New Spain - Knowledge

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also becoming a center of textile production. Although there were no dense indigenous populations or network of settlements, Indians migrated to the Bajío to work as resident employees on the region's haciendas and ranchos or rented land (terrasguerros). From diverse cultural backgrounds and with no sustaining indigenous communities, these indios were quickly hispanized, but largely remained at the bottom of the economic hierarchy. Although Indians migrated willingly to the region, they did so in such small numbers that labor shortages prompted Spanish hacendados to provide incentives to attract workers, especially in the initial boom period of the early seventeenth century. Land owners lent workers money, which could be seen as a perpetual indebtedness, but it can be seen not as coercing Indians to stay but a way estate owners sweetened their terms of employment, beyond their basic wage labor. For example, in 1775 the Spanish administrator of a San Luis Potosí estate "had to scour both Mexico City and the northern towns to find enough blue French linen to satisfy the resident employees." Other types of goods they received on credit were textiles, hats, shoes, candles, meat, beans, and a guaranteed ration of maize. However, where labor was more abundant or market conditions depressed, estate owners paid lower wages. The more sparsely populated northern Bajío tended to pay higher wages than the southern Bajío, which was increasingly integrated in the economy of central Mexico. The credit-based employment system often privileged those holding higher ranked positions on the estate (supervisors, craftsmen, other specialists) who were mostly white, and the estates did not demand repayment.

3203:. Each author gives different estimates for the total population, ranging from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354 (more recent data suggest that the population of New Spain in 1810 was 5 to 5.5 million individuals) and not much variation in ethnic composition, with Europeans ranging from 18% to 23% of New Spain's population, Mestizos ranging from 21% to 25%, Amerindians ranging from 51% to 61% and Africans being between 6,000 and 10,000. It is concluded then, that across nearly three centuries of colonization, the population growth trends of Europeans and Mestizos were steady, while the percentage of the indigenous population decreased at a rate of 13%–17% per century. The authors assert that rather than Europeans and Mestizos having higher birthrates, the reason for the indigenous population's decrease lies with their higher mortality, due to living in remote locations rather than in cities and towns founded by the Spanish colonists, or being at war with them. It is also for these reasons that the number of indigenous Mexicans presents a greater variation between publications, with their numbers in a given location estimated rather than counted, leading to possible overestimations in some provinces and underestimations in others. 626: 2943:

cohesion remained strong as shown in members' performance of regular community service for social ends. Zapotec elites engaged in the market economy early on, which undermined to an extent the bonds between commoners and elites who colluded with the Spanish. In contrast to the Zapotecs, the Zoque generally declined as a group during the ranching boom, with interloping animals eating their maize crops. Zoque response was to take up being vaqueros themselves. They had access to the trade to Guatemala. Of the three indigenous groups, the Huave were the most isolated from the Spanish ranching economy and labor demands. With little arable or grazing land, they exploited the lagoons of the Pacific coast, using shore and beach resources. They traded dried shrimp and fish, as well as purple dye from shells to Oaxaca, likely acquiring foodstuffs that they were unable to cultivate themselves.

1866: 176: 1931:(royal road) between the port of Veracruz and the capital had some short sections paved and bridges constructed. The construction was done despite protests from some indigenous settlements when the infrastructure improvements, which sometimes included rerouting the road through communal lands. The Spanish crown finally decided that road improvement was in the interests of the state for military purposes, as well as for fostering commerce, agriculture, and industry, but the lack of state involvement in the development of physical infrastructure was to have lasting effects, constraining development until the late nineteenth century. Despite the road improvements, transit was still difficult, particularly for heavy military equipment. 2668: 679: 665: 162: 9562: 9532: 2240: 2867:. Cochineal was a high-value, low-volume product that became the second-most valuable Mexican export after silver. Although it could be produced elsewhere in central and southern Mexico, its main region of production was Oaxaca. For the indigenous in Oaxaca, cochineal was the only one "with which the maintain themselves and pay their debts" but it also had other advantages. Producing cochineal was time-consuming labor, but it was not particularly difficult and could be done by the elderly, women, and children. It was also important to households and communities because it initially did not require the indigenous to displace their existing crops or migrate elsewhere. 3147: 1199: 1191: 721: 8911: 735: 2969: 2915:, the largest settlement on the isthmus, was an important prehispanic Zapotec trade and religious center, which was not under the jurisdiction of the Aztecs. The early colonial history of Tehuantepec and the larger province was dominated by Cortés and the Marquesado, but the crown realized the importance of the area and concluded an agreement in 1563 with the second Marqués by which the crown took control of the Tehuantepec encomienda. The Marquesado continued to have major private holdings in the province. The Villa of Tehuantepec became a center of Spanish and mixed-race settlement, crown administration, and trade. 773: 2219:, a rich, fertile lowland just north of central Mexico, was nonetheless a frontier region between the densely populated plateaus and valleys of Mexico's center and south and the harsh northern desert controlled by nomadic Chichimeca. Devoid of settled indigenous populations in the early sixteenth century, the Bajío did not initially attract Spaniards, who were much more interested in exploiting labor and collecting tribute whenever possible. The region did not have indigenous populations that practiced subsistence agriculture. The Bajío developed in the colonial period as a region of commercial agriculture. 9506: 1024: 1633: 76: 1684:, southwest of Tenochtitlan, the Mexico's mining region was outside the area of dense indigenous settlement. Labor for the mines in the north of Mexico had a workforce of black slave labor and indigenous wage labor, not draft labor. Indigenous who were drawn to the mining areas were from different regions of the center of Mexico, with a few from the north itself. With such diversity they did not have a common ethnic identity or language and rapidly assimilated to Hispanic culture. Although mining was difficult and dangerous, the wages were good, which is what drew the indigenous labor. 9492: 2919:

However important the Marquesado and the Dominican enterprises were, there were also other economic players in the region, including individual Spaniards as well as existing indigenous communities. Ranching emerged as the dominant rural enterprise in most of Tehuantepec with a ranching boom in the period 1580–1640. Since Tehuantepec experienced significant indigenous population loss in the sixteenth century conforming to the general pattern, ranching made possible for Spaniards to thrive in Tehuantepec because ranching was not dependent on significant amounts of indigenous labor.

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merchants, and indigenous via the repartimiento. cash loaned by local crown officials (the alcalde mayor and his teniente), usually to individual Indians but sometimes to communities, in exchange for a fixed amount of a good (cochineal or cotton mantles) at a later date. Indigenous elites were an integral part of the repartimiento, often being recipients of large extensions of credit. As authority figures in their community, they were in a good position to collect on the debt, the most risky part of the business from the Spanish point of view.

8918: 3038: 3097: 9542: 9482: 1458:, to strengthen central control over the viceroyalty. Some measures aimed to break the power of local elites in order to improve the economy of the empire. Reforms included the improvement of public participation in communal affairs, distribution of undeveloped lands to the indigenous and Spaniards, ending the corrupt practices of local crown officials, encouraging trade and mining, and establishing a system of territorial division similar to the model created by the government of France, already adopted in Spain. 3027: 2904:

history can be divided into three distinct periods, an initial period of engagement with Spanish colonial rule to 1563, during which there was a working relationship with the Zapotec ruling line and the establishment of Cortés's economic enterprises. This early period came to a close with the death of the last native king in 1562 and the escheatment of Cortés's Tehuantepec encomiendas to the crown in 1563. The second period of approximately a century (1563–1660) saw the decline of the indigenous entailed estate (

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and residences and leather used in a variety of ways (saddles, other tack, boots, furniture, machinery) were significant items in the larger colonial economy, finding markets well beyond Tehuantepec. Since the Marquesado operated as an integrated enterprise, draft animals were used in other holdings for transport, agriculture, and mining in Oaxaca, Morelos, Toluca, and Mexico City as well as sold. Raised in Tehuantepec, the animals were driven to other Marquesado holdings for use and distribution.

9422: 1599: 167: 2339: 9552: 9522: 9442: 3681: 909:, size and complexity of indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. Central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations, each with complex social, political, and economic organization, but no large-scale deposits of silver to draw Spanish settlers. By contrast, the northern area of Mexico was arid and mountainous, a region of nomadic and semi-nomadic indigenous populations, which do not easily support human settlement. In the 1540s, the discovery of 2829: 3158: 2851:) was a Spanish settlement founded in 1529, but the rest of Oaxaca consisted of indigenous towns. Despite its remoteness from Mexico City, "throughout the colonial era, Oaxaca was one of Mexico's most prosperous provinces." In the eighteenth century, the value of crown offices (alcalde mayor or corregidor) were the highest for two Oaxaca jurisdictions, with Jicayan and Villa Alta each worth 7,500 pesos, Cuicatlan-Papalotipac, 4,500; Teposcolula and Chichicapa, each 4,200 pesos.q 1618: 2142:

their acquisition of land. One region that retained strong Indian land holding was the southern fresh water area, with important suppliers of fresh produce to the capital. The area was characterized by intensely cultivated chinampas, human-made extensions of cultivable land into the lake system. These chinampa towns retained a strong indigenous character, and Indians continued to hold the majority of that land, despite its closeness to the Spanish capital. A key example is

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access to Spanish markets, African slaves were imported in large numbers to New Spain and many of them remained in the region of Veracruz. But even when that connection was broken and prices rose, black slaves remained an important component of Córdoba's labor sector even after 1700. Rural estates in Córdoba depended on African slave labor, who were 20% of the population there, a far greater proportion than any other area of New Spain, and greater than even nearby Jalapa.

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conducted a new census on which a person's race was listed, in 1921, but even then, due to its huge inconsistencies with other official registers as well as its historic context, modern investigators have deemed it inaccurate. Almost a century after the 1921 census, Mexico's government has begun to conduct ethno-racial surveys again, with results suggesting that the population growth trends for each major ethnic group haven't changed significantly since the 1793 census.

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region, and the indigenous peoples gathered wild indigo, used for dying cloth and as a trade good. After the arrival of the Spanish, they domesticated indigo and created plantations for its cultivation in Yucatan, El Salvador, and Guatemala. The indigo industry thrived, since there was high demand in Europe for a high quality, color-fast blue dye. In the region, cultivation and processing was done by indigenous workers, but the owners of plantations,

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significant indigenous population. It was located in a fertile basin on a temperate plateau in the nexus of the key trade triangle of Veracruz–Mexico City–Antequera (Oaxaca). Although there were no encomiendas in Puebla itself, encomenderos with nearby labor grants settled in Puebla. And despite its foundation as a Spanish city, sixteenth-century Puebla had Indians resident in the central core.

2727:, was the means by which indigenous cultural integrity was maintained. In the economic sphere, unlike many other regions and ethnic groups in Mesoamerica, the Yucatec Maya did not have a pre-conquest network of regular markets to exchange different types of food and craft goods. Perhaps because the peninsula was uniform in its ecosystem local niche production did not develop. Production of 2156:, the major ally of the Spanish against the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan, also became something of a backwater, but like Puebla it did not come under the control of Spanish encomenderos. No elite Spaniards settled there, but like many other Indian towns in the Valley of Mexico, it had an assortment of small-scale merchants, artisans, farmers and ranchers, and textile workshops (obrajes). 3015:

Africans. Spaniards continued to employ forced labor in the region starting with the conquest era and exact tribute from the indigenous. Compared to the mining areas of New Spain's North, this region was generally poor in mineral resources, although Honduras had a brief boom in gold mining, and in the colonial period had little potential to develop an export product, except for

2009:). The crown also set up warehouses to store up to a year's worth of supplies, including paper for cigarettes, for the factories. With the establishment of the monopoly, crown revenues increased and there is evidence that despite high prices and expanding rates of poverty, tobacco consumption rose while at the same time, general consumption fell. 2816:. In 1716–17 viceroy of New Spain organized a sufficient ships to expel the foreigners, where the crown subsequently built a fortress at Isla del Carmen. But the British held onto their territory in the eastern portion of the peninsula into the twentieth century. In the nineteenth century, the enclave supplied guns to the rebellious Maya in the 2416:. Oñate eventually learned that New Mexico, while it had a settled indigenous population, had little arable land, no silver mines, and possessed few other resources to exploit that would merit large scale colonization. He resigned as governor in 1607 and left New Mexico, having lost much of his personal wealth on the enterprise. 1924:

construction of railroads. In the colonial era and up until the railroads were built in key areas in post-independence in the late nineteenth century, mule trains were the main mode of transporting goods. Pack mules were used because unpaved roads, mountainous terrain, and seasonal flooding could not generally accommodate carts.

