461: 2455: 2449: 2443: 2437: 2431: 2425: 2419: 2413: 2407: 2401: 2395: 2389: 2383: 2377: 2371: 2365: 2359: 2353: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2329: 2323: 2317: 2311: 2305: 2299: 2293: 2287: 2281: 2272: 2266: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2230: 2224: 2218: 2212: 2206: 2197: 2191: 2185: 2179: 2173: 2167: 2161: 2155: 2149: 2143: 2137: 2131: 2125: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2101: 2095: 2089: 2083: 2077: 2071: 2065: 2059: 2053: 2047: 2041: 2035: 2029: 2023: 2017: 2011: 2002: 1996: 1990: 1984: 1978: 1972: 1966: 1960: 1954: 1948: 1942: 1936: 1927: 1921: 1915: 1909: 1898: 1892: 1886: 1880: 1874: 1868: 1862: 1856: 1850: 1844: 1838: 1832: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1793: 1787: 1781: 1772: 1766: 1760: 1754: 1748: 1741: 1735: 1729: 1720: 1714: 1708: 1702: 1696: 1690: 1679: 1673: 1667: 1661: 1655: 1649: 1640: 1634: 1628: 1622: 1616: 1610: 1601: 1595: 1589: 1583: 1577: 1571: 1565: 1559: 1553: 1547: 1541: 1532: 1526: 1520: 1514: 1505: 1499: 1493: 1487: 1481: 1472: 1466: 1460: 1454: 1448: 1442: 1436: 1430: 1424: 1418: 1403: 1397: 1388: 1382: 1376: 1370: 1364: 1363: 1361: 1359: 1349: 1333: 1330: 1324: 1317:Payer's 1874 map 1314: 1308: 1305: 1299: 1288: 1282: 1279: 1273: 1270: 1177:Clements Markham 900:Franz Josef Land 780:Franz Josef Land 661:Taimyr Peninsula 565: 559: 553: 543: 533: 495:Hjalmar Johansen 344: 311:James Clark Ross 127:transpolar drift 98:Franz Josef Land 86:Hjalmar Johansen 7126: 7125: 7121: 7120: 7119: 7117: 7116: 7115: 7101:Fridtjof Nansen 7076: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7044: 6708: 6651: 6612:British Channel 6607:Austrian Strait 6593: 6588: 6558: 6545: 6220: 6212: 6088:McMurdo Station 5957:Modern research 5955: 5943: 5678:O. Nordenskjöld 5541: 5535: 5530: 5446:Ross expedition 5270: 5243: 5222: 4651: 4643: 4184:Northern Canada 4182: 4174: 4027: 4019: 3525: 3517: 3485: 3472: 3467: 3420: 3418:Further reading 3411: 3404: 3402: 3394: 3381: 3379: 3368: 3349: 3327: 3309: 3302: 3300: 3292: 3265: 3263: 3244: 3209: 3187: 3168: 3143: 3141: 3133: 3120: 3118: 3107: 3076: 3072: 3047: 3022: 3020: 3011: 3006: 2998: 2994: 2986: 2982: 2974: 2970: 2962: 2958: 2950: 2946: 2938: 2934: 2926: 2922: 2914: 2910: 2902: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2875: 2871: 2867:, pp. 1–2. 2863: 2856: 2848: 2844: 2836: 2832: 2824: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2797: 2793: 2785: 2781: 2773: 2766: 2758: 2754: 2746: 2739: 2731: 2727: 2719: 2715: 2704: 2700: 2692: 2685: 2677: 2673: 2665: 2656: 2648: 2644: 2636: 2632: 2624: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2600: 2596: 2588: 2584: 2576: 2572: 2564: 2560: 2552: 2548: 2540: 2536: 2528: 2521: 2513: 2509: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2485: 2477: 2470: 2462: 2458: 2450: 2446: 2438: 2434: 2426: 2422: 2414: 2410: 2402: 2398: 2390: 2386: 2378: 2374: 2366: 2362: 2354: 2350: 2342: 2338: 2330: 2326: 2318: 2314: 2306: 2302: 2294: 2290: 2282: 2275: 2267: 2263: 2255: 2251: 2243: 2239: 2231: 2227: 2219: 2215: 2207: 2200: 2192: 2188: 2180: 2176: 2168: 2164: 2156: 2152: 2144: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2120: 2116: 2108: 2104: 2096: 2092: 2084: 2080: 2072: 2068: 2060: 2056: 2048: 2044: 2036: 2032: 2024: 2020: 2012: 2005: 1997: 1993: 1989:, pp. 244. 1985: 1981: 1973: 1969: 1961: 1957: 1949: 1945: 1937: 1930: 1922: 1918: 1910: 1901: 1893: 1889: 1881: 1877: 1869: 1865: 1857: 1853: 1845: 1841: 1833: 1826: 1818: 1814: 1806: 1802: 1794: 1790: 1782: 1775: 1767: 1763: 1755: 1751: 1742: 1738: 1730: 1723: 1715: 1711: 1703: 1699: 1691: 1682: 1674: 1670: 1662: 1658: 1650: 1643: 1635: 1631: 1623: 1619: 1611: 1604: 1596: 1592: 1584: 1580: 1572: 1568: 1560: 1556: 1548: 1544: 1533: 1529: 1521: 1517: 1506: 1502: 1494: 1490: 1482: 1475: 1467: 1463: 1455: 1451: 1443: 1439: 1431: 1427: 1419: 1406: 1398: 1391: 1383: 1379: 1371: 1367: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1350: 1346: 1337: 1336: 1331: 1327: 1315: 1311: 1306: 1302: 1289: 1285: 1280: 1276: 1271: 1267: 1257: 1149: 1083: 1030:spring cleaning 1011: 934: 872: 812: 753:Roland Huntford 706: 665:Cape Chelyuskin 649:Sverdrup Island 578: 571: 563: 