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446:. In that article, Morgan said she had "a share in a discovery of importance.” He continued in the obituary to describe in some detail the implications of this work. However, Morgan also claimed that she had confirmed McClung's hypothesis about sex chromosomes when she actually refuted his main claim that the larger (X) chromosome determined sex. Morgan recognized Wilson's parallel but less complete and convincing studies as producing a "joint discovery" with Stevens. But Wilson said in a later footnote that she made the discovery. Also, Morgan claimed Stevens seemed to "appear at times wanting in that sort of inspiration that utilizes the plain fact of discovery for wider vision.” Evidently, the fact that she was often excluded from scientific dialogue was easily forgotten. For example, she was not invited to speak at the meetings where he and Wilson expounded the theory of sex chromosomes. In his textbook,
412:, that the X chromosome determines sex, was wrong and that sex determination is, in fact, due to the presence or absence of the small (Y) chromosome. Stevens did not name the chromosomes X or Y. Their current names came later. Edmund Wilson worked on spermatogenesis preparations simultaneously with Stevens' studies. He performed cytological examination only on the testes, that is he did not examine the female germ cells (eggs) but only the male germ cells (sperm) in his studies. His paper stated that eggs were too fatty for his staining procedures. After reading the papers describing Stevens' discoveries, Wilson reissued his original paper and in a footnote acknowledged Stevens for the finding of sex chromosomes.
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404:. She deduced that the chromosomal basis of sex depended on the smaller Y chromosome carried by the male. An egg fertilized by a sperm that carries the small chromosome becomes a male while an egg fertilized by a sperm with the larger chromosome becomes female. Studying egg tissue and the fertilization process in aphids, mealworms, beetles, and flies, Stevens saw that there were chromosomes that existed in small-large pairs (now known as XY chromosome pairs) and she also saw chromosomes that were unpaired, XO.
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226:'s paper on genetics in 1900, she observed that male mealworms produced two kinds of sperm, one with a large chromosome and one with a small chromosome. When the sperm with the large chromosome fertilized eggs, they produced female offspring, and when the sperm with the small chromosome fertilized eggs, they produced male offspring. The pair of sex chromosomes that she studied later became known as the
335:. After receiving the grant, she used germ cells of aphids to examine possible differences in chromosome sets between the two sexes. One paper, written in 1905, won Stevens an award of $ 1,000 for the best scientific paper written by a woman. Her major sex determination work was published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in the two part monograph, "Studies in
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in 1891. Stevens received her Ph.D. from Bryn Mawr in 1903 and remained at the college as a research fellow in biology for a year. She continued there as reader in experimental morphology for another year and worked at Bryn Mawr as an associate in experimental morphology from 1905 until her death.
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gene in the chapter immediately before the one in which he described
Stevens' results without mentioning her name, implying that his own laboratory's sex linkage analysis was the basis on which one should understand sex determination. In an earlier letter of recommendation he wrote, "Of the graduate
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mutant gene of fruit flies and was especially heightened by his Nobel Prize award in 1933. Stevens was not even recognized immediately after her discovery. For example, Morgan and Wilson were invited to speak at a conference to present their theories on sex determination in 1906 but
Stevens was not
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Using observations of insect chromosomes, Stevens discovered that, in some species, chromosomes are different between the sexes and when chromosome segregation occurs in sperm formation, this difference leads to outcomes of female versus male progeny. Her discovery was the first time that observable
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At first, her research and findings about sex determination were not appreciated or believed because of the gender bias in science. Another researcher, Edmund Wilson made similar discoveries to her around the same time but hers were much larger leaps in the world of science and were the ideas which
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honored
Stevens through the naming ceremony of the Dr. Nettie Maria Stevens Science and Innovation Center. The center is where the university's STEM-related degree programs in Nursing and Allied Health, Chemical and Physical Sciences, Biology, Environmental Science and the then soon-to-be launched
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Modern cytological work involves an intricacy of detail, the significance of which can be appreciated by the specialist alone; but Miss
Stevens had a share in a discovery of importance, and her work will be remembered for this, when the minutiae of detailed investigations that she carried out have
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Although
Stevens did not have a university position, she made a career for herself by conducting research at leading marine stations and laboratories. Her record of 38 publications includes several major contributions that further the emerging concepts of chromosomal heredity. By experimenting on