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because its creation was ordered by the Count of the same name. Most of the census' original datasets have reportedly been lost; thus most of what is known about it comes from essays and field investigations made by academics who had access to the census data and used it as reference for their works, such as Prussian geographer

2686:, and it has unique features, but it also has strong similarities to other areas in the South. The Yucatán Peninsula extends into the Gulf of Mexico and was connected to Caribbean trade routes and Mexico City, far more than some other southern regions, such as Oaxaca. The main Spanish settlements included the inland city of 2083:(including Querétaro) in the seventeenth century, and Guadalajara in the eighteenth. Puebla's wheat production was the initial source of its prosperity, but it emerged as a manufacturing and commercial center, "serving as the inland port of Mexico's Atlantic trade." Economically, the city was exempted from the 1101:(1846–1848). The northern region of New Spain in the colonial era was considered marginal to Spanish interests compared to the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America in the eighteenth century as other powers encroached on its claims, the crown sent 2057:

as a subtle expression of royal absolutism, the granting of extensive privileges to a town of commoners, amounting almost to republican self-government, in order to curtail the potential authority of encomenderos and the religious orders, as well as to counterbalance the power of the viceregal capital."

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them. Nonetheless, much of northern New Spain had sparse indigenous population and attracted few Europeans. The Spanish crown and later the Republic of Mexico did not effectively exert sovereignty over the region, leaving it vulnerable to the expansionism of the United States in the nineteenth century.

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Regardless of the imprecision related to the counting of indigenous peoples living outside of the colonized areas, the effort that New Spain's authorities put into considering them as subjects is worth mentioning, as censuses made by other colonial or post-colonial countries did not consider American

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Texcoco in the pre-conquest period was one of the three members of the Aztec Triple Alliance and the cultural center of the empire. It fell on hard times in the colonial period as an economic backwater. Spaniards with any ambition or connections would be lured by the closeness of Mexico City, so that

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The foundation of the town of Puebla was a pragmatic social experiment to settle Spanish immigrants without encomiendas to pursue farming and industry. Puebla was privileged in a number of ways, starting with its status as a Spanish settlement not founded on existing indigenous city-state, but with a

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Indians resisted cultivating sugarcane themselves, preferring to tend their subsistence crops. As in the Caribbean, black slave labor became crucial to the development of sugar estates. During the period 1580–1640 when Spain and Portugal were ruled by the same monarch and Portuguese slave traders had

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Regional characteristics of colonial Mexico have been the focus of considerable study. For those based in the vice-regal capital of Mexico City, everywhere else were the "provinces." Even in the modern era, "Mexico" for many refers solely to Mexico City, with the pejorative view that anywhere outside

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Much of what was called in the United States the "Spanish borderlands", is territory that attracted few Spanish settlers, with less dense indigenous populations and apparently lacking in mineral wealth. Huge deposits of gold in California were discovered immediately after it was incorporated into the

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Gold mining was an early draw for Spaniards, who directed indigenous labor to its extraction, but did not continue beyond the mid-sixteenth century. Over the long run, ranching and commerce were the most important economic activities, with the settlement of Tehuantepec becoming the hub. The region's

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Brihuega immigrants came to Mexico with expertise in textile production, and the transplanted briocenses provided capital to create large-scale obrajes. Although obrajes in Brihuega were small-scale enterprises, quite a number of them in Puebla employed up to 100 workers. Supplies of wool, water for

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rulers had demanded from native communities. This system came to signify the oppression and exploitation of natives, although its originators may not have set out with such intent. In short order the upper echelons of patrons and priests in the society lived off the work of the lower classes. Due to

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While different intendancies would conduct censuses to get insights into their inhabitants (namely occupation, number of persons per household, ethnicity etc.), it was not until 1793 that the results of the first national census would be published. That census is known as the "Revillagigedo census"

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The most detailed economic records for the region are of the Marquesado's ranching haciendas, which produced draft animals (horses, mules, burros, and oxen) and sheep and goats, for meat and wool. Cattle ranching for meat, tallow, and leather were also important. Tallow for candles used in churches

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red dye. Cochineal's commodity chain is interesting, with indigenous peasants in the remote areas of Oaxaca ultimately linked to Amsterdam and London commodity exchanges and the European production of luxury cloth. The most extensive study of Oaxaca's eighteenth-century economy deals with the nexus

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Administratively Puebla was far enough from Mexico City (approximately 160 km or 100 mi) so as not to be under its direct influence. Puebla's Spanish town council (cabildo) had considerable autonomy and was not dominated by encomenderos. The administrative structure of Puebla "may be seen

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European diseases immediately affected the multiethnic Indian populations in the Veracruz area and for that reason Spaniards imported black slaves as either an alternative to indigenous labor or its complete replacement in the event of a repetition of the Caribbean die-off. A few Spaniards acquired

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Veracruz was the first Spanish settlement founded in what became New Spain, and it endured as the only viable Gulf Coast port, the gateway for Spain to New Spain. The difficult topography around the port affected local development and New Spain as a whole. Going from the port to the central plateau

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Cacao had been cultivated in the prehispanic period. Orchards of cacao trees, which took a number of years to come to maturity and produce fruit. Cacao boomed in the late sixteenth century, and then was displaced by indigo as the most important export product. Indigo, like cacao, was native to the

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The discovery of mining deposits in Zacatecas and Guanajuato in the mid-sixteenth century and later in San Luis Potosí stimulated the Bajío's development to supply the mines with food and livestock. A network of Spanish towns was established in this region of commercial agriculture, with Querétaro

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The capital was provisioned by the indigenous towns, and its labor was available for enterprises that ultimately created a colonial economy. The gradual drying up of the central lake system created more dry land for farming, but the sixteenth-century population declines allowed Spaniards to expand

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The Caribbean port of Veracruz was small, with its hot, pestilential climate not a draw for permanent settlers: its population never topped 10,000. Many Spanish merchants preferred living in the pleasant highland town of Jalapa (1,500 m). For a brief period (1722–76) the town of Jalapa became even

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Although the crown had ambitious plans for both the Toluca and Veracruz portions of the king's highway, improvements were limited to a localized network. Even where infrastructure was improved, transit on the Veracruz-Puebla main road had other obstacles, with wolves attacking mule trains, killing

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Many of the intendancy boundaries became Mexican state boundaries after independence. The intendancies were created between 1764 and 1789, with the greatest number in the mainland in 1786: 1764 La Habana (later subdivided); 1766 Nueva Orleans; 1784 Puerto Rico; 1786 México, Veracruz, Puebla de Los

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Under Spanish rule, the Zapotecs not only survived, but flourished, unlike the other two. They continued to pursue agriculture, some of it irrigated, which was not disrupted by the growing ranching economy. Generally Zapotec elites protected their communities from Spanish incursions and community

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was the peninsula's port, the key gateway for the whole region. A merchant group developed and expanded dramatically as trade flourished during the seventeenth century. Although that period was once characterized as New Spain's "century of depression", for Yucatán this was certainly not the case,

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Areas of northern Mexico were incorporated into the United States in the mid-nineteenth century, following Texas independence and the Mexican–American War (1846–48) and generally known as the "Spanish Borderlands." Scholars in the United States have extensively studied this northern region, which

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Mexico City dominated the Valley of Mexico, but the valley continued to have dense indigenous populations challenged by growing, increasingly dense Spanish settlement. The Valley of Mexico had many former Indian city-states that became Indian towns in the colonial era. These towns continued to be

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Given the transport constraints, only high-value, low-bulk goods continued to be shipped in the transatlantic trade, which stimulated local production of foodstuffs, rough textiles, and other products for a mass market. Although New Spain produced considerable sugar and wheat, these were consumed

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The North was outside the area of complex indigenous populations, inhabited primarily by nomadic and hostile northern indigenous groups. With the discovery of silver in the north, the Spanish sought to conquer or pacify those peoples in order to exploit the mines and develop enterprises to supply

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The capital of Viceroyalty of New Spain, Mexico City, was one of the principal centers of European cultural expansion in the Americas. Some of the most important early buildings in New Spain were churches and other religious architecture. Civil architecture included the viceregal palace, now the

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was abolished and mentions of a person's caste in official documents was also abandoned, which led to the exclusion of racial classification from future censuses, and made it difficult to track demographic development of each ethnicity in the country. More than a century would pass before Mexico

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Although the repartimiento has historically been seen as an imposition on the indigenous, forcing them into economic relations they would rather have avoided and maintained by force, recent work on eighteenth-century Oaxaca analyzes the nexus of crown officials (the alcaldes mayores) and Spanish

2375:, son of one of the key figures in the silver remining region of Zacatecas, received official permission from the viceroy to explore and conquer New Mexico. As was the pattern of such expeditions, the leader assumed the greatest risk but would reap the largest rewards, so that Oñate would become 886:. Central Mexico became the base of expeditions of exploration and conquest, expanding the territory claimed by the Spanish Empire. With the political and economic importance of the conquest, the crown asserted direct control over the densely populated realm. The crown established New Spain as a 2048:

asserted that the income from the diocese of Puebla was twice that of the archbishopic of Mexico, due to the tithe income derived from agriculture. In its first hundred years, Puebla was prosperous from wheat farming and other agriculture, as the ample tithe income indicates, plus manufacturing

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The Cortés haciendas in Tehuantepec were key components of the province's economy, and they were directly linked to other Marquesado enterprises in greater Mexico in an integrated fashion. The Dominicans also had significant holdings in Tehuantepec, but there has been little research on these.

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system was established early and persisted far longer than in central Mexico, since fewer Spaniards migrated to the region than in the center. Although Yucatán was a more peripheral area to the colony, since it lacked rich mining areas and no agricultural or other export product, it did have a

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Even in the relatively richly endowed region of Mexico, the difficulty of transit of people and goods in the absence of rivers and level terrain remained a major challenge to the economy of New Spain. This challenge persisted during the post-independence years until the late nineteenth-century

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The picture is far more complex, however; while the capital is enormously important as the center of institutional, economic, and social power, the provinces played a significant role in colonial Mexico. Regions (provinces) developed and thrived to the extent that they became sites of economic

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The establishment of intendancies was strongly resisted by the viceroyalties and general captaincies similar to the opposition in the Iberian Peninsula when the reform was adopted. Royal audiencias and ecclesiastical hierarchs opposed the reform for its intervention in economic issues, for its

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in the Kingdom of Guatemala. Given the region's distance from major centers of power in New Spain and Spain itself, local strongmen in the early were only nominally subject to royal authority. The indigenous population was very large in comparison to the Spanish, and there were relatively few

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was lacking in mineral deposits and it had an abundant sedentary indigenous population, it developed without European or mixed-race population and large-scale Spanish haciendas, so the indigenous communities retained their land, indigenous languages, and distinct ethnic identities. Antequera

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Many renters retained ties to the estates, diversifying their household's sources of income and level of economic security. In San Luis Potosí, rentals were fewer and estate employment the norm. After a number of years of drought and bad harvests in the first decade of the nineteenth century

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In the late colonial period, renting complemented estate employment for many non-Indians in more central areas of the Bajío with access to markets. As with hacendados, renters produced for the commercial market. While these Bajío renters could prosper in good times and achieved a level of

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In 1765 the crown created a monopoly on tobacco, which directly affected agriculture and manufacturing in the Veracruz region. Tobacco was a valuable, high-demand product. Men, women, and even children smoked, something commented on by foreign travelers and depicted in eighteenth-century

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During the "golden century" from its founding in 1531 until the early 1600s, Puebla's agricultural sector flourished, with small-scale Spanish farmers plowing the land for the first time, planting wheat and vaulting Puebla to importance as New Spain's breadbasket, a role assumed by the

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entailed a daunting 2000 meter climb from the narrow tropical coastal plain in just over a hundred kilometers. The narrow, slippery road in the mountain mists was treacherous for mule trains, and in some cases mules were hoisted by ropes. Many tumbled with their cargo to their deaths.

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Although colonial population decline affected the indigenous in Tehuantepec, their communities remained important in the colonial era and remain distinctly Indian to the current era. There were differences in the three distinct linguistic and ethnic groups in colonial Tehuantepec, the

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attracted Spanish mining entrepreneurs and workers, to exploit the mines, as well as crown officials to ensure the crown received its share of revenue. Silver mining became integral not only to the development of New Spain, but also to the enrichment of the Spanish crown, which marked

1374:, such as the Captaincies General of the Philippines (established 1574) and Guatemala (established in 1609), which were joint military and political commands with a certain level of autonomy. The viceroy was captain-general of those provinces that remained directly under his command. 175: 2004:

paintings. The crown calculated that tobacco could produce a steady stream of tax revenues by supplying the huge Mexican demand, so the crown limited zones of tobacco cultivation. It also established a small number of factories of finished products, and licensed distribution outlets

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in Central Mexico. The South (Oaxaca, Michoacan, Yucatán, and Central America) was a region of dense indigenous settlement of Mesoamerica, but without exploitable resources of interest to Europeans, the area attracted few Europeans, while the indigenous presence remained strong.