561: 557: 555: 551: 549: 541: 539: 531: 519: 481:, signed on as 455: 382: 376: 364:Roland Huntford 339: 298:Adolphus Greely 247: 242: 163:Fridtjof Nansen 156: 60:Fridtjof Nansen 17: 12: 11: 5: 7124: 7114: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7063: 7058: 7052: 7050: 7046: 7045: 7043: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7020:Wilczek Island 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6892: 6887: 6885:Karl-Alexander 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6725:Alexandra Land 6722: 6716: 6714: 6710: 6709: 6707: 6706: 6699: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6667: 6661: 6659: 6653: 6652: 6650: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6603: 6601: 6595: 6594: 6587: 6586: 6579: 6572: 6564: 6555: 6554: 6551: 6550: 6547: 6546: 6544: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6527: 6526: 6521: 6509: 6508: 6507: 6505:Vostok Station 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6456:Cherry-Garrard 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6421: 6420: 6419: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6373: 6372: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6349: 6348: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6320: 6319: 6318: 6306: 6305: 6304: 6296:Southern Cross 6292: 6291: 6290: 6277: 6276: 6275: 6262: 6257: 6256: 6255: 6242: 6241: 6240: 6226: 6224: 6218:Farthest South 6214: 6213: 6211: 6210: 6205: 6198: 6197: 6196: 6191: 6179: 6172: 6171: 6170: 6169: 6168: 6156: 6155: 6154: 6142: 6141: 6140: 6133: 6128: 6109: 6108: 6107: 6102: 6090: 6085: 6078: 6077: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6054: 6053: 6052: 6040: 6033: 6028: 6021: 6020: 6019: 6007: 6006: 6005: 5993: 5992: 5991: 5979: 5972: 5967: 5961: 5959: 5945: 5944: 5942: 5941: 5940: 5939: 5925: 5924: 5923: 5915:Ross Sea party 5911: 5902: 5901: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5876: 5869: 5868: 5867: 5862: 5847: 5842: 5841: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5801: 5800: 5799: 5792: 5785: 5780: 5766: 5765: 5764: 5752: 5751: 5750: 5745: 5731: 5730: 5729: 5715: 5708: 5707: 5706: 5699: 5687: 5686: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5661: 5660: 5659: 5654: 5640: 5639: 5638: 5633: 5619: 5618: 5617: 5612: 5609:Southern Cross 5602:Southern Cross 5598: 5597: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5561: 5546: 5544: 5532: 5531: 5529: 5528: 5527: 5526: 5514: 5513: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5487: 5482: 5481: 5480: 5467: 5461: 5442: 5441: 5440: 5427: 5426: 5425: 5420: 5405: 5404: 5403: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5365: 5364: 5352: 5351: 5350: 5348:Bellingshausen 5338: 5331: 5326: 5325: 5324: 5311: 5310: 5309: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5280: 5278: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5245: 5244: 5232: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5221: 5220: 5219: 5218: 5207: 5195: 5190: 5183: 5176: 5175: 5174: 5162: 5161: 5160: 5148: 5147: 5146: 5134: 5133: 5132: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5109: 5108: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5080: 5079: 5078: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5045: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5029: 5015: 5014: 5013: 5008: 4996: 4991: 4990: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4960: 4959: 4958: 4944: 4943: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4914: 4913: 4912: 4907: 4892: 4891: 4890: 4885: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4657: 4655: 4653:Russian Arctic 4645: 4644: 4642: 4641: 4636: 4635: 4634: 4620: 4619: 4618: 4613: 4599: 4594: 4593: 4592: 4578: 4577: 4576: 4564: 4563: 4562: 4549: 4548: 4547: 4535: 4534: 4533: 4528: 4513: 4512: 4511: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4483: 4482: 4477: 4469: 4464: 4449: 4444: 4443: 4442: 4437: 4425: 4420: 4419: 4418: 4410: 4395: 4394: 4393: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4342: 4341: 4328: 4327: 4326: 4313: 4312: 4311: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4282: 4281: 4268: 4267: 