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of insects, and cell division in sea urchins and worms. During her graduate studies at Bryn Mawr, Stevens was named a
President's European Fellow and spent a year (1901–02) at the Zoological Station in Naples, Italy, where she worked with marine organisms, and at the Zoological Institute of the
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At 50 years old, and only 9 years after completing her Ph.D., Stevens died of breast cancer on May 4, 1912, in
Baltimore, Maryland. Her career span was short, but she published approximately 40 papers. She never married and had no children. She was buried in the Westford, Massachusetts cemetery
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Although
Stevens and Wilson both worked on chromosomal sex determination, many authors have credited Wilson alone for the discovery. Additionally, Thomas Hunt Morgan has been credited with the discovery of sex chromosomes although at the time of these cytological discoveries, he argued against
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NM Stevens, (1905) “Studies in
Spermatogenesis, with Especial Reference to the ‘Accessory Chromosome,’” Washington, DC, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication 36, NM Stevens, (1906) “Studies in Spermatogenesis Part II, A Comparative Study of Heterochromosomes in certain Species of
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Stevens was one of the first
American women to be recognized for her contribution to science. Most of her research was completed at Bryn Mawr College. The highest rank she attained was Associate in Experimental Morphology (1905–1912). At Bryn Mawr, she expanded the fields of
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in 1904–1905. Stevens' post-doctoral year of work at the Carnegie Institution required fellowship support, and both Wilson and Morgan wrote recommendations on her behalf. She applied for funding for research on heredity related to
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or physical attributes (i.e., whether an individual is male or female). This work was published in 1905. Her continuing experiments used a range of insects. She identified the small chromosome currently known as the
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to teach high school zoology, physiology, mathematics, English, and Latin. After three years, she returned to Vermont to continue her studies. Stevens continued her education at Westfield Normal School (now
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Her single-mindedness and devotion, combined with keen powers of observation; her thoughtfulness and patience, united to a well-balanced judgment, account, in part, for her remarkable accomplishment.
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Nettie Maria Stevens was born on July 7, 1861, in Cavendish, Vermont, to Julia (née Adams) and Ephraim Stevens. In 1863, after the death of her mother, her father remarried and the family moved to
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germ cells, Stevens interpreted her data to conclude that chromosomes have a role in sex determination during development. As a result of her research, Stevens provided critical evidence for
262:) She completed the four-year course in two years and graduated with the highest scores in her class. Seeking additional training in sciences, in 1896, Stevens enrolled in newly established
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She was offered the position she had long sought, as research professor at Bryn Mawr College, just before cancer took her life. She was unable to accept the offer due to her ill health.
297:. She focused her doctoral studies on topics such as regeneration in primitive multicellular organisms, the structure of single celled organisms, the development of sperm and eggs,
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had studied firebug chromosomes earlier and noticed the chromosome now called X, but didn't find the small chromosome now called Y. Stevens realized that the previous idea of
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Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and Lepidoptera with Especial Reference to Sex Determination,” Washington, DC, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication 36, Part II, (1906).
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To celebrate her 155th birthday, on July 7, 2016, Google created a doodle showing Stevens peering through a microscope at XY chromosomes.
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students that I have had during the last twelve years I have had no-one that was as capable and independent in research as Miss Stevens."
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450:, published in 1915, he did not credit either Stevens or Wilson with the discovery of sex chromosomes. He described sex linkage of the
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fruit flies in the laboratory. She worked with these as subjects of her research for some years before Morgan adopted them as his
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During her education, Stevens was near the top of her class. She and her sister Emma were two of the three women to graduate from
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Ogilvie, M B; Choquette C J (August 1981). "Nettie Maria Stevens (1861–1912): her life and contributions to cytogenetics".
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MB Ogilvie, CJ Choquette (1981) "Nettie Maria Stevens (1861–1912): her life and contributions to cytogenetics.