2908:) and indigenous political power and development of the colonial economy and imposition of Spanish political and religious structures. The final period is the maturation of these structures (1660–1750). The 1660 rebellion can be a dividing line between the two later periods. 3132:

During the 16th century, the native population of Mexico fell from an estimated pre-Columbian population of 8 to 20 million to less than two million. Therefore, at the start of the 17th century, continental New Spain was a depopulated region with abandoned cities and

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Hidalgo's 1810 grito appealed more in the Bajío than in San Luis Potosí. In the Bajío estate owners were evicting tenants in favor of renters better able to pay more for land, there was a disruption of previous patterns of mutual benefit between estate owners and renters.

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The monarch had sweeping power in the overseas territories, with not just sovereignty over the realm but also property rights. All power over the state came from the monarch. The crown had sweeping powers over the Catholic Church in its overseas territories, and via the

2654:("disestablishment") of the missions (1834), Mexican land grant transactions increased the spread of the rancho system. The land grants and ranchos established mapping and land-ownership patterns that are still recognizable in present-day California and New Mexico. 2776:), but rivers and streams were generally absent on the peninsula. Individuals had rights to land so long as they cleared and tilled them and when the soil was exhausted, they repeated the process. In general, the Indians lived in a dispersed pattern, which Spanish 2037:, made Puebla a destination for later arriving Spaniards. If there had been significant mineral wealth in Puebla, it could have been even more prominent a center for New Spain, but its first century established its importance. In 1786 it became the capital of an 1728:

were also important exports for the New Spain, but was used through rather the vice royalties rather than contact with European countries due to piracy, and smuggling. The indigo industry in particular also helped to temporarily unite communities throughout the

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region of Oaxaca was strategically important for its short transit between the Gulf Coast and the Pacific, facilitating both overland and sea trade. The province of Tehuantepec was the Pacific side of the isthmus and the headwaters of the Coatzacoalcos River.

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Not well documented is the number of African slaves and their descendants, who were artisans in urban areas and did hard manual labor in rural areas. In a pattern recognizable elsewhere, coastal populations were mainly African, including an unknown number of

1817:, the first in history and whose origin is owed precisely to the need for funds to finance pirate expeditions, as later by the London market. The above is what some authors call the "historical process of the transfer of wealth from the south to the north." 1229:, which were primarily superior tribunals, but which also had administrative and legislative functions. Each of these was responsible to the Viceroy of New Spain in administrative matters (though not in judicial ones), but they also answered directly to the 130: 131: 129: 2624:. The Spanish system of land grants was not very successful; however, because the grants were merely royal concessions—not actual land ownership. Under later Mexican rule, land grants conveyed ownership, and were more successful at promoting settlement. 774: 128: 2566:

colonies there, having far fewer known natural resources and less cultural development than Mexico or Peru, were to combine establishing posts to defend the territory with a perceived responsibility to convert the indigenous people to Christianity.

2098:, and Puebla demonstrated the close connection between the two settlements. The growth in Puebla's manufacturing sector did not simply coincide with immigration from Brihuega but was crucial to "shaping and driving Puebla's economic development". 1846:

production and tied into networks of trade. "Spanish society in the Indies was import-export oriented at the very base and in every aspect," and the development of many regional economies was typically centered on support of that export sector.

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Tanto el escudo de Lima como el de la ciudad de México fueron tomados como sinécdoque de los reinos de los que eran capital, tal y como puede observarse en el Salón de Reinos de Madrid donde ambos aparecen representando a los reinos de Perú y

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volcano. Orizaba varied considerably in elevation from 800 metres (2,600 ft) to 5,700 metres (18,700 ft) (the summit of the Citlaltepetl volcano), but "most of the inhabited part is temperate." Some Spaniards lived in semitropical

3913:

Both the coat of arms of Lima and Mexico City were taken as a symbol of the kingdoms of which they were the capital, as can be seen in the Hall of Kingdoms in Madrid, where both appear representing the kingdoms of Peru and Mexico. Spanish:

2598:, three total). Due to the region's great distance from supplies and support in México, the system had to be largely self-sufficient. As a result, the colonial population of California remained small, widely scattered and near the coast. 1672:

generally refers to men granted the labor and tribute of a particular indigenous group in the immediate post-conquest era, encomenderos de negros were Portuguese slave dealers who were permitted to operate in Mexico for the slave trade.

1707:

had been established in the sixteenth century and suffered decline for a variety of reasons in the seventeenth century, but silver mining in Mexico out-performed all other Spanish overseas territories in revenues for the royal coffers.

2049:

woolen cloth for the domestic market. Merchants, manufacturers, and artisans were important to the city's economic fortunes, but its early prosperity was followed by stagnation and decline in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

14080: 2780:

or forced resettlement attempted to alter. Collective labor cultivated the confraternities' lands, which included raising the traditional maize, beans, and cotton. But confraternities also later pursued cattle ranching, as well as

2513:

Not until the eighteenth century was California of much interest to the Spanish crown, since it had no known rich mineral deposits or indigenous populations sufficiently organized to render tribute and do labor for Spaniards. The

2032:

quickly rose to the status of Mexico's second-most important city. Its location on the main route between the viceregal capital and the port of Veracruz, in a fertile basin with a dense indigenous population, largely not held in

1892:), and home of the most elite families in the Kingdom of New Spain. Mexico City was the single most populous city, not just in New Spain, but for many years the entire Western Hemisphere, with a high concentration of mixed-race 2138:

ruled by indigenous elites under the Spanish crown, with an indigenous governor and a town councils. The Indian towns close to the capital were the most desirable ones for encomenderos to hold and for the friars to evangelize.

1462:

centralist politics, and the forced ceding of many of their functions to the intendants. In New Spain, these units generally corresponded to the regions or provinces that had developed earlier in the center, South, and North.

2719:

were an important component of Yucatecan society. The largest population in the province was indigenous Maya, who lived in their communities, but which were in contact with the Hispanic sphere via labor demands and commerce.

2731:

textiles, largely by Maya women, helped pay households' tribute obligations, but basic crops were the basis of the economy. The cah retained considerable land under the control of religious brotherhoods or confraternities

1988:

prime agricultural lands left vacant by the indigenous demographic disaster. Portions of the province could support sugar cultivation and as early as the 1530s sugar production was underway. New Spain's first viceroy, Don

1530:. Missions and presidios were established in northern frontiers, aiding in the expansion and control of territories that later became part of the southwestern United States. The 18th century saw the implementation of the 1085:. Although asserting sovereignty over this vast realm, it did not effectively control large swaths. Other European powers, including England, France, and the Netherlands established colonies in territories Spain claimed. 2322:, but only four survived as Amerindian villages throughout the 18th century. In 1691, explorers and missionaries visited the interior of Texas and came upon a river and Amerindian settlement on 13 June, the feast day of 3128:

since these diseases were totally alien to the native population. There were at least three separate, major epidemics that devastated the population: smallpox (1520–1521), measles (1545–1548) and typhus (1576–1581).

127: 3137:

fields. These diseases did not affect the Philippines in the same way because they were already present; Pre-Hispanic Filipinos had contact with other foreign nationalities prior to the arrival of the Spaniards.

2752:

in its modified form was the community." Local Spanish clergy had no reason to object to the arrangement since much of the revenue went for payment for masses or other spiritual matters controlled by the priest.

1223:, who had administrative oversight of all of these regions, although most matters were handled by the local governmental bodies, which ruled the various regions of the viceroyalty. First among these were the 14073: 1643:

During the era of the conquest, in order to pay off the debts incurred by the conquistadors and their companies, the new Spanish governors awarded their men grants of native tribute and labor, known as

997:, a grant by the papacy to the crown to oversee the Church in all aspects save doctrine. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was created by royal decree on October 12, 1535, in the Kingdom of New Spain with a 902:. Both New Spain and Peru had dense indigenous populations at conquest as a source of labor and material wealth in the form of vast silver deposits, discovered and exploited beginning in the mid-1500s. 2789:

in southern Campeche were involved in inter-regional trade in cacao as well as cattle ranching. Although generally the revenues from crops and animals were devoted to expenses in the spiritual sphere,

2102:

fulling mills, and labor (free indigenous, incarcerated Indians, black slaves) were available. Although much of Puebla's textile output was rough cloth, it also produced higher quality dyed cloth with

2748:

were traditionally lay pious organizations and burial societies, but in Yucatán they became significant holders of land, a source of revenue for pious purposes kept under cah control. "n Yucatán the

14066: 2639:, sometimes displaced and/or relocated from their villages. Native-born descendants of the resident Spanish-heritage rancho grantees, soldiers, servants, merchants, craftsmen and others became the 1916:, which can be defined as the adjacent valleys of Puebla, Mexico, and Toluca, enclosed by high mountains, along with their connections to the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz and the Pacific port of 2951:(runaway slave) settlements, while inland the indigenous communities were more prominent. On the Cortés haciendas, blacks and mulattoes were essential to the profitability of the enterprises. 1680:, was the enormously rich single silver mine discovered at Potosí, but in New Spain, labor recruitment differed significantly. With the exception of silver mines worked in the Aztec period at 1313:, were established in major areas of Spanish settlement. In New Spain the high court was established in 1527, prior to the establishment of the viceroyalty. The First Audiencia was headed by 180:

Anachronistic map showing all territories that were ever part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (dark green). The areas in light green were territories claimed but not controlled by New Spain.

2094:

Puebla built significant textile production in workshops (obrajes) supplying New Spain and markets as far away as Guatemala and Peru. Transatlantic ties between a particular Spanish town,

8484: 2458:

After the return of the Spanish in 1692, the final resolution included a marked reduction of Spanish efforts to eradicate native culture and religion, the issuing of substantial communal

5632: 1884:

itself was vitally important to the development of New Spain as a whole. It was the seat of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the Archdiocese of the Catholic Church, the Holy Office of the

125: 3883:

The crown did not wish to have the main west coast port in private hands and an agreement was worked out with Cortés heir, Don Martín Cortés, to relinquish the Tehuantepec encomienda.

1920:, where over half the population of New Spain lived. These valleys were linked trunk lines, or main routes, facilitating the movement of vital goods and people to get to key areas. 12398: 1935:

animals, and rendering some sacks of foodstuffs unsellable because they were smeared with blood. The north-south Acapulco route remained a mule track through mountainous terrain.

1037:

At its greatest extent, the Spanish crown claimed on the mainland of the Americas much of North America south of Canada, that is: all of modern Mexico and Central America except

1466:Ángeles, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Sonora, Durango, Oaxaca, Guatemala, San Salvador, Comayagua, León, Santiago de Cuba, Puerto Príncipe; 1789 Mérida. 1794:(mother country) due to Spanish Roman Catholic Monarchy's frequent preoccupation with European wars (enormous amounts of this wealth were spent hiring mercenaries to fight the 3904: 9393: 8955: 1767:

These were ships that made voyages from the Philippines to Mexico, whose goods were then transported overland from Acapulco to Veracruz and later reshipped from Veracruz to

1434:. Despite their late creation, these intendancies so affected the formation of regional identity that they became the basis for the nations of Central America and the first 1321:, who used the court to deprive Cortés of power and property. The crown dissolved the First Audiencia and established the Second Audiencia. The audiencias of New Spain were 126: 11836: 9146: 7724: 2954:

In general, Tehuantepec was not a site of major historical events, but in 1660–61, there was a significant rebellion stemming from increased repartimiento Spanish demands.

1984:, with whom the crown concluded a treaty leading to the recognition of a largely black town, San Lorenzo de los Negros de Cerralvo, later called the municipality of Yanga. 14559: 12097: 9058: 5655: 9283: 7729: 3124:, and other infectious diseases. Most of the Spanish settlers had developed an immunity to these diseases from childhood, but the indigenous peoples lacked the needed 707: 9043: 8999: 1771:

in Spain. So then, the ships that set sail from Veracruz were generally loaded with merchandise from the East Indies originating from the commercial centers of the

9053: 2044:

It became the seat of the richest diocese in New Spain in its first century, with the seat of the first diocese, formerly in Tlaxcala, moved there in 1543. Bishop

2252:

became the states of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. During the period of Spanish rule, this area was sparsely populated even by indigenous peoples.