4266: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4236: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4188: 4186: 4176: 4175: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4161: 4160: 4155: 4143: 4138: 4137: 4136: 4124: 4123: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4095: 4090: 4088:Snæbjörn galti 4085: 4080: 4073: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4051: 4044: 4039: 4033: 4031: 4021: 4020: 4018: 4017: 4016: 4015: 4010: 4005: 3990: 3983: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3955: 3945: 3944: 3943: 3938: 3924: 3917: 3910: 3909: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3881: 3874: 3873: 3872: 3867: 3862: 3850: 3849: 3848: 3834: 3825: 3824: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3778: 3777: 3772: 3757: 3752: 3751: 3750: 3738: 3737: 3736: 3724: 3723: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3689: 3688: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3665: 3664: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3645: 3640: 3625: 3624: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3596: 3595: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3574: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3531: 3529: 3523:Farthest North 3519: 3518: 3516: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3487: 3486: 3474: 3473: 3466: 3465: 3458: 3451: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3419: 3416: 3415: 3414: 3401:. 3 March 1895 3399:New York Times 3388: 3372: 3366: 3353: 3347: 3331: 3325: 3312: 3299:. 3 March 1895 3297:New York Times 3286: 3272: 3248: 3242: 3225: 3213: 3207: 3191: 3185: 3177:Farthest North 3172: 3166: 3154:Herbert, Wally 3150: 3138:New York Times 3127: 3111: 3105: 3092: 3083: 3070: 3051: 3045: 3033:Berton, Pierre 3029: 3010: 3007: 3005: 3004: 2992: 2990:, p. 666. 2980: 2978:, p. 296. 2968: 2956: 2944: 2932: 2930:, p. 442. 2920: 2908: 2893: 2891:, p. 216. 2881: 2879:, p. 120. 2869: 2854: 2842: 2830: 2815: 2803: 2791: 2779: 2764: 2762:, p. 438. 2752: 2737: 2725: 2713: 2707:New York Times 2698: 2696:, p. 393. 2683: 2681:, p. 498. 2671: 2654: 2652:, p. 252. 2642: 2640:, p. 245. 2630: 2618: 2606: 2594: 2592:, p. 263. 2582: 2570: 2558: 2546: 2534: 2519: 2507: 2495: 2483: 2481:, p. 259. 2468: 2456: 2444: 2442:, p. 182. 2432: 2430:, p. 373. 2420: 2418:, p. 370. 2408: 2396: 2384: 2382:, p. 364. 2372: 2360: 2348: 2336: 2334:, p. 339. 2324: 2312: 2300: 2298:, p. 332. 2288: 2286:, p. 249. 2273: 2261: 2259:, p. 330. 2249: 2237: 2225: 2223:, p. 320. 2213: 2211:, p. 248. 2198: 2196:, p. 322. 2186: 2174: 2162: 2150: 2138: 2126: 2124:, p. 285. 2114: 2102: 2100:, p. 288. 2090: 2078: 2066: 2054: 2052:, p. 262. 2042: 2030: 2018: 2003: 1991: 1979: 1967: 1965:, p. 245. 1955: 1953:, p. 246. 1943: 1941:, p. 242. 1928: 1916: 1899: 1887: 1875: 1863: 1851: 1839: 1837:, p. 243. 1824: 1812: 1800: 1798:, p. 218. 1788: 1773: 1771:, p. 241. 1761: 1749: 1736: 1721: 1709: 1697: 1680: 1678:, p. 186. 1668: 1656: 1641: 1639:, p. 214. 1629: 1617: 1615:, p. 240. 1602: 1600:, p. 239. 1590: 1578: 1566: 1564:, p. 492. 1554: 1542: 1536:New York Times 1527: 1525:, p. 489. 1515: 1509:New York Times 1500: 1488: 1473: 1461: 1449: 1437: 1425: 1404: 1389: 1377: 1365: 1343: 1335: 1334: 1325: 1309: 1300: 1283: 1274: 1264: 1263: 1256: 1253: 1185:Coriolis force 1148: 1145: 1082: 1079: 1071:Salomon Andrée 1010: 1007: 946:Jackson Island 933: 930: 871: 868: 811: 808: 705: 702: 577: 574: 562: 556: 550: 540: 530: 518: 515: 493:sailing date. 464:Roald Amundsen 454: 451: 378:Main article: 375: 372: 338: 335: 246: 243: 241: 238: 155: 152: 94:Farthest North 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7123: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7083: 7081: 7074: 7072: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7051: 7047: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6965:Prince George 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6745:Belaya Zemlya 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6717: 6715: 6711: 6705: 6704: 6700: 6698: 6696: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6673: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6662: 6660: 6658: 6654: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6637:Markham Sound 