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Wilson's and Stevens' interpretations. Morgan's recognition came in part from his work on sex linkage of the
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Brush, Stephen G. (June 1978). "Nettie M. Stevens and the Discovery of Sex Determination by Chromosomes".
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Brush, S G (June 1978). "Nettie M. Stevens and the discovery of sex determination by chromosomes".
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https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/nettie-stevens-a-discoverer-of-sex-chromosomes-6580266/
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Following Nettie Stevens' death, Thomas Hunt Morgan wrote an extensive obituary for the journal
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After receiving her Ph.D. from Bryn Mawr, Stevens was awarded a research assistantship at the
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History of the Fellowships Awarded by the American Association of University Women
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At Bryn Mawr, following her 1905–06 publications, Stevens bred and studied
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differences of chromosomes could be linked to an observable difference in
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After studying physiology and histology at Stanford, Stevens enrolled in
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master's degree program in Physician Assistant Studies are all based.
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Morgan, TH, Sturtevant, AH Mu(UMLAUT)ller, HJ, and Bridges, C. (1915
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alongside the graves of her father, Ephraim, and her sister, Emma.
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Wessel, Gary M. (September 13, 2011). "Y does it work this way?".
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between 1872 and 1883. After graduating in 1880, Stevens moved to
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Further studies on the ciliate Infusoria, Licnophora and Boveria
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Fellowship from the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, now the
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American women scientists: 23 inspiring biographies, 1900–2000
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835:. American Association of University Women. pp. 41–42.
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become incorporated in the general body of the subject.
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in biology in 1900. She became increasingly focused on
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E Wilson. (1905) “A study of the ideochromosomes in
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The X in Sex: How the X Chromosome Controls Our Lives
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The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science
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554:"Nettie Stevens | American biologist and geneticist"
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1245:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
896:"Nettie Stevens: A Discoverer of Sex Chromosomes"
731:NM Stevens. (1905) “A Study of the Germ Cells of
282:and his former student, and assistant professor,
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1088:"Nettie Stevens – Biography, Facts and Pictures"
667:"Nettie Maria Stevens – DNA from the Beginning"
359:Nettie Stevens's microscope, Bryn Mawr College
274:after completing one year of graduate work in
266:, where she received her B.A. in 1899 and her
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1155:National Women's Hall of Fame, Nettie Stevens
214:(July 7, 1861 – May 4, 1912) was an American
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694:, Oxford University Press, 2003, "genetics".
1021:"The Scientific Work of Miss N. M. Stevens"
979:Hemiptera." Journal of Experimental Zoology
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952:In Pursuit of the Gene: From Darwin to DNA
500:Science, Vol. 36 (No. 928), October, 1912)
498:The Scientific Work of Miss N. M. Stevens.
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1077:. New York, Henry Holt and Company.
902:from the original on March 14, 2016
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1275:"Nettie Maria Stevens (1861–1912)"
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1661:Mildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias
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1167:"Westfield State University News"
1019:Morgan, T.H. (October 12, 1912).
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3614:20th-century American biologists
1465:Works by or about Nettie Stevens
1406:Google Doodle for Nettie Stevens
1318:Reynolds, Moira Davison (2004).
324:Carnegie Institute of Washington
2731:Harriet Williams Russell Strong
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741:Journal of Experimental Zoology
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3599:People from Cavendish, Vermont
2410:Ernestine Louise Potowski Rose
1326:. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.
998:A History of the Life Sciences
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1511:National Women's Hall of Fame
1456:Works by Nettie Maria Stevens
1169:. May 5, 2017. Archived from
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512:National Women's Hall of Fame
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2757:Paulina Kellogg Wright Davis
1391:Resources in other libraries
1367:Resources in other libraries
535:Timeline of women in science
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2940:Martha Coffin Pelham Wright
2344:Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin
1401:Biography of Nettie Stevens
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129:XY sex-determination system
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3609:American women geneticists
2496:Katharine Dexter McCormick
1794:Mary "Mother" Harris Jones
1294:10.1051/medsci/20082410874
1045:10.1126/science.36.928.468
794:10.1051/medsci/20082410874
522:Westfield State University
260:Westfield State University
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1386:Resources in your library
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831:Maltby, Margaret (1929).