9195: 2315: 14639: 9092: 8945: 10966: 9073: 3059:

It was a dangerous work environment, with toxins in the indigo plants that sickened and sometimes killed workers. It was profitable, especially following the

12067: 2863:), the repartimiento (forced labor), and indigenous products, particularly cochineal. The rich, color-fast red dye produced from insects, was harvested from 9278: 9028: 14604: 12391: 12252: 9122: 6120:

Marichal, Carlos (2006). "Mexican Cochineal and the European Demand for American Dyes, 1550–1850". In Steven Topik; Carlos Marichal; Zephyr Frank (eds.).

1718:

was an important export in areas such as central Mexico and Oaxaca in terms of revenues to the crown and stimulation of the internal market of New Spain.

1108:

Religious missions and fortified presidios were established to shore up Spanish control on the ground. On the mainland, the administrative units included

14634: 14629: 14609: 14579: 12683: 9975: 8640: 2267:(missions) were the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial holdings in these territories. 919: 894:, an aristocrat loyal to the monarch rather than the conqueror Cortés. New Spain was the first of the viceroyalties that Spain created, the second being 14544: 10986: 9901: 6428: 9224: 1952:

more important than Veracruz, after it was granted the right to hold the royal trade fair for New Spain, serving as the entre for goods from Asia via

1503:

to maintain control. It involved the forced conversion of indigenous populations to Christianity and the blending of Spanish and indigenous cultures.

13515: 13238: 12000: 11904: 9386: 8635: 3777: 1825:

In the colonial period, basic patterns of regional development emerged and strengthened. European settlement and institutional life was built in the

7345: 5569: 75: 9229: 9018: 8476: 2168:, there has been considerable scholarship on the Spanish borderlands in the north. The motor of the Spanish colonial economy was the extraction of 9200: 12384: 12257: 11451: 8865: 10946: 2939:. The Zapotecs concluded an alliance with the Spaniards at contact, and they had already expanded their territory into Zoque and Huave regions. 2723:

In Yucatán, Spanish rule was largely indirect, allowing these communities considerable political and cultural autonomy. The Maya community, the

2601:

In 1776, the north-western frontier areas came under the administration of the new 'Commandancy General of the Internal Provinces of the North'

1574: 14554: 12293: 5639: 4043: 1842:

the capital is a hopeless backwater. "Fuera de México, todo es Cuauhtitlán" , that is, poor, marginal, and backward, in short, the periphery.

1661:

suggested bringing black slaves to replace them. Fray Bartolomé later repented when he saw the even worse treatment given to the black slaves.

9288: 9102: 14599: 14499: 11909: 10996: 8965: 6507: 3599: 2864: 2462:

to each Pueblo, and a public defender of their rights and for their legal cases in Spanish courts. In 1776 the New Mexico came under the new

9161: 9156: 2832: 1980:) predations on mule trains traveling the route from the port to the capital. Some cimarrón settlements sought autonomy, such as one led by 1613:

was New Spain's most important export product after silver and its production was almost exclusively in the hands of indigenous cultivators.

1185: 14649: 14594: 14524: 12847: 12303: 12298: 12206: 12102: 10601: 9959: 9379: 8984: 5869:

Indians, Merchants, and Markets: A Reinterpretation of the Repartimiento and Spanish-Indian Economic Relations in Colonial Oaxaca 1750–1821

1102: 9063: 9033: 1687:

The Viceroyalty of New Spain was the principal source of income for Spain in the eighteenth century, with the revival of mining under the

13433: 13105: 9337: 9151: 9107: 3824: 9342: 8935: 13760: 13754: 6353: 3757: 3063:, which allowed trade within the Spanish empire. In the late eighteenth century, indigo growers organized in a trade organization, the 905:

New Spain developed strong regional divisions based on local climate, topography, distance from the capital and the Gulf Coast port of

3564:, that did not count Indigenous peoples living among the general population until 1860, and indigenous peoples as a whole until 1900. 985:. Although New Spain was a dependency of Castile, it (Mexico) was a kingdom and not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the 949:. This resulted in a political crisis in New Spain and much of the Spanish Empire in 1808, which ended with the government of Viceroy 14589: 14549: 14539: 14519: 14467: 13201: 11948: 9171: 8650: 2613:

in 1804; the southern peninsula became Baja California, and the ill-defined northern mainland frontier area became Alta California.

14409: 14404: 13901: 12453: 11816: 10920: 9598: 9023: 8645: 6675: 6084:

Hunt, Marta Espejo Ponce (1976). "The Processes of the Development of Yucatan, 1600–1700". In Altman, Ida; Lockhart, James (eds.).

2707:

complex of Spanish settlement, with a whole range of social types in the main settlements of Mérida and the villas of Campeche and

9176: 9166: 14514: 14509: 14429: 12547: 12483: 12132: 10900: 1865: 154: 14058: 2609:, designed to streamline administration and invigorate growth. The crown created two new provincial governments from the former 14094: 13360: 13115: 12984: 12407: 9112: 7879: 3874:

Baskes suggests the crown restricted its production to Oaxaca until 1819, which likely contributed to artificially high prices.

2300: 10038: 8989: 8960: 2354: 1402:

At the local level there were over two hundred districts, in both indigenous and Spanish areas, which were headed by either a

14394: 13986: 13248: 12493: 12428: 12117: 11993: 11674: 9785: 9322: 6759: 6282: 6241:

Historia de la conquista de México, poblacion y progresos de la América Septentrional, conocida por el nombre de Nueva España

6201:

Land in California: the story of mission lands, ranchos, squatters, mining claims, railroad grants, land scrip and homesteads

6113:

The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries

6102:

Lockhart, James (1991). "Trunk lines and feeder lines: The Spanish Reaction to American Resources". In James Lockhart (ed.).

5748: 5532: 5423: 5392: 4826: 4808: 4790: 4772: 4643: 4598: 4471: 4392: 4338: 4273: 4077: 3787: 3075:, and the English took advantage of weak Spanish control to establish a commercial presence on the Gulf Coast, later seizing 2690:, where Spanish civil and religious officials had their headquarters and where the many Spaniards in the province lived. The 2409: 1606: 416: 10636: 10505: 10132: 10128: 9565: 3557: 1553:, the insurgent army waged an eleven-year war against Spanish rule. The eventual alliance between royalist military officer 13815: 12648: 12613: 12418: 12221: 12137: 12122: 11769: 11764: 11132: 10538: 10181: 9634: 8088: 7759: 6957: 6609: 6597: 2643:. Many of the less-affluent men took native wives, and many daughters married later English, French and American settlers. 1779:

and natural resources of Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. During the 16th century, Spain held the equivalent of

1481: 1258: 974: 867: 800: 546: 429: 279: 6520: 1534:, which aimed to modernize and strengthen the colonial administration and economy. These reforms included the creation of 14414: 14389: 13907: 13077: 12962: 12458: 12448: 12438: 12433: 12127: 11831: 10951: 9254: 8858: 8083: 7839: 6579: 3752: 1948:

exclusively in the colony even though there was demand elsewhere. Philadelphia, not New Spain, supplied Cuba with wheat.

899: 728: 9820: 6152:

Monsivaís, Carlos (1992). "'Just Over That Hill'": Notes on Centralism and Regional Cultures". In Eric Van Young (ed.).

2982:

With the growth of a sufficient Spanish population and the crown's desire to better govern the area, it established the

142: 14424: 14399: 14384: 14369: 13712: 12979: 12888: 12596: 12270: 12265: 12226: 12216: 12092: 11598: 10915: 10851: 10573: 10553: 10028: 9760: 9723: 8714: 8121: 8017: 6967: 5707: 5682: 2636: 2192: 1542:

and the establishment of economic societies, were part of the efforts to enhance efficiency and revenue for the crown.

1254: 189: 11963: 11067: 7669: 3861:

The crown sold public offices, with their purchasers expecting to quickly recoup the costs. For a complete chart, see

1001:

appointed as the king's "deputy" or substitute. This was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two that the

145:(18): first national flag, naval and fortress flag, the last flag to float in continental America, in the Fortress of 14569: 14379: 14374: 14359: 14018: 13945: 12810: 12698: 12638: 12423: 11664: 11573: 10971: 10515: 10068: 9698: 7982: 7849: 6669: 6645: 6633: 6627: 6458: 6210: 6142: 5992: 5948: 5916: 5835: 5785: 5729: 3627: 2672: 2617: 2562:

In 1768, Gálvez received the order to "Occupy and fortify San Diego and Monterey for God and the King of Spain." The

2467: 14224: 7744: 7689: 1639:, one of the first negotiators to hold office in Hibueras where he founded the towns of San Pedro Sula and Guatemala 14564: 14442: 14323: 14242: 13821: 13386: 12805: 12780: 12560: 12211: 11986: 11864: 10548: 10032: 9810: 9332: 9244: 9068: 8234: 7824: 6962: 6711: 6292:

Tutino, John (1979). "Life and Labor on North Mexican Haciendas: The Queretaro-San Luis Potosi Region, 1775-1810".

3772: 2579: 2384: 1262: 1253:

from the viceroyalty. The viceroy was captain-general of those provinces that remained directly under his command.

11240: 11175: 7649: 2667: 1760:

was the main port. The ports were fundamental for overseas trade, stretching a trade route from Asia, through the

14584: 14419: 13426: 13303: 12898: 12837: 12062: 11801: 11593: 11380: 11180: 10729: 10664: 10250: 10152: 8940: 7719: 7594: 6929: 6475: 6253:

Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533–1960

3560:

would only count the inhabitants of the colonized settlements. Another example would be the censuses made by the

3083:) accumulated land and built fortunes on wheat, sugar, and cattle, all of which were consumed within the region. 2495: 2424: 1455: 1322: 11719: 11235: 10679: 10563: 6972: 1561:

led to the successful campaign for independence. In 1821, New Spain officially became the independent nation of

1274: 14529: 14504: 13047: 12775: 12247: 12149: 11821: 11759: 11558: 10976: 10689: 10669: 10641: 10558: 10533: 10393: 10201: 10108: 10048: 10015: 8851: 7922: 7874: 7844: 7679: 7182: 6952: 6914: 6909: 6328: 6017: 3792: 3762: 3747: 2983: 2963: 2889: 2793:

cattle were used for direct aid to community members during droughts, stabilizing the community's food supply.

2571: 1668:

were specialized middlemen during the first half of the seventeenth century. While encomendero (alternatively,

1270: 11784: 11613: 11370: 9293: 7774: 6621: 3641:

Architects Pedro Martínez Vázquez and Lorenzo Rodriguez produced some visually frenetic architecture known as

2540:

ordered all Jesuits expelled from all Spanish possessions, including New Spain. New Spain's Visitador General

1545:

The decline of New Spain culminated in the early 19th century with the Mexican War of Independence. Following

1386: 14574: 14353: 14347: 13545: 13110: 13015: 12770: 12618: 11936: 11914: 11869: 11811: 11789: 11603: 11375: 11057: 10846: 10831: 9916: 9780: 9733: 9435: 8886: 8874: 8630: 8622: 7864: 7674: 6891: 6794: 6615: 4127: 4102: 3812: 3782: 3662: 1798:), as well as the incessant decrease in overseas transportation caused by assaults from companies of British 1338: 506: 355: 11165: 7769: 14624: 14619: 13318: 13216: 13120: 13100: 12920: 12903: 12800: 12112: 11806: 11774: 11305: 11170: 10606: 9986: 9795: 9591: 9495: 9475: 9465: 9219: 8603: 7894: 5619: 3642: 2736:), the device by which Maya communities avoided colonial officials, the clergy, or even indigenous rulers ( 2401: 2319: 2191:

The region farther north of the main mining zones attracted few Spanish settlers. Where there were settled

11794: 11127: 9234: 6530: 3658: 3619: 2443:

resented their forced conversion to Christianity and suppression of their religion, and the imposition of

2365:

indigenous tribes of northern México in 1591. This allowed expansion into the 'Province of New Mexico' or

2239: 14341: 14279: 13851: 13025: 12925: 12852: 12586: 12540: 12288: 11779: 11679: 11310: 10762: 10694: 9663: 9455: 9141: 9117: 8022: 7859: 7854: 7834: 7453: 6163:

Shadows over Anahuac: an Ecological Interpretation of Crisis and Development in Central Mexico, 1730–1800

6015:

Gonzales, Phillip B. (2003). "Struggle for survival: the Hispanic land grants of New Mexico, 1848–2001".