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6627:Cape Kohlsaat 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6617:Cape Bystrova 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6604: 6602: 6600: 6596: 6592: 6585: 6580: 6578: 6573: 6571: 6566: 6565: 6562: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6516: 6515: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6503: 6502: 6501: 6500: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6428: 6427: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6417: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6385: 6381: 6380: 6379: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6356: 6355: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6327: 6326: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6314: 6313: 6312: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6300: 6299: 6298: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6283: 6278: 6274: 6271: 6270: 6269: 6268: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6254: 6251: 6250: 6249: 6248: 6243: 6239: 6236: 6235: 6234: 6233: 6228: 6227: 6225: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6186: 6185: 6184: 6180: 6178: 6177: 6173: 6167: 6164: 6163: 6162: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6150: 6149: 6148: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6138: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6123: 6122: 6121: 6117: 6116: 6115: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6097: 6096: 6095: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6061: 6060: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6048: 6047: 6046: 6045: 6041: 6039: 6038: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6013: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6001: 6000: 5999: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5987: 5986: 5985: 5984: 5980: 5978: 5977: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5962: 5960: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5938: 5937: 5933: 5932: 5931: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5919: 5918: 5917: 5916: 5912: 5910: 5909: 5908: 5903: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5888: 5884: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5877: 5875: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5860: 5855: 5854: 5853: 5852: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5813: 5809: 5808: 5807: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5797: 5793: 5791: 5790: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5778: 5774: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5760: 5759: 5758: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5743: 5739: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5727: 5723: 5722: 5721: 5720: 5716: 5714: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5704: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5694: 5693: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5673: 5669: 5668: 5667: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5652: 5648: 5647: 5646: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5636:Discovery Hut 5634: 5632: 5631: 5627: 5626: 5625: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5610: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5559: 5555: 5554: 5553: 5552: 5548: 5547: 5545: 5540: 5533: 5525: 5522: 5521: 5520: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5500: 5495: 5494: 5493: 5492: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5478: 5474: 5473: 5468: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5456: 5455: 5450: 5449: 5448: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5436: 5435: 5434: 5433: 5428: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5418: 5413: 5412: 5411: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5399: 5398: 5397: 5396: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5363: 5360: 5359: 5358: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5346: 5345: 5344: 5343: 5339: 5337: 5336: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5318: 5317: 5312: 5308: 5305: 5304: 5303: 5302: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5281: 5279: 5277: 