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956:Harvard University Press
929:Harvard University Press
690:John L. Heilbron (ed.),
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3604:Scientists from Vermont
3075:Dorothy Harrison Eustis
2965:Catherine Filene Shouse
2818:Patricia Roberts Harris
2456:Mary Steichen Calderone
2324:Lillian Moller Gilbreth
2193:Frances Wisebart Jacobs
1997:Martha Wright Griffiths
1427:March 29, 2019, at the
558:Encyclopedia Britannica
418:Drosophila melanogaster
293:to pursue her Ph.D. in
239:Westford, Massachusetts
99:Westfield Normal School
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2516:Eunice Kennedy Shriver
2380:Frances Xavier Cabrini
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2072:Ellen Swallow Richards
2042:Constance Baker Motley
1692:Elizabeth Bayley Seton
1625:Elizabeth Cady Stanton
1416:March 6, 2018, at the
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410:Clarence Erwin McClung
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304:University of Würzburg
280:Oliver Peebles Jenkins
255:Lebanon, New Hampshire
200:Alice Middleton Boring
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3222:Carlotta Walls LaNier
2955:Elisabeth Kübler-Ross
2813:Martha Matilda Harper
2777:Mary Engle Pennington
2615:Frances Oldham Kelsey
2400:Anne Morrow Lindbergh
2153:Jane Cunningham Croly
2082:Katherine Siva Saubel
1977:Marian Wright Edelman
1900:Margaret Bourke-White
1825:Harriet Beecher Stowe
714:Proc Amer Phil Soc US
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312:Edmund Beecher Wilson
284:Frank Mace MacFarland
3584:American geneticists
3232:Mary Harriman Rumsey
3070:St. Katharine Drexel
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2909:Blanche Stuart Scott
2894:Mother Marianne Cope
2874:Ruth Fulton Benedict
2833:Mildred Robbins Leet
2531:Angelina Grimké Weld
2405:Maria Goeppert Mayer
2375:Charlotte Anne Bunch
1952:Antoinette Blackwell
1931:Gertrude Belle Elion
1861:Ida B. Wells-Barnett
1630:Helen Brooke Taussig
1620:Margaret Chase Smith
1435:Cleveland, Hillary.
341:Alice Freeman Palmer
228:X and Y chromosomes.
212:Nettie Maria Stevens
44:Nettie Maria Stevens
3449:Rebecca S. Halstead
3423:Mary Church Terrell
3110:Barbara A. Mikulski
2838:Patsy Takemoto Mink
2823:Stephanie L. Kwolek
2762:Ruth Bader Ginsburg
2736:Emily Howell Warner
2681:Dorothy H. Andersen
2655:Annie Dodge Wauneka
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2506:Edith Nourse Rogers
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1915:Florence B. Seibert
1752:Carrie Chapman Catt
1682:Juliette Gordon Low
1565:Elizabeth Blackwell
1560:Mary McLeod Bethune
1443:. Bryn Mawr College
1037:1912Sci....36..468M
316:Columbia University
314:, who had moved to
264:Stanford University
103:Stanford University
77:Baltimore, Maryland
3408:Barbara Rose Johns
3359:Flossie Wong-Staal
3334:Nicole Malachowski
3263:Lorraine Hansberry
3207:Marcia Greenberger
3161:Mary Joseph Rogers
3100:Coretta Scott King
3085:Abby Kelley Foster
3001:Susan Kelly-Dreiss
2889:Rita Rossi Colwell
2665:Frances E. Willard
2501:Rozanne L. Ridgway
2451:Lydia Moss Bradley
2436:Madeleine Albright
2329:Nannerl O. Keohane
2299:Anne Dallas Dudley
2228:Betty Bone Schiess
2198:Susette La Flesche
2183:Zora Neale Hurston
2178:Helen LaKelly Hunt
2102:Madam C. J. Walker
2017:Mary Putnam Jacobi
1967:Jacqueline Cochran
1947:Ethel Percy Andrus
1815:Barbara McClintock
1437:"Women in Science"
1173:on August 14, 2018
923:David Bainbridge,
494:Thomas Hunt Morgan
479:Thomas Hunt Morgan
439:invited to speak.