5583: 4051: 3829: 3041: 2647: 2439:

were established to convert the indigenous peoples and manage the agricultural industry. The territory's

1927:

In the late eighteenth century, the crown devoted some resources to study and remedy the poor roads. The

1485: 1334: 954: 14261: 14120: 13827: 11230: 11137: 7629: 7475: 6122:

From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World Economy, 1500–2000

3611: 2367: 2153: 1874: 1165: 14317: 14047: 13557: 13551: 13419: 13328: 13149: 13040: 13030: 12703: 12658: 12330: 12325: 12042: 11714: 11077: 10724: 10611: 10523: 10495: 10122: 10092: 9897: 9728: 9561: 9535: 9531: 9485: 9445: 9425: 7992: 7869: 7589: 7235: 6396:. "Two Decades of Anglophone Historical Writing on Colonial Mexico: Continuity and Change since 1980". 5576:

Considerations on the population of New Spain: 1793–1810, according to Humboldt and Navarro and Noriega

3742: 2761: 2432: 1904:

Significant regional development grew along the main transportation route from the capital east to the

816: 459: 161: 11097: 11052: 9097: 8765: 7779: 7749: 7714: 7659: 7654: 14436: 14299: 13833: 13657: 13497: 13233: 12952: 12935: 12857: 12790: 11633: 11583: 11441: 11340: 10836: 10709: 10674: 10626: 10528: 10140: 10024: 9713: 9683: 9678: 9038: 8775: 8057: 7977: 7884: 7784: 6995: 6987: 6947: 6741: 6723: 6494: 3146: 2530: 2397: 1546: 1266: 1198: 1190: 1049:, settled prior to the conquest of the Aztec Empire, also came under New Spain's jurisdiction: Cuba, 10258: 7947: 7330: 5571:

Consideraciones sobre la población de la Nueva España: 1793–1810, según Humboldt y Navarro y Noriega

2518:

in the Sierra Nevada foothills did not come until after the U.S. had added California following the

1658: 14644: 14534: 14230: 14218: 14212: 13957: 13951: 13639: 13539: 13135: 13130: 12825: 12820: 12815: 12764: 12755: 12633: 12321: 12057: 12052: 12047: 12032: 11578: 11461: 11421: 11360: 11355: 11295: 10714: 10704: 10490: 10193: 10104: 9805: 9327: 9048: 7734: 7468: 7400: 6924: 6919: 6340:

Cultural Politics in Colonial Tehuantepec: Community and State among the Isthmus Zapotec, 1500–1750

3852:

Brian R. Hamnett says that "José de Gálvez considered Oaxaca one of New Spain's richest provinces".

3173: 2968: 2519: 2436: 2264: 2200: 1500: 1418:(town council), both of which had judicial and administrative powers. In the late 18th century the 1342: 1330: 1326: 1098: 1062: 307: 11958: 11037: 10270: 9790: 9259: 7927: 7584: 7335: 7197: 6504: 3151: 2244: 14088: 13700: 13682: 13206: 13067: 12795: 12603: 12308: 12231: 12024: 12016: 11628: 11486: 11330: 11270: 11220: 11122: 10719: 10684: 10631: 10266: 10136: 10100: 9830: 9703: 9688: 9584: 8950: 8062: 7972: 7704: 7664: 7639: 7360: 7340: 6651: 6572: 2591: 2483: 2165: 1246: 12663: 10821: 7967: 3623: 2800:, as the English took territory the Spanish claimed but did not control, especially what became 2413: 1956:

through the port of Acapulco and European goods via the flota (convoy) from the Spanish port of

14614: 14010: 13913: 13527: 13271: 13176: 13082: 13072: 12930: 12910: 12608: 12533: 12466: 12037: 11919: 11491: 11426: 10930: 10816: 10699: 10659: 10303: 10096: 9755: 9745: 9313: 7794: 7789: 7390: 7375: 7230: 7187: 6867: 6829: 6663: 6539: 6420: 6072: 3807: 3200: 2972: 2065: 1909: 1881: 1860: 1795: 1665: 1538:, increased military presence, and the centralization of royal authority. The expulsion of the 1023: 686: 489: 476: 341: 245: 11062: 9298: 8047: 7917: 7510: 2708: 1554: 1390: 962: 950: 14293: 14194: 14150: 13857: 13791: 13706: 13343: 13196: 13186: 13062: 13010: 12940: 12893: 12832: 12653: 12175: 11365: 10775: 10596: 10485: 10424: 10352: 10262: 9963: 9643: 9525: 9186: 8790: 8760: 8666: 8078: 8007: 7438: 7405: 7350: 7152: 7126: 7000: 6852: 5672: 3819: 3031: 2621: 2029: 1496: 1404: 1294: 1230: 1149: 982: 941:

From the beginning of the 19th century, the kingdom fell into crisis, aggravated by the 1808

828: 597: 406: 269: 250: 193: 11899: 11300: 11087: 11047: 11006: 9980: 9249: 7937: 7709: 7619: 5907:

Building the King's Highway: Labor, Society, and Family on Mexico's Caminos Reales 1757–1804

2805: 2699:

with sustained growth from the early seventeenth century to the end of the colonial period.

1450:

As part of the sweeping eighteenth-century administrative and economic changes known as the

874:

named the territory New Spain, and established the new capital, Mexico City, on the site of

14176: 14144: 13927: 13875: 13748: 13670: 13533: 13503: 13453: 13355: 13191: 13166: 13161: 13052: 12957: 12591: 12576: 12471: 12190: 12185: 12107: 11874: 11543: 11506: 11496: 11436: 11335: 11315: 11210: 11022: 10841: 9718: 9708: 9210: 8052: 7799: 7574: 7355: 7280: 7085: 6857: 6551: 5503:

Class Privilege and Economic Development: The Consulado de Comercio of Guatemala, 1793–1871

3802: 3585: 2817: 2687: 2537: 2515: 2428: 2292: 1730: 1475: 1439: 958: 700: 644: 631: 442: 275: 255: 12713: 11400: 11190: 11112: 9505: 9239: 8027: 7932: 7694: 7192: 6006:

The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: a History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519–1810

3646: 2679: 1976:, which was founded as a villa in 1618, to serve as a Spanish base against runaway slave ( 1973: 1632: 519: 8: 14364: 14329: 14287: 14267: 14164: 14132: 14002: 13863: 13730: 13603: 13563: 13463: 13308: 13298: 13181: 13087: 12967: 12915: 12738: 12718: 12376: 12350: 11943: 11699: 11684: 11568: 11548: 11501: 11481: 11285: 11280: 11225: 11195: 10961: 10586: 10543: 10500: 10429: 10398: 10169: 10148: 10114: 10020: 9990: 9921: 9765: 9738: 9638: 9555: 9269: 9083: 8975: 8178: 7624: 7162: 6977: 6862: 6819: 6809: 6657: 6130: 5851:

Transatlantic Ties in the Spanish Empire: Brihuega, Spain & Puebla, Mexico, 1560–1620

3834: 3767: 3006:. The region was diverse, and outlying provinces were resentful for elites in capital of 2604: 2541: 2471: 2463: 2283:) was founded in 1706. Other Mexican towns in the region included Paso del Norte (modern 2091:(import/export duties) for its first century (1531–1630), which helped promote commerce. 1589: 1586:

minted in New Spain. Silver was its most important export, starting in the 16th century.

1318: 1278: 1117: 1066: 1046: 946: 935: 895: 672: 658: 11689: 11390: 9491: 9347: 7320: 7300: 5960:

Bureaucrats, Planters, and Workers: The Making of the Tobacco Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico

3068: 2227:

independence, drought and other disasters made their choice more risky than beneficial.

1518:, turning New Spain into a vital part of the Spanish Empire. The discovery of silver in 1282: 389: 198: 146: 14494: 14448: 14026: 13939: 13509: 13491: 13338: 13313: 12876: 12862: 12678: 12144: 11704: 11694: 11669: 11623: 11588: 11446: 11155: 11032: 10905: 10403: 10383: 10043: 9931: 9658: 9009: 8926: 8895: 8832: 8810: 8671: 8557: 8037: 7739: 7614: 7579: 7385: 7157: 6814: 6804: 6565: 6447: 6042: 6034: 5937: 5905: 3686: 3631: 2885: 2379:

of New Mexico and had the authority to distribute rewards to those in the expedition.

2342: 2327: 1989: 1492: 1314: 891: 871: 455: 374: 326: 93: 11027: 10956: 8900: 8002: 7055: 7020: 6735: 6371: 3292: 2760:

soil, which could only support crops for two to three years with land cleared through

2578:, between 1769 and 1833 twenty-one missions were established) aimed at converting the 2177: 1700: 14311: 14206: 14188: 13994: 13736: 13621: 13473: 13442: 13379: 13263: 13243: 13228: 13125: 13057: 12998: 12972: 12785: 12760: 12750: 12568: 12345: 12180: 12170: 12011: 11884: 11826: 11659: 11431: 11405: 11395: 11385: 11320: 11275: 11205: 11185: 11160: 11107: 11082: 10347: 9874: 9815: 9770: 9629: 9132: 8355: 8315: 8098: 7634: 7505: 7420: 7410: 7395: 7177: 7131: 6939: 6837: 6799: 6454: 6366:

Hurtado, Albert L. "Bolton and Turner: The Borderlands and American Exceptionalism."

6324: 6278: 6251: 6239: 6206: 6199: 6138: 6046: 6004: 5988: 5972: 5944: 5912: 5831: 5806: 5781: 5744: 5725: 5678: 3970:"Imomachtilis iwan itlachihchiwalis in masewalyewehkahtlahtoh ipan Yankuik Kaxtillan" 3969: 3797: 3007: 2976: 2570:

The method used to "occupy and fortify" was the established Spanish colonial system:

1636: 1495:, Spanish rule was established, leading to the creation of governing bodies like the 1414: 1242: 1153: 986: 493: 298: 285: 150: 54: 9905: 8843: 8805: 7997: 7889: 7764: 4044:"Colección Juan Bautista Muñoz. Archivo de la Real Academia de la Historia – España" 3950: 3931: 3096: 3037: 961:

was established. Former royalist military officer turned insurgent for independence

14335: 14305: 14273: 14200: 14182: 13766: 13742: 13676: 13651: 13609: 13468: 13281: 13035: 12728: 12723: 12623: 12476: 12335: 11516: 11511: 11476: 11456: 11215: 11092: 10991: 10895: 10357: 10197: 9406: 9371: 9303: 8681: 8509: 8408: 8183: 7952: 7942: 7644: 7310: 7172: 7167: 7030: 6873: 6847: 6717: 6026: 5485: 4027: 3654: 3105: 2801: 2635:, with cattle, horses and sheep the source of wealth. The work was usually done by 2440: 2420: 2323: 1905: 1704: 1558: 1220: 1074: 1027: 978: 767: 759: 260: 223: 39: 11978: 11894: 9926: 9541: 9481: 8994: 8012: 7684: 4031: 2452: 2372: 2284: 1506:

During the 16th and 17th centuries, Spanish settlers founded major cities such as

1430:, whose broad fiscal powers cut into the authority of the viceroys, governors and 1393:, who would serve until his arrest for his support of popular sovereignty in 1808. 1092:

Spanish historical presence, claimed territories, and expeditions in North America

807:. Its jurisdiction comprised a large area of the southern and western portions of 14255: 14236: 14170: 14156: 14090: 13963: 13881: 13839: 13803: 13645: 13627: 13615: 13521: 13478: 13458: 13395: 13350: 13333: 13323: 13286: 13221: 13171: 12708: 12488: 12365: 12340: 11959:

Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)

11709: 11649: 11563: 11471: 11345: 11325: 11290: 11072: 11042: 10981: 10591: 10581: 10477: 10362: 10254: 10211: 9971: 9879: 9750: 8608: 8433: 8242: 8188: 7813: 7754: 7541: 7458: 7443: 7380: 7305: 7275: 7121: 7090: 7005: 6524: 6511: 6397: 6272: 3500: 3452: 3436: 3227: 3223: 3060: 3026: 2928: 2809: 2628: 2610: 2553: 2545: 2491: 2204: 2126: 2045: 2013: 1757: 1688: 1579: 1531: 1451: 1419: 1377: 1286: 1121: 1113: 1109: 1078: 1070: 1042: 1006: 906: 856: 832: 532: 265: 240: 11618: 6489: 2764:. Access to water was also a limiting factor on agriculture, with the limestone 2291:

in 1689; Panzacola, Tejas in 1681; and San Francisco de Cuéllar (modern city of

2060: 1880:

Mexico City was the center of the Central region, and the hub of New Spain. The

1810:

of various origin. These companies were initially financed by, at first, by the

1112:, that is, the Baja California peninsula, still part of Mexico and divided into 13921: 13895: 13591: 13020: 12842: 12443: 12360: 11553: 11466: 11350: 11102: 10925: 10910: 10811: 10785: 10770: 10651: 10246: 10240: 10144: 9911: 9825: 9775: 9653: 9607: 8709: 8676: 8587: 8582: 8466: 8292: 8252: 8193: 8158: 8148: 8042: 8032: 7962: 7912: 7699: 7365: 7290: 6901: 6786: 6729: 6705: 6517: 6393: 6385:

Van Young, Eric (1992). "Are Regions Good to Think?". In Eric Van Young (ed.).