5273: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5253: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5237: 5233: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5208: 5206: 5205: 5201: 5200: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5188: 5184: 5182: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5168: 5167: 5166:A. Sibiryakov 5163: 5159: 5156: 5155: 5154: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5142: 5141: 5140: 5139: 5138:Glavsevmorput 5135: 5131: 5128: 5127: 5126: 5125: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5107: 5104: 5103: 5102: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5090: 5089: 5088: 5087: 5086: 5081: 5077: 5074: 5073: 5072: 5071: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5062: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5027: 5023: 5022: 5021: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5003: 5002: 5001: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4969: 4968: 4967: 4966: 4961: 4957: 4954: 4953: 4952: 4951: 4950: 4945: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4930: 4925: 4924: 4923: 4922: 4920: 4915: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4902: 4901: 4900: 4898: 4893: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4880: 4879: 4878: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4756: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4712: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4695: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4663: 4659: 4658: 4656: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4640: 4637: 4633: 4630: 4629: 4628: 4627: 4626: 4621: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4607: 4606: 4605: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4591: 4588: 4587: 4586: 4585: 4584: 4579: 4575: 4572: 4571: 4570: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4558: 4557: 4556: 4555: 4550: 4546: 4543: 4542: 4541: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4526: 4521: 4520: 4519: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4507: 4506: 4505: 4504: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4475: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4462: 4457: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4441: 4440:J. Richardson 4438: 4436: 4433: 4432: 4431: 4430: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4417: 4416: 4411: 4409: 4408: 4403: 4402: 4401: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4389: 4388: 4387: 4386: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4358: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4335: 4334: 4329: 4325: 4322: 4321: 4320: 4319: 4314: 4310: 4307: 4306: 4305: 4304: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4280: 4277: 4276: 4275: 4274: 4269: 4265: 4262: 4261: 4260: 4259: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4231: 4230: 4229: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4202:M. Corte-Real 4200: 4198: 4197:G. Corte-Real 4195: 4193: 4190: 4189: 4187: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4150: 4149: 4148: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4135: 4132: 4131: 4130: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4120:C. Richardson 4118: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4102: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4078: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4062: 4059: 4057: 4056: 4052: 4050: 4049: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4034: 4032: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4002: 3998: 3997: 3996: 3995: 3991: 3989: 3988: 3984: 3982: 3981: 3980: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3961: 3956: 3954: 3953: 3952: 3946: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3933: 3932: 3931: 3930: 3929:Georgiy Sedov 3925: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3916: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3888: 3887: 3886: 3882: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3857: 3856: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3844: 3843: 3842: 3841: 3840: 3835: 3833: 3832: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3816:Riiser-Larsen 