361:
308:Thomas Hunt Morgan
190:Thomas Hunt Morgan
58:Cavendish, Vermont
3556:
3555:
3552:
3551:
3548:
3547:
3510:Kimberlé Crenshaw
3505:Elouise P. Cobell
3469:Katherine Johnson
3439:Octavia E. Butler
3371:
3370:
3367:
3366:
3278:Clare Boothe Luce
3090:Helen Murray Free
3043:
3042:
3039:
3038:
2904:Patricia A. Locke
2869:Florence E. Allen
2853:Sheila E. Widnall
2798:Linda G. Alvarado
2782:Mercy Otis Warren
2741:Victoria Woodhull
2726:Barbara Holdridge
2721:Beatrice A. Hicks
2696:Lydia Maria Child
2610:Leontine T. Kelly
2548:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2370:Louisa May Alcott
2284:Mary Breckinridge
2163:Geraldine Ferraro
2148:Annie Jump Cannon
1873:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1610:Eleanor Roosevelt
1509:Inductees to the
1460:Project Gutenberg
1375:By Nettie Stevens
1348:Library resources
1280:Médecine/Sciences
863:10.1002/mrd.21390
781:Médecine/Sciences
429:Sex determination
333:sex determination
291:Bryn Mawr College
209:
208:
196:Doctoral students
156:Bryn Mawr College
136:Scientific career
114:Bryn Mawr College
3636:
3388:
3387:
3377:
3376:
3344:Louise Slaughter
3268:Victoria Jackson
3227:Philippa Marrack
3212:Barbara Iglewski
3120:Kathrine Switzer
3115:Donna E. Shalala
3060:
3059:
3049:
3048:
3006:Allie B. Latimer
2986:Louise Bourgeois
2960:Judith L. Pipher
2767:Katharine Graham
2711:Marian de Forest
2630:Anna Howard Shaw
2580:Emma Smith DeVoe
2565:
2564:
2554:
2553:
2466:Joan Ganz Cooney
2390:Oveta Culp Hobby
2385:Mary A. Hallaren
2248:Sarah Winnemucca
2117:Gloria Yerkovich
2112:Rosalyn S. Yalow
2067:Jeannette Rankin
2047:Georgia O'Keeffe
2002:Fannie Lou Hamer
1962:Shirley Chisholm
1910:Billie Jean King
1890:
1889:
1879:
1878:
1841:Gwendolyn Brooks
1721:
1720:
1710:
1709:
1550:Susan B. Anthony
1530:
1529:
1519:
1518:
1503:
1496:
1489:
1480:
1479:
1469:Internet Archive
1452:
1450:
1448:
1422:Babes of Science
1337:
1325:
1314:
1296:
1269:
1238:
1205:(247): 163–172.