5823: 3737: 3728: 3650: 3072: 3011: 2715:", some of whom were fully at home in both the indigenous and Hispanic worlds. 2651: 2358: 2304: 1953: 1776: 1761: 1749: 1741: 1550: 1527: 1435: 1348:

Audiencia districts further incorporated the older, smaller divisions known as

1225: 1054: 1018: 1002: 994: 953:. Conspiracies of American-born Spaniards sought to take power, leading to the 942: 931: 796: 792: 714: 202: 10058: 9451: 7957: 6274:

At the Far Reaches of Empire: the Life of Juan Francisco De La Bodega Y Quadra

6086:

The Provinces of Early Mexico: Variants of Spanish American Regional Evolution

6056:

The Leverage of Labor: Managing the Cortés Haciendas of Tehuantepec, 1588–1688

1676:

In Peru, the other discovery that perpetuated the system of forced labor, the

1598: 1152:(including the western Mississippi River basin and the Missouri River basin); 957:, 1810–1821. At its conclusion in 1821, the viceroyalty was dissolved and the 14488: 14249: 14126: 14098: 13845: 13597: 13578: 13400: 13253: 12947: 12165: 11117: 9967: 9884: 9693: 9421: 8770: 8547: 8456: 8403: 8350: 8282: 7500: 7495: 7485: 7245: 6747: 6030: 5967: 5638:(Report). Departamento de la Estadistica Nacional. p. 62. Archived from 3700: 3666: 3561: 3121: 2828: 2785:

and horse breeding, depending on the local situation. There is evidence that

2716: 2695: 2448: 2338: 1285:, third-level administrative divisions, were established, the Governorate of 840: 808: 9551: 9521: 9441: 9358: 6693: 6303:

From Insurrection to Revolution: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence 1750–1940

6095:

Indian Population Decline: the Missions of Northwestern New Spain, 1687–1840

3907:[The heraldry corner Coats of arms of American cities and regions]. 3484: 3157: 2948: 2451:

in 1680, expelling the Spanish, who retreated to Paso del Norte, modern-day

1977: 166: 14138: 13869: 13724: 13718: 13291: 13092: 12688: 11889: 11879: 11608: 11147: 11001: 10826: 10342: 10118: 9800: 9648: 8800: 8780: 8744: 8702: 8577: 8451: 8413: 8388: 8370: 8307: 8224: 8168: 8143: 8093: 7987: 7606: 6639: 6104:

Of Things of the Indies: Essays Old and New in Early Latin American History

3714: 3067:. There were regions that were not subjugated to Spanish rule, such as the 2936: 2932: 2507: 1981: 1968: 1830: 1826: 1814: 1617: 1361: 1065:. New Spain also claimed jurisdiction over the overseas territories of the 883: 875: 11200: 9461: 7040: 2859:

between the local crown officials (alcaldes mayores), merchant investors (

2616:

Once missions and protective presidios were established in an area, large

2115: 1657:

some horrifying instances of abuse against the indigenous peoples, Bishop

1624:

in Mexico. Mules were the main way cargo was moved overland, engraving by

1575:

Economic history of Mexico § Economic history of New Spain, 1521-1821

973:

The Kingdom of New Spain was established on 18 August 1521, following the

14114: 13809: 13694: 13688: 13276: 12516:

Article also discusses colonization in Central and South America and Asia

12355: 10790: 10616: 10185: 10063: 8785: 8360: 7285: 7260: 7111: 7045: 6753: 3603: 3581: 3372: 2991: 2912: 2880: 2848: 2836: 2627:

Rancho activities centered on cattle-raising; many grantees emulated the

2549: 2393: 2389: 2296: 2276: 1885: 1772: 1645: 1583: 1515: 1507: 1349: 1216: 887: 848: 804: 213: 111: 10780: 8418: 7025: 6557: 6310:

Van Young, Eric (2006). "Introduction to the 25th Anniversary Edition".

6264:

Puebla de Los Angeles: Industry and Society in a Mexican City, 1700–1850

4022:

Mark A. Burkholder (2016) "Spain's America: from kingdoms to colonies",

1088: 13933: 13889: 12673: 12668: 12643: 12628: 12503: 11654: 10388: 9668: 8562: 8383: 8198: 7479: 7462: 7255: 7136: 7116: 7035: 6699: 6038: 5974:

Maya Society under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival

3420: 3276: 3125: 3016: 3003: 2765: 2703: 2683: 2640: 2470:

encouraged the settlement by individuals of large land parcels outside

2459: 2444: 2405: 2362: 2280: 2196: 2185: 2164:

Since portions of northern New Spain became part of the United States'

2143: 2122: 2038: 2034: 2017: 1791: 1696: 1625: 1523: 1366: 1173: 1129: 1105:, which explored and claimed the coast of British Columbia and Alaska. 1050: 820: 8393: 8272: 8262: 6361:

Do the Americas Have a Common History? A Critique of the Bolton Theory

5896:

Blacks in Colonial Veracruz: Race, Ethnicity, and Regional Development

3905:"El rincón de la heráldica. Escudos de ciudades y regiones americanas" 3630:, stand out as some of the viceroyalty's most notable contributors to 3556:

Indians to be citizens/subjects. For example the censuses made by the

3356: 3044:, one of the oldest Spanish churches in America and the oldest one of 10378: 10278: 10053: 9889: 8534: 8489: 8340: 7370: 7295: 7050: 7015: 5820:

Tenth edition, esp. chapters 6–15. New York: Oxford University Press.

3404: 3308: 2999: 2987: 2855: 2769: 2757: 2503: 2181: 2111: 2103: 1811: 1803: 1799: 1720: 1715: 1692: 1610: 1535: 1519: 1480:

The history of mainland New Spain spans three hundred years from the

1427: 1371: 1357: 934:. New Spain became a vital link between Spain's New World empire and 927: 914: 836: 13411: 9431: 8257: 6222:

Textiles and Capitalism in Mexico: An Economic History of the Obraje

6190:

The Black Middle: Africans, Mayas, and Spaniards in Colonial Yucatan

3179: 2299:, with funding from the Marqués de Villapuente, founded over twenty 1870: 1790:

However, these resources did not translate into development for the

1012: 13633: 13211: 12693: 12077: 10795: 9673: 9471: 8795: 8514: 8499: 8446: 8330: 8267: 8247: 7525: 7325: 7270: 7060: 3532: 3468: 3388: 3113: 3101: 3045: 2995: 2897: 2893: 2756:

A limiting factor in Yucatán's economy was the poor quality of the

2583: 2288: 2256: 2247:

of 1819 (not including the island territories of the Pacific Ocean)

2118:

had displaced Puebla as the mainstay of woolen textile production.

2095: 1917: 1745: 1737: 1677: 1491:

Beginning with the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521 by

1250: 1157: 1141: 1082: 1058: 923: 12525: 6547: 5816:

Meyer, Michael C., William L. Sherman, and Susan M. Deeds. (2014)

2216: 2080: 1957: 1768: 11953: 11924: 10434: 10419: 9576: 9402: 8734: 8724: 8719: 8552: 8542: 8524: 8519: 8461: 8398: 8345: 8219: 8163: 7520: 7447: 7315: 7265: 7106: 7075: 7010: 6445:

Lombardi, Cathryn L.; Lombardi, John V.; Stoner, K. Lynn (1983).

3606:(Giovanni Paoli). The first book printed in Mexico was entitled " 3324: 3117: 2813: 2797: 2526: 2350: 2173: 1964: 1621: 1539: 1526:

significantly boosted the economy, leading to conflicts like the

1382: 1212: 1145: 1125: 998: 844: 824: 780: 227: 6548:

Map of the Border of the King's Dominion in the Northern America

5928:

Conquest of the Sierra: Spaniards and Indians in Colonial Oaxaca

2400:, or San Juan Pueblo. He also founded the Spanish settlement of 1041:; most of the United States west of the Mississippi River, plus 930:

terminus of the transpacific trade with the Philippines via the

13780:

Non-British colonial entities in the contemporary United States

12556: 10890: 10444: 10439: 10216: 8504: 8494: 8378: 8335: 8320: 8297: 8287: 8214: 8153: 8138: 7250: 7240: 7080: 7070: 7065: 3568: 3340: 3260: 3244: 3076: 3020: 2843: 2728: 2712: 2499: 2308: 2260: 2169: 2107: 1893: 1807: 1753: 1725: 1653: 1649: 1648:. In New Spain these grants were modeled after the tribute and 1562: 1511: 1370:. Provinces which were under military threat were grouped into 1133: 1038: 910: 879: 860: 812: 472: 2180:; but in New Spain, there were two major mining sites, one in 11931: 10205: 9869: 8739: 8729: 8697: 8572: 8567: 8441: 8423: 8277: 8173: 7489: 3567:

Once New Spain achieved independence, the legal basis of the

3516: 3134: 3010:, destroyed by an earthquake in 1773. There was a high court 2632: 2563: 2001: 1681: 1169: 1161: 968: 6379:

Herbert Eugene Bolton: Historian of the American Borderlands

5518:, vol. 3, pp.130–31. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996. 2796:

In the seventeenth century, patterns shifted in Yucatán and

2744:(literally community-owned chests that had locks and keys). 2494:

province since Cabrillo in 1542, sailed as far north up the

1454:, the Spanish crown created new administrative units called 1385:

announcing the transfer of powers from the outgoing viceroy

1186:

Spanish colonization of the Americas § Civil governance

149:; Right: Military flag of the Viceroyalty of New Spain with 10274: 10189: 8325: 7515: 7415: 5677:. Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico. p. 86. 5656:"El mestizaje es un mito, la identidad cultural sí importa" 5490:

Spanish Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520–1720

2782: 1784: 1137: 852: 12406: 10167: 5887:

Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajío: León 1700–1860

5797:

Mexico Under Spain: Society and the Origins of Nationality

1854: 6505:

MEXICO'S COLONIAL ERA—PART I: The Settlement of New Spain

6440:(2nd ed.). Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 5828:

Stormy Passage: Mexico from Colony to Republic, 1750-1850

5739:

Altman, Ida; Cline, Sarah; Pescador, Juan Javier (2003).

4128:"Viceroyalty of New Spain (historical territory, Mexico)" 4103:"Viceroyalty of New Spain (historical territory, Mexico)" 3653:

and some remote silver-mining towns. Composers including

3150:

New Spain in 1819 with the boundaries established at the

2382:

Oñate pioneered 'The Royal Road of the Interior Land' or

1780: 1712: 1281:(1776) (analogous to a dependent captaincy general). Two 46: 5474:

Forced Native Labor in Sixteenth-Century Central America

3616:

La Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España

5505:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1966. 4076:

harvp error: no target: CITEREFde_la_Mota_Padilla1870 (

2590:, four total) to protect the missionaries, and secular 1236: 799:. It was one of several domains established during the 6444: 6296:. Mexico City: El Colegio de Mexico. pp. 339–378. 6294:

El trabajo y los trabajadores en la historia de Mexico

6181:

The Maya World: Yucatec Culture and Society, 1550–1850

5531:

harvp error: no target: CITEREFNavarro_y_Noriega1820 (

4223: 4199: 4175: 2486:, the first Spanish presence in the 'New California' ( 2207:, indigenous culture retained considerable integrity. 9922:

Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France

8873: 7730:

Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (founder of Nicaragua)

7725:

Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (Yucatán conquistador)

6053: 5448: 5436: 5405: 5373: 2474:

and Pueblo boundaries, many of which became ranchos.

2270: 2125:

as part of the new administrative structuring of the

1992:

established an hacienda on lands taken from Orizaba.

1005:

administered in the continent until the 18th-century

13577:

Other British colonial entities in the contemporary

9401: 6124:. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 76–92. 3676: 1603:

Indigenous man collecting cochineal with a deer tail

14560:

Former regions and territories of the United States

12008: 6133:. In Michael R. Haines; Richard H. Steckel (eds.). 6131:"The peopling of Mexico from origins to revolution" 5943:. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. 5738: 5027: 5003: 4272:

harvp error: no target: CITEREFLockhartAltman1976 (

4238: 4151: 3909:

Gobierno de España. Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte

3595:), both located on the main square in the capital. 3591:

National Palace, and the Mexico City town council (

3551:

Europeans are included within the Mestizo category.