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3798: 3797: 3796: 3795: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3767: 3766: 3765: 3764: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3749: 3746: 3745: 3744: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3732: 3731: 3730: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3705: 3701: 3700: 3699: 3698: 3696: 3690: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3672: 3671: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3651: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3638: 3633: 3632: 3631: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3611: 3607: 3606: 3605: 3604: 3602: 3597: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3569: 3568: 3567: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3496: 3495: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3464: 3459: 3457: 3452: 3450: 3445: 3444: 3441: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3421: 3400: 3393: 3389: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3363: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3298: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3282: 3277: 3273: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3249: 3245: 3239: 3234: 3233: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3182: 3178: 3173: 3169: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3139: 3132: 3128: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3073: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3058: 3052: 3048: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3018: 3013: 3012: 3001: 2996: 2989: 2984: 2977: 2972: 2965: 2960: 2953: 2948: 2941: 2936: 2929: 2924: 2917: 2912: 2906:, p. 13. 2905: 2900: 2898: 2890: 2885: 2878: 2873: 2866: 2861: 2859: 2851: 2846: 2839: 2834: 2827: 2822: 2820: 2812: 2807: 2800: 2795: 2789:, p. 63. 2788: 2783: 2776: 2771: 2769: 2761: 2756: 2749: 2744: 2742: 2734: 2729: 2722: 2717: 2710: 2708: 2702: 2695: 2690: 2688: 2680: 2675: 2668: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2651: 2646: 2639: 2634: 2627: 2622: 2615: 2610: 2603: 2598: 2591: 2586: 2579: 2574: 2567: 2562: 2555: 2550: 2543: 2538: 2531: 2526: 2524: 2516: 2511: 2504: 2499: 2492: 2487: 2480: 2475: 2473: 2465: 2460: 2453: 2448: 2441: 2436: 2429: 2424: 2417: 2412: 2405: 2400: 2393: 2388: 2381: 2376: 2369: 2364: 2357: 2352: 2345: 2340: 2333: 2328: 2321: 2316: 2309: 2304: 2297: 2292: 2285: 2280: 2278: 2270: 2265: 2258: 2253: 2246: 2241: 2234: 2229: 2222: 2217: 2210: 2205: 2203: 2195: 2190: 2183: 2178: 2171: 2166: 2159: 2154: 2147: 2142: 2135: 2130: 2123: 2118: 2111: 2106: 2099: 2094: 2087: 2082: 2075: 2070: 2063: 2058: 2051: 2046: 2039: 2034: 2027: 2022: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2000: 1995: 1988: 1983: 1976: 1971: 1964: 1959: 1952: 1947: 1940: 1935: 1933: 1925: 1920: 1913: 1908: 1906: 1904: 1896: 1891: 1884: 1879: 1872: 1867: 1860: 1855: 1848: 1843: 1836: 1831: 1829: 1821: 1816: 1809: 1804: 1797: 1792: 1785: 1780: 1778: 1770: 1765: 1758: 1753: 1746: 1740: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1719:, p. 13. 1718: 1713: 1706: 1701: 1694: 1689: 1687: 1685: 1677: 1672: 1665: 1660: 1653: 1648: 1646: 1638: 1633: 1626: 1621: 1614: 1609: 1607: 1599: 1594: 1587: 1582: 1575: 1570: 1563: 1558: 1551: 1546: 1539: 1537: 1531: 1524: 1519: 1512: 1510: 1504: 1497: 1492: 1485: 1480: 1478: 1470: 1465: 1458: 1453: 1447:, p. 49. 1446: 1441: 1434: 1429: 1422: 1417: 1415: 1413: 1411: 1409: 1401: 1396: 1394: 1386: 1381: 1374: 1369: 1354: 1348: 1344: 1342: 1341: 1329: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1304: 1297: 1293: 1287: 1278: 1269: 1265: 1262: 1261: 1252: 1250: 1245: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1229: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1217:Wally Herbert 1213: 1208: 1206: 1202: 1196: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1158: 1153: 1144: 1142: 1137: 1132: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1101: 1092: 1087: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1026: 1024: 1015: 1006: 1004: 1000: 996: 990: 987: 983: 979: 970: 965: 961: 959: 953: 949: 947: 938: 932:To Cape Flora 929: 926: 921: 916: 914: 908: 