1183:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1163:
1157:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1126:
1117:
1116:
1105:
1099:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1084:
1078:
1071:
1065:
1064:
1016:
1001:
996:Lois N. Magner,
994:
985:
975:
966:
950:James Schwartz,
948:
942:
921:
912:
911:
909:
907:
892:
883:
882:
846:
837:
836:
828:
819:
818:
816:
814:
796:
772:
766:
762:
747:
737:Aphis oenotherae
729:
720:
710:
695:
688:
682:
681:
679:
677:
663:
657:
656:
612:
569:
568:
566:
564:
550:
520:On May 5, 2017,
501:
482:
368:, cytology, and
331:, specifically
251:Westford Academy
185:Doctoral advisor
179:
89:Westford Academy
72:
53:
51:
35:
21:
20:
3644:
3643:
3639:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3559:
3558:
3557:
3544:
3540:Serena Williams
3483:
3427:
3413:Henrietta Lacks
3403:Barbara Hillary
3398:Aretha Franklin
3382:
3363:
3349:Sonia Sotomayor
3302:
3241:
3192:Tenley Albright
3180:
3166:Bernice Sandler
3124:
3105:Lilly Ledbetter
3080:Loretta C. Ford
3054:
3035:
2974:
2970:Henrietta Szold
2930:Eleanor K. Baum
2918:
2884:Hillary Clinton
2857:
2808:Gertrude Ederle
2803:Donna de Varona
2786:
2745:
2691:Rosalynn Carter
2669:
2645:Wilma L. Vaught
2600:Crystal Eastman
2595:Sylvia A. Earle
2559:
2540:
2536:Chien-Shiung Wu
2511:Felice Schwartz
2481:Julia Ward Howe
2424:
2415:Maria Tallchief
2358:
2314:Margaret Fuller
2309:Ella Fitzgerald
2304:Mary Baker Eddy
2257:
2213:Antonia Novello
2188:Anne Hutchinson
2121:
2062:Esther Peterson
2037:Wilma Mankiller
1957:Emily Blackwell
1935:
1919:
1884:
1865:
1829:
1803:
1782:
1761:
1757:Frances Perkins
1740:
1736:Sojourner Truth
1731:Margaret Sanger
1715:
1696:
1665:
1639:
1585:Emily Dickinson
1545:Marian Anderson
1524:
1513:
1507:
1446:
1444:
1429:Wayback Machine
1418:Wayback Machine
1397:
1396:
1395:
1372:
1371:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1344:
1334:
1287:(10): 874–878.
1191:
1189:Further reading
1186:
1176:
1174:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1153:
1149:
1139:
1137:
1128:
1127:
1120:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1085:
1081:
1072:
1068:
1031:(298): 468–70.
1017:
1004:
995:
988:
976:
969:
954:, pp. 170–172,
949:
945:
927:, pp. 3–5, 13,
922:
915:
905:
903:
894:
893:
886:
847:
840:
829:
822:
812:
810:
787:(10): 874–878.
773:
769:
763:
750:
730:
723:
711:
698:
689:
685:
675:
673:
665:
664:
660:
613:
572:
562:
560:
552:
551:
547:
543:
531:
508:
502:
492:
483:
477:
470:
461:
431:
406:Hermann Henking
353:
337:Spermatogenesis
247:
235:
220:sex chromosomes
218:who discovered
177:
112:
101:
95:Alma mater
80:
79:, United States
74:
70:
61:
60:, United States
55:
49:
47:
46:
45:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3642:
3632:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3554:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3520:Judith Plaskow
3517:
3515:Peggy McIntosh
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3491:
3489:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3479:Michelle Obama
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3394:
3392:
3384:
3383:
3373:
3372:
3369:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3354:Laurie Spiegel
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3310:
3308:
3304:
3303:
3301:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3273:Sherry Lansing
3270:
3265:
3260:
3258:Temple Grandin
3255:
3249:
3247:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3217:Jean Kilbourne
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3188:
3186:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3141:Ina May Gaskin
3138:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3095:Billie Holiday
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3066:
3064:
3056:
3055:
3045:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3034:
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3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2982:
2980:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2828:Dorothea Lange
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2787:
2785:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2753:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2701:Bessie Coleman
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2677:
2675:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2571:
2569:
2561:
2560:
2550:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2289:Eileen Collins
2286:
2281:
2279:Amelia Bloomer
2276:
2271:
2269:Virginia Apgar
2265:
2263:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2238:Nettie Stevens
2235:
2233:Muriel Siebert
2230:
2225:
2220:
2218:Linda Richards
2215:
2210:
2208:Maria Mitchell
2205:
2203:Louise McManus
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2158:Catherine East
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2129:
2127:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2107:Faye Wattleton
2104:
2099:
2094:
2092:Helen Stephens
2089:
2087:Gloria Steinem
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2012:Dolores Huerta
2009:
2007:Dorothy Height
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1933:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1905:Barbara Jordan
1902:
1896:
1894:
1886:
1885:
1875:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1811:
1809:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1801:
1796:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1775:
1773:Belva Lockwood
1769:
1767:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1759:
1754:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1727:
1725:
1717:
1716:
1706:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1697:
1695:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1673:
1671:
1667:
1666:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1637:
1635:Harriet Tubman
1632:
1627:
1622:
1617:
1615:Florence Sabin
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1595:Alice Hamilton
1592:
1590:Amelia Earhart
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1536:
1534:
1526:
1525:
1515:
1514:
1506:
1505:
1498:
1491:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1471:
1462:
1453:
1432:
1408:
1403:
1394:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1369:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1353:Nettie Stevens
1346:
1345:
1343:
1342:External links
1340:
1339:
1338:
1333:978-0786421619
1332:
1315:
1270:
1252:(4): 292–311.