3112:Spanish settlers brought to the American continent 1938: 1565:, ending three centuries of Spanish colonial rule. 1484:(1519–1521) to the collapse of Spanish rule in the 6446: 6429:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 6250: 6198: 6165:. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. 6097:. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. 6003: 5971: 5939:The Legal Culture of Northern New Spain, 1700–1810 5936: 5904: 5862:. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. 5805: 5670: 5620:"American Indians in the Federal Decennial Census" 5516:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 4886: 4884: 4789:harvp error: no target: CITEREFRojas_Rabiela1991 ( 4234: 4232: 4072: 2986:, which had primary jurisdiction over what became 2702:With dense indigenous Maya populations, Yucatán's 2552:were chosen to establish new northern missions in 2525:By the middle of the 1700s, the Catholic order of 1325:(1511, effective 1526, predated the Viceroyalty); 945:and the forced abdication of the Bourbon monarch, 6518:Index to the DeWitt Colony Region under New Spain 5799:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 5610:. London: Scarecrow Press, 1978. pp. 239–40. 5527: 4249: 4247: 3967: 3778:List of governors in the Viceroyalty of New Spain 3575: 2412:Pueblo, located just north of the modern city of 2316:missions throughout the Baja California Peninsula 1381:Official document of the New Spain government in 1069:in Asia and Oceania: the Philippine Islands, the 1013:Territorial extent of the overseas Spanish Empire 14486: 6312:Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth-Century Mexico 6137:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 241–304. 5878:Spanish Explorations in the Southwest, 1542–1706 5803: 5492:. Berkeley: University of California Press 1973. 5383: 5381: 2740:) from diverting of community revenues in their 1963:Spaniards also settled in the temperate area of 1820: 13761:Colony of British Columbia and Vancouver Island 10466: 6065:Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico 1750–1821 5724:. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Latin American Center. 5664: 5333: 5331: 4881: 4642:harvp error: no target: CITEREFHirschberg1979 ( 4391:harvp error: no target: CITEREFCoatsworth1998 ( 4229: 2711:. There was an important sector of mixed-race " 2150:the Spanish presence was minimal and marginal. 6453:. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. 6088:. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Latin American Center. 5719: 5582:(in Spanish). pp. 328–348. Archived from 4268: 4244: 2447:system of forced labor. The unrest led to the 2210: 1279:Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas 981:. The initial funds for exploration came from 14640:States and territories disestablished in 1821 14074: 13427: 12541: 12392: 11994: 10111:, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon) 9592: 9387: 9363: 8859: 6573: 6229:Sanchez, Joseph P.; Spude, Robert L. (2013). 5476:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1979. 5378: 4825:harvp error: no target: CITEREFSzewczyk1976 ( 4785: 4634: 4632: 4444:, p. 67, quoting Alexander von Humboldt. 4337:harvp error: no target: CITEREFLockhart1976 ( 3949:Wright-Carr, David Charles (September 2007). 3930:Wright-Carr, David Charles (September 2007). 3665:were active from the early 1500s through the 2502:, and named California coastal features from 1397: 31: 12103:Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories 9786:Independence of Spanish continental Americas 6305:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 6228: 6224:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 6071: 5978:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 5769:Race, Class, and Politics in Colonial Mexico 5545: 5514:Webre, Stephen. "Audiencia of Guatemala" in 5422:harvp error: no target: CITEREFZeitlin1989 ( 5391:harvp error: no target: CITEREFZeitlin1989 ( 5328: 5015: 4547:(a definitive study of the tobacco monopoly) 4470:harvp error: no target: CITEREFCarroll1979 ( 4264: 4262: 3951:"La política lingüística en la Nueva España" 3932:"La política lingüística en la Nueva España" 3141: 3104:, Book XII on the conquest of Mexico in the 2854:The most important commodity for Oaxaca was 2529:had established a number of missions on the 1445: 1360:), which had been originally established by 791:, was an integral territorial entity of the 81:Coat of arms of the viceroyalty of New Spain 14605:Spanish exploration in the Age of Discovery 13078:North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 6077:Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain 5957: 5930:. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. 5911:. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. 5889:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. 5860:The Spanish Borderlands Frontier: 1513-1821 5812:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. 5720:Altman, Ida; Lockhart, James, eds. (1976). 5561: 4597:harvp error: no target: CITEREFGibson1952 ( 4568: 4556: 4544: 3968:Figueroa Saavedra, Miguel (December 2022). 3948: 3929: 3825:Supply of Franciscan missions in New Mexico 3030:18th century golden altar piece insede the 2620:encouraged settlement and establishment of 2466:jurisdiction. In the late 18th century the 91: 14635:States and territories established in 1535 14630:States and territories established in 1519 14610:Spanish-speaking countries and territories 14081: 14067: 13434: 13420: 12548: 12534: 12399: 12385: 12001: 11987: 9599: 9585: 9394: 9380: 8866: 8852: 8485:Indigenous people during De Soto's travels 6580: 6566: 6400:. (2004) vol. 20, No. 2 (summer), 275–326. 6354:Historiography of Colonial Spanish America 6342:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6257:. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. 6192:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6183:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6174:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6115:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6106:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6010:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 5871:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 5853:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 5830:. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2022. 5804:Lockhart, James; Schwartz, Stuart (1983). 5601: 5090: 4807:harvp error: no target: CITEREFLewis1976 ( 4771:harvp error: no target: CITEREFCline1991 ( 4638: 4629: 4386: 3758:Historiography of Colonial Spanish America 3602:was brought to Mexico in 1539, by printer 2896:, once the main Pacific Coast port before 2176:, it was from the single rich mountain of 1899: 969:The Crown and the Viceroyalty of New Spain 174: 14545:Colonization history of the United States 11905:Colonial universities in Hispanic America 6587: 6384: 6309: 6244:(in Spanish). Barcelona: Thomas Piferrer. 6151: 5902: 5842: 5780:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5633:Censo General De Habitantes (1921 Census) 4405: 4374: 4321: 4309: 4297: 4286: 4259: 2028:Founded in 1531 as a Spanish settlement, 1736:There were two major ports in New Spain, 16:Kingdom of the Spanish Empire (1521–1821) 11910:Colonial universities in the Philippines 9343:Francisco Novella Azabal Pérez y Sicardo 6676:Spain and the American Revolutionary War 6535:the public's library and digital archive 6449:Latin American History: a Teaching Atlas 6389:. Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, UCSD. 6277:. University of British Columbia Press. 6237: 6219: 6196: 6160: 6156:. Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, UCSD. 6119: 6110: 6101: 6014: 5962:. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 5898:. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 5771:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 5762:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 5274: 5073: 5050: 5039: 4821: 4743: 4720: 4532: 4441: 4429: 4417: 4363: 4351: 4333: 4090: 3902: 3634:. In 1693, Sigüenza y Góngora published 3608:La escala espiritual de San Juan Clímaco 3178: 3156: 3145: 3095: 3091: 3036: 3025: 2967: 2827: 2666: 2337: 2314:From 1697, Jesuits established eighteen 2238: 2059: 1864: 1740:the viceroyalty's principal port on the 1631: 1616: 1597: 1578: 1376: 1197: 1189: 1087: 1022: 10901:Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia 6435: 6381:(University of California Press; 2012). 6337: 6261: 6187: 6178: 6092: 6062: 5966: 5893: 5884: 5460: 5417: 5387: 5361: 5349: 5337: 5262: 5227: 5215: 5203: 5191: 5179: 5156: 5084: 4992: 4851: 4680: 4668: 4656: 4623: 4580: 4520: 4508: 4496: 4484: 4465: 4453: 4004: 3862: 1855:Mexico City, capital of the viceroyalty 1469: 14580:History of the Philippines (1565–1898) 14487: 12408:European colonization of North America 11854: 7880:Spanish missions in the Sonoran Desert 6300: 6291: 6270: 6248: 6054:Gutiérrez Brockington, Lolita (1989). 6001: 5982: 5934: 5925: 5875: 5866: 5857: 5848: 5775: 5766: 5757: 5567: 5322: 5309: 5297: 5285: 5250: 4970: 4959: 4948: 4926: 4914: 4902: 4890: 4875: 4863: 4839: 4754: 4732: 4708: 4696: 4611: 4592: 4253: 4224:Lombardi, Lombardi & Stoner (1983) 4211: 4200:Lombardi, Lombardi & Stoner (1983) 4187: 4176:Lombardi, Lombardi & Stoner (1983) 4163: 4010: 3986: 2425:governor of the Province of New Mexico 2361:by making peace with the semi-nomadic 2234: 2195:, such as in the present-day state of 1211:The Viceroyalty was administered by a 977:, as a New World kingdom ruled by the 920:a transformation in the global economy 855:. Additional Asian colonies included " 14555:Former countries of the United States 14342:The Great Republic of Rough and Ready 14062: 13987:Discourse Concerning Western Planting 13441: 13415: 12529: 12380: 11982: 11853: 11749: 11748: 10872: 10750: 10465: 10324: 10292: 10229: 10166: 10081: 10004: 9944: 9858: 9847: 9619: 9618: 9580: 9375: 9362: 9323:Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont 9167:Juan Antonio de Vizarrón y Eguiarreta 8847: 6760:Spanish American wars of independence 6561: 6438:The Historical Geography of New Spain 6403: 6321:The Spanish Frontier in North America 6318: 6135:A Population History of North America 6128: 5556: 5061: 4981: 4937: 4803: 4766: 3788:Mexican settlement in the Philippines 3600:first printing press in the New World 766: 14600:Spanish colonization of the Americas 14500:1519 establishments in North America 13816:Captaincy General of the Philippines 10182:Captaincy General of the Philippines 9674:New Laws in favour of the indigenous 8089:California mission clash of cultures 7760:Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra 6610:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 6169: 6083: 6058:. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 5876:Bolton, Herbert Eugene, ed. (1956). 5794: 5713: 5661:, Mexico, Retrieved on 25 July 2017. 5239: 5167: 5144: 5132: 5120: 5108: 5096: 3998: 3638:, the first newspaper in New Spain. 1787:and silver received from New Spain. 1482:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 1237:Captaincies general and governorates 1103:expeditions to the Pacific Northwest 975:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 868:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 280:Captaincy General of the Philippines 14650:Viceroyalties of the Spanish Empire 14595:Pre-statehood history of New Mexico 14525:1821 disestablishments in New Spain 14110:Kingdoms and Provinces of New Spain 12555: 11885:Indochristian painting in New Spain 10005: 7840:Spanish missions in Baja California 6543:: Hispanic Heritage in The Americas 6408:. New York, NY: Garland Publishers. 6406:The Idea of the Spanish Borderlands 5741:The Early History of Greater Mexico 5028:Altman, Cline & Pescador (2003) 5004:Altman, Cline & Pescador (2003) 4239:Altman, Cline & Pescador (2003) 4152:Altman, Cline & Pescador (2003) 3753:Governor-General of the Philippines 2823: 2355:Luis de Velasco, marqués de Salinas 2326:, and named the location and river 2287:), founded in 1667; Santiago de la 2132: 2023: 900:Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire 768:[birejˈnatoðeˈnweβaesˈpaɲa] 729:Federal Republic of Central America 535:abolished the Kingdom of New Spain 13: 10852:Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires 10325: 9606: 6413: 6398:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 6205:. University of California Press. 