901: 896: 892: 890: 886: 882: 876: 867: 864: 854: 850: 847: 842: 836: 832: 830: 826: 816: 807: 805: 801: 796: 792: 788: 783: 781: 776: 772: 764: 760: 756: 754: 749: 743: 740: 731: 726: 722: 720: 716: 711: 708:On 9 October 701: 698: 694: 690: 689:Olenyok River 685: 683: 679: 675: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 645:Yenisei River 642: 638: 634: 633:Novaya Zemlya 630: 626: 621: 619: 615: 611: 607: 606:Arctic Circle 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 569: 547: 537: 528: 523: 514: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 475:Otto Sverdrup 471: 469: 465: 461: 450: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 425: 420: 416: 414: 408: 406: 402: 395: 391: 386: 381: 371: 369: 365: 360: 356: 352: 348: 334: 332: 328: 324: 320: 319:Oscar Dickson 316: 312: 308: 307:Joseph Hooker 304: 299: 294: 293: 287: 285: 280: 276: 271: 268: 264: 260: 251: 237: 235: 232: 228: 227:Bergen Museum 223: 219: 215: 211: 206: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 187:Bering Strait 184: 180: 176: 172: 164: 160: 151: 148: 144: 140: 134: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 111: 105: 103: 100:. Meanwhile, 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 74: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 51: 41: 35: 31: 27: 26: 21: 7073: 7071: 7025:Wilczek Land 7010:Scott-Keltie 6925:Lütke Island 6790:Bruce Island 6702: 6694: 6671: 6669: 6622:Cape Fligely 6511: 6499:Pole of Cold 6497: 6423: 6414: 6382: 6375: 6351: 6322: 6308: 6302:Borchgrevink 6294: 6281: 6266: 6246: 6231: 6200: 6181: 6174: 6158: 6144: 6135: 6118: 6111: 6092: 6080: 6056: 6042: 6035: 6023: 6009: 5995: 5981: 5974: 5935: 5927: 5913: 5906: 5904: 5886: 5878: 5871: 5858: 5849: 5811: 5803: 5794: 5787: 5775: 5768: 5754: 5742:Pourquoi-Pas 5741: 5733: 5725: 5717: 5712:Orcadas Base 5710: 5702: 5689: 5683:C. A. Larsen 5671: 5663: 5649: 5642: 5629: 5621: 5615:Borchgrevink 5608: 5600: 5557: 5549: 5524:C. A. Larsen 5517: 5498: 5489: 5471: 5453: 5444: 5431: 5416: 5407: 5394: 5355: 5341: 5334: 5315: 5300: 5210: 5203: 5186: 5179: 5165: 5150: 5136: 5123: 5098: 5084: 5082: 5068: 5066: 5060: 5058: 5024: 5017: 4998: 4964: 4962: 4948: 4946: 4928: 4918: 4916: 4896: 4894: 4875: 4751: 4709: 4692: 4660: 4624: 4622: 4602: 4601: 4581: 4580: 4566: 4553: 4538: 4524: 4515: 4502: 4473: 4461:Investigator 4460: 4451: 4427: 4414: 4406: 4397: 4384: 4355: 4332: 4317: 4302: 4272: 4257: 4227: 4146: 4126: 4097: 4093:Erik the Red 4075: 4053: 4046: 4003:submersibles 4000: 3994:Arktika 2007 3992: 3985: 3978: 3975: 3959: 3950: 3947: 3928: 3926: 3919: 3912: 3883: 3876: 3852: 3838: 3837: 3829: 3827: 3793: 3791: 3762: 3759: 3748:S. A. Andrée 3740: 3727: 3702: 3694: 3692: 3691: 3667: 3649: 3636: 3627: 3609: 3600: 3598: 3564: 3435:(1): 68–108. 3432: 3428: 3405:27 September 3403:. Retrieved 3398: 3380:. Retrieved 3357: 3338: 3316: 3303:30 September 3301:. Retrieved 3296: 3280: 3264:. 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Retrieved 1347: 1339: 1338: 1328: 1312: 1303: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1277: 1268: 1259: 1258: 1246: 1241: 1227: 1225: 1220: 1212:Robert Peary 1209: 1197: 1192: 1174: 1162: 1156: 1135: 1133: 1124: 1117: 1104: 1098: 1096: 1089:The port of 1066: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1042: 1037: 1033: 1027: 1022: 1020: 1002: 998: 994: 991: 985: 974: 954: 950: 943: 917: 909: 905: 888: 880: 877: 873: 863:Cape Fligely 859: 837: 833: 829:Julius Payer 821: 799: 784: 774: 768: 762: 747: 744: 738: 735: 729: 718: 714: 709: 707: 696: 692: 686: 677: 673: 656: 652: 636: 624: 622: 613: 593: 589: 581: 579: 567: 545: 535: 529:expedition: 526: 502: 490: 482: 472: 459: 456: 446: 428: 423: 409: 401:Colin Archer 398: 394:Colin Archer 389: 368:Axel Heiberg 350: 340: 290: 288: 283: 278: 274: 272: 266: 256: 240:Preparations 233: 221: 207: 198: 170: 168: 142: 139:oceanography 135: 130: 109: 106: 101: 90:Samoyed dogs 71: 68:Arctic Ocean 49: 47: 46: 34:Arctic Ocean 23: 6915:Leigh-Smith 6830:Graham Bell 6202:Lake Vostok 6152:Tryoshnikov 6074:Schlossbach 5965:Christensen 5907:James Caird 5828:E. 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Knowledge

Nansen's Fram expedition

Index