1239:
1211:10.1086/352001
1190:
1187:
1185:
1184:
1158:
1147:
1118:
1100:
1079:
1066:
1002:
986:
967:
943:
913:
884:
838:
820:
767:
748:
721:
696:
683:
671:www.dnaftb.org
658:
629:10.1086/352001
623:(2): 162–172.
570:
544:
542:
539:
538:
537:
530:
527:
507:
504:
490:
475:
469:
466:
460:
457:
430:
427:
423:model organism
352:
349:
246:
243:
234:
231:
207:
206:
203:
202:
197:
193:
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187:
181:
180:
169:
163:
162:
153:
149:
148:
143:
139:
138:
132:
131:
126:
125:Known for
122:
121:
96:
92:
91:
86:
82:
81:
75:
73:(aged 50)
67:
63:
62:
56:
43:
41:
37:
36:
28:
27:
25:Nettie Stevens
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3641:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
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3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3495:Patricia Bath
3493:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3464:Emily Howland
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3430:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3418:Toni Morrison
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3378:
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3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3314:Gloria Allred
3312:
3311:
3309:
3305:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3283:Aimee Mullins
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3253:Matilda Cuomo
3251:
3250:
3248:
3244:
3238:
3237:Eleanor Smeal
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3202:Martha Graham
3200:
3198:
3197:Nancy Brinker
3195:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3171:Anna Schwartz
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3131:
3127:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3046:
3032:
3031:Kate Stoneman
3029:
3027:
3026:Susan Solomon
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2950:Winona LaDuke
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2879:Betty Bumpers
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2848:Anne Sullivan
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2793:
2789:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
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1109:"ST17no1.pdf"
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783:(in French).
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19:
3525:Loretta Ross
3500:Ruby Bridges
3444:Judy Chicago
3339:Rose O'Neill
3319:Angela Davis
3298:Alice Waters
3293:Janet Rowley
3288:Carol Mutter
3176:Emma Willard
3156:Nancy Pelosi
3151:Kate Millett
3016:Ruth Patrick
3011:Emma Lazarus
2996:Karen DeCrow
2991:Mildred Cohn
2686:Lucille Ball
2660:Eudora Welty
2635:Sophia Smith
2620:Kate Mullany
2476:Sarah Grimké
2441:Maya Angelou
2274:Ann Bancroft
2253:Fanny Wright
2237:
2173:Grace Hopper
2097:Lillian Wald
2052:Annie Oakley
2032:Mary Mahoney
1856:Mary Risteau
1846:Willa Cather
1799:Bessie Smith
1677:Dorothea Dix
1605:Helen Keller
1580:Mary Cassatt
1555:Clara Barton
1445:. Retrieved
1440:
1381:Online books
1374:
1352:
1321:
1284:
1278:
1249:
1243:
1202:
1196:
1175:. Retrieved
1171:the original
1161:
1150:
1138:. Retrieved
1112:
1103:
1091:. Retrieved
1082:
1074:
1069:
1028:
1024:
997:
984:(3):371–405.
981:
978:
951:
946:
940:
924:
904:. Retrieved
854:
850:
832:
811:. Retrieved
784:
780:
770:
746:(3):313–334.
743:
740:
736:
732:
719:(4):292–311.