5985:A Brief History of Central America 5708:Bibliography of California history 5608:Historical Dictionary of Argentina 3558:Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata 3079:. An American-born Spanish elite ( 2957: 2516:discovery of huge deposits of gold 2271:Missions and the northern frontier 1783:1.5 trillion (1990 terms) in 1329:(1527, predated the Viceroyalty); 14: 14661: 14019:Fundamental Orders of Connecticut 13500:(1629–1641; 1679–1686; 1689–1776) 12699:Institutional Revolutionary Party 10082: 9945: 9826:Independence of Equatorial Guinea 9338:Juan José Ruiz de Apodaca y Eliza 9235:Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa 7850:Spanish missions in the Carolinas 6469: 6347: 6197:Robinson, William Wilcox (1979). 5880:. New York, NY: Barnes and Noble. 4685:Seville et l'Atlantique 1504–1650 2357:the crown ended the long-running 2320:missions were founded in Trinidad 2114:. But by the eighteenth century, 1849: 14590:Pre-statehood history of Arizona 14550:Former colonies in North America 14540:Colonial United States (Spanish) 14520:1821 disestablishments in Mexico 14463: 14462: 14443:Provisional Government of Hawaii 14324:Provisional Government of Oregon 14243:Provisional Government of Mexico 14043: 14042: 13822:Captaincy General of Puerto Rico 12076: 12010: 11937:Criollos in the colonial society 11865:Spanish missions in the Americas 10987:Charles Bonaventure de Longueval 9560: 9550: 9540: 9530: 9520: 9504: 9490: 9480: 9470: 9460: 9450: 9440: 9430: 9420: 9069:Diego Osorio de Escobar y Llamas 8916: 8909: 8828: 8827: 6712:Philippine revolts against Spain 6338:Zeitlin, Judith Francis (2005). 6262:Thomson, Guy P. C. (1989). 5649: 5625: 5613: 5550: 5539: 5521: 5508: 5495: 5479: 5466: 5454: 5442: 5430: 5411: 5399: 5367: 5355: 5343: 5315: 5303: 5291: 5279: 5268: 5256: 5244: 3877: 3868: 3855: 3846: 3773:Index of Mexico-related articles 3721: 3707: 3693: 3679: 2427:, established the settlement of 2385:El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro 2318:. Between 1687 and 1700 several 1939:Veracruz, port city and province 1748:on the Pacific, terminus of the 1691:. Important mining centers like 1607:José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez 801:Spanish conquest of the Americas 733: 719: 705: 691: 677: 663: 649: 624: 165: 160: 123: 74: 11964:Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649 9848: 9260:Manuel Antonio Flores Maldonado 9147:Francisco Fernández de la Cueva 9059:Francisco Fernández de la Cueva 6079:(in French). Paris: F. Schoell. 5987:. New York, NY: Facts on File. 5758:Haring, Clarence Henry (1947). 5701: 5233: 5221: 5209: 5197: 5185: 5173: 5161: 5150: 5138: 5126: 5114: 5102: 5078: 5067: 5055: 5044: 5033: 5021: 5009: 4997: 4986: 4975: 4964: 4953: 4942: 4931: 4920: 4908: 4896: 4869: 4857: 4845: 4833: 4815: 4797: 4779: 4760: 4748: 4737: 4726: 4714: 4702: 4690: 4674: 4662: 4650: 4617: 4605: 4586: 4574: 4562: 4550: 4538: 4526: 4514: 4502: 4490: 4478: 4459: 4447: 4435: 4423: 4411: 4399: 4380: 4368: 4357: 4345: 4327: 4315: 4303: 4291: 4280: 4217: 4205: 4193: 4181: 4169: 4157: 4145: 4120: 4095: 4084: 4066: 3086: 890:in 1535, appointing as viceroy 14515:1520s establishments in Mexico 14510:1510s establishments in Mexico 10293: 10016:Captaincy General of Guatemala 9724:Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) 9255:Alonso Núñez de Haro y Peralta 7923:Toribio de Benavente Motolinia 7875:Spanish missions in New Mexico 7845:Spanish missions in California 7680:Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva 7183:Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762) 6915:Captaincy General of Guatemala 6404:Weber, David. J., ed. (1991). 4036: 4024:Colonial Latin American Review 4016: 3992: 3980: 3961: 3942: 3923: 3896: 3793:Spanish American Enlightenment 3763:History of democracy in Mexico 3748:Filipino immigration to Mexico 3576:Culture, art, and architecture 2984:Captaincy General of Guatemala 2964:Captaincy General of Guatemala 2874: 1304: 1206: 1: 14354:Confederate States of America 13661: 12619:Centralist Republic of Mexico 11915:General Archive of the Indies 11176:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 10847:Camino Real de Tierra Adentro 10832:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas 9781:Third Treaty of San Ildefonso 9734:War of the Spanish Succession 9699:Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) 9201:Agustín de Ahumada y Villalón 9044:García Sarmiento de Sotomayor 8018:José Francisco de Paula Señan 7865:Spanish missions in Louisiana 7650:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 6892:List of viceroys of New Spain 6646:Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660) 6634:Anglo-Spanish War (1625–1630) 6628:Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) 6616:Spanish conquest of Guatemala 6067:. Cambridge University Press. 5858:Bannon, John Francis (1974). 5818:The Course of Mexican History 5760:The Spanish Empire in America 5722:The Provinces of Early Mexico 4687:, Pt. 2, vol. VIII 1959, 714. 4032:10.1080/10609164.2016.1205241 3890: 3813:List of viceroys of New Spain 3783:List of viceroys of New Spain 2477: 2431:near the southern end of the 2333: 2297:Father Eusebio Francisco Kino 2069: 2020:, a new administrative unit. 1821:Regions of mainland New Spain 1179: 965:would be crowned as emperor. 943:Napoleonic invasion of Iberia 393:(as Political chief superior) 14348:The Kingdom of Beaver Island 13767:Province of British Columbia 13048:Institutional stock exchange 12684:Second American intervention 10873: 9987:Captaincy General of Yucatan 9917:Union with Holy Roman Empire 9896:Southern Italy (Kingdoms of 9811:German–Spanish Treaty (1899) 9220:Francisco Cajigal de la Vega 8604:Taiwanese indigenous peoples 7983:Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora 7895:Spanish missions in Trinidad 7890:Spanish missions in Virginia 6687:peoples during colonial rule 6495:Resources in other libraries 6368:Western Historical Quarterly 5903:Castleman, Bruce A. (2005). 5894:Carroll, Patrick J. (1991). 5885:Brading, D. A. (1978). 5767:Israel, Jonathan I. (1975). 5622:. Retrieved on 25 July 2017. 5449:Gutiérrez Brockington (1989) 5437:Gutiérrez Brockington (1989) 5406:Gutiérrez Brockington (1989) 5374:Gutiérrez Brockington (1989) 4269:Lockhart & Altman (1976) 4050:(in Spanish). Archived from 3628:Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora 2673:cathedral of Mérida, Yucatán 2548:in Baja California, and the 2534:(lower) California peninsula 2402:San Gabriel de Yungue-Ouinge 1053:, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, the 847:archipelagos, including the 785:Yankwik Kaxtillan Birreiyotl 430:Conquest of the Aztec Empire 48:Yankwik Kaxtillan Birreiyotl 7: 13249:Water supply and sanitation 12614:Spanish reconquest attempts 12289:Archaeology of the Americas 10751: 10467:Administrative subdivisions 9664:War of the League of Cognac 9333:Félix María Calleja del Rey 9294:Félix Berenguer de Marquina 9284:Miguel de la Grúa Talamanca 9250:Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid 9245:Matías de Gálvez y Gallardo 9123:José Sarmiento y Valladares 9074:Antonio Sebastián de Toledo 8308:Oasisamerica (Southwest US) 7860:Spanish missions in Georgia 7855:Spanish missions in Florida 7835:Spanish missions in Arizona 7775:José de Bustamante y Guerra 7341:Yerba Buena (San Francisco) 6622:Spanish conquest of Yucatán 6527:at Texas A&M University 6271:Tovell, Freeman M. (2008). 6093:Jackson, Robert H. (1994). 5958:Deans-Smith, Susan (1992). 5935:Cutter, Charles R. (1995). 5671:Federico Navarrete (2016). 3830:Mexican War of Independence 3672: 2768:giving way in water filled 2648:Mexican War of Independence 2211:Bajío, Mexico's breadbasket 1486:Mexican War of Independence 1387:Félix Berenguer de Marquina 955:Mexican War of Independence 547:Declaration of Independence 10: 14666: 14318:Republic of the Rio Grande 13946:Brandenburger Saint Thomas 13755:Colony of British Columbia 12649:Second French intervention 12597:Control of Central America 11181:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 11166:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada 11068:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 10230: 9966:), Western United States ( 9859: 9729:Portuguese Restoration War 9000:Diego Fernández de Córdoba 8941:Martín Enríquez de Almanza 8907: 8084:Suppression of the Jesuits 7993:Francisco Javier Clavijero 7870:Spanish missions in Mexico 7770:Ignacio de Arteaga y Bazán 7720:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 7670:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 7595:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 6842:also reigned after Louis I 6531:1492 – Middle America 6432:. 5 vols. (1996) New York. 6351: 6249:Spicer, Edward H. (1962). 6238:de Solís, Antonio (1771). 6220:Salvucci, Richard (1987). 6063:Hamnett, Brian R. (1971). 5705: 5016:Sanchez & Spude (2013) 3743:Economic history of Mexico 3579: 3531: 3515: 3499: 3483: 3467: 3451: 3435: 3419: 3403: 3387: 3371: 3355: 3339: 3323: 3307: 3291: 3275: 3259: 3243: 3222: 3215:Indigenous population (%) 2961: 2888:acquired holdings for his 2762:slash and burn agriculture 2662: 2199:and in coastal regions of 2121:In 1787, Puebla became an 1882:development of Mexico City 1858: 1572: 1568: 1473: 1398:Local-level administration 1249:and these were relatively 1183: 1032:Nueva Hispania Tabula Nova 1030:'s 1548 map of New Spain, 1016: 817:Southwestern United States 764:Virreinato de Nueva España 460:Viceroyalty of New Granada 153:and Royal or Duchy Crown ( 33:Virreinato de Nueva España 14458: 14300:Republic of Indian Stream 14105: 14038: 13982: 13973: 13916:, 1682–1763 and 1801–1803 13834:Captaincy General of Cuba 13787: 13776: 13658:New England Confederation 13587: 13573: 13487: 13449: 13373: 13262: 13157: 13148: 13006: 12997: 12884: 12875: 12848:Tropical cyclone rainfall 12746: 12737: 12567: 12512: 12414: 12317: 12281: 12240: 12199: 12158: 12085: 12074: 12023: 11949:Slavery in Spanish Empire 11860: 11849: 11755: 11744: 11642: 11536: 11529: 11414: 11263: 11256: 11249: 11236:Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor 11146: 11015: 10977:Álvaro de Bazán the Elder 10939: 10883: 10879: 10868: 10837:Barcelona Trading Company 10804: 10761: 10757: 10746: 10650: 10602:New Andalusia (1501–1513) 10572: 10514: 10476: 10472: 10461: 10412: 10371: 10335: 10331: 10320: 10299: 10236: 10177: 10109:Venezuela, part of Guyana 10088: 10011: 9962:, Central United States ( 9951: 9865: 9854: 9843: 9694:Bruneian–Spanish conflict 9679:Expulsion of the Moriscos 9625: 9614: 9513: 9502: 9413: 9369: 9364:Links to related articles 9312: 9268: 9230:Carlos Francisco de Croix 9209: 9185: 9131: 9082: 9064:Juan de Leyva de la Cerda 9039:Juan de Palafox y Mendoza 9019:Diego Carrillo de Mendoza 9008: 8974: 8956:Álvaro Manrique de Zúñiga 8946:Lorenzo Suárez de Mendoza 8925: 8885: 8823: 8776:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 8753: 8690: 8659: 8621: 8596: 8533: 8475: 8432: 8369: 8306: 8233: 8207: 8131: 8120: 8111: 8071: 8058:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 7978:Juan de Palafox y Mendoza 7903: 7885:Spanish missions in Texas 7823: 7812: 7785:Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa 7745:Juan José Pérez Hernández 7690:Juan José Pérez Hernández 7603: 7565: 7554: 7534: 7429: 7223: 7210: 7145: 7099: 6986: 6938: 6900: 6884: 6828: 6785: 6772: 6685:Conflicts with indigenous 6684: 6605: 6596: 6490:Resources in your library 6424:. 2 vols. (1997) Chicago. 6323:. Yale University Press. 6188:Restall, Matthew (2009). 6179:Restall, Matthew (1997). 5568:Lerner, Victoria (1968). 4073:de la Mota Padilla (1870) 3903:Sierra López, Alejandro. 3659:Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla 3620:Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz 3142:Population in early 1800s 2490:) region of the frontier 2368:Provincia de Nuevo México 2263:(civilian towns) and the 1873:of Mexico City, 1695, by 1764:to the Spanish mainland. 1547:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 1446:Intendancies of the 1780s 1293:) and the Governorate of 803:, and had its capital in 603: 593: 589: 579: 569: 565: 560: 556: 543: 529: 516: 503: 486: 469: 452: 439: 426: 422: 412: 402: 398: 383: 368: 364: 354: 350: 335: 320: 316: 306: 294: 233: 219: 209: 185: 173: 139: 105: 87: 71: 66: 23: 14570:History of North America 14262:Santa Fe de Nuevo México 14237:