716:
713:
691:
686:
674:. Retrieved
670:
661:
620:
616:
561:. Retrieved
557:
548:
519:
516:
509:
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472:
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451:
447:
443:
441:
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416:
414:
401:
395:Y chromosome
386:
382:
374:
362:
321:
288:
248:
236:
211:
210:
171:
152:Institutions
135:
71:(1912-05-04)
54:July 7, 1861
18:
3574:1912 deaths
3569:1861 births
3530:Sandy Stone
3474:Indra Nooyi
3146:Julie Krone
2945:Swanee Hunt
2935:Julia Child
2899:Maya Y. Lin
2772:Bertha Holt
2706:Dorothy Day
2640:Ida Tarbell
2605:Jeanne Holm
2334:Maggie Kuhn
2133:Bella Abzug
2022:Mae Jemison
1992:Ella Grasso
1982:Alice Evans
1972:Ruth Colvin
1600:Helen Hayes
1540:Jane Addams
1113:Google Docs
1093:November 5,
857:(9): Fm i.
733:Aphis rosae
69:May 4, 1912
3563:Categories
3329:Jane Fonda
3324:Sarah Deer
3136:Betty Ford
2625:Janet Reno
2471:Gerty Cori
2446:Nellie Bly
2138:Ella Baker
2057:Rosa Parks
1851:Sally Ride
1820:Lucy Stone
1687:Alice Paul
1177:August 14,
1140:August 18,
964:0674034910
937:0674016211
898:. Nature.
813:August 18,
563:August 12,
541:References
370:embryology
299:germ cells
276:physiology
233:Early life
216:geneticist
50:1861-07-07
3459:Joy Harjo
3381:2020–2029
3053:2010–2019
2843:Sacagawea
2590:Mary Dyer
2558:2000–2009
2027:Mary Lyon
1883:1990–1999
1714:1980–1989
1523:1970–1979
1303:0767-0974
1258:0003-049X
1219:0021-1753
390:phenotype
378:Mendelian
272:histology
245:Education
85:Education
3454:Mia Hamm
1447:June 20,
1431:podcasts
1425:Archived
1414:Archived
1311:18950586
1266:11620765
1134:Archived
1061:17770612
900:Archived
879:10952298
871:22095870
807:Archived
803:18950586
529:See also
491:—
476:—
402:Tenebrio
399:mealworm
366:genetics
295:cytology
146:Genetics
1467:at the
1235:1919033
1053:1636618
1033:Bibcode
1025:Science
958:, 2009
931:, 2003
906:July 6,
676:July 7,
653:1919033
444:Science
397:in the
1441:3/6/09
1350:about
1330:
1309:
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1256:
1233:
1227:389882
1225:
1217:
1059:
1051:
962:
935:
877:
869:
801:
651:
645:389882
643:
637:230427
635:
506:Legacy
468:Quotes
351:Career
278:under
224:Mendel
178:(1903)
176:
167:Thesis
142:Fields
1420:from
1231:S2CID
1049:JSTOR
875:S2CID
649:S2CID
633:JSTOR
459:Death
452:white
436:white
3488:2024
3432:2022
3391:2020
3307:2019
3246:2017
3185:2015
3129:2013
3063:2011
2979:2009
2923:2007
2862:2005
2791:2003
2750:2002
2674:2001
2568:2000
2429:1998
2363:1996
2262:1995
2126:1994
1940:1993
1924:1991
1893:1990
1834:1988
1808:1986
1787:1984
1766:1983
1745:1982
1724:1981
1670:1979
1644:1976
1533:1973
1449:2013
1328:ISBN
1307:PMID
1299:ISSN
1262:PMID
1254:ISSN
1223:PMID
1215:ISSN
1198:Isis
1179:2018
1142:2013
1095:2020
1057:PMID
960:ISBN
933:ISBN
908:2016
867:PMID
815:2013
799:PMID
735:and
678:2016
641:PMID
617:Isis
565:2019
268:M.A.
66:Died
40:Born
1458:at
1289:doi
1250:125
1207:doi
1041:doi
859:doi
789:doi
739:.”
717:125
625:doi
118:PhD
110:MA)
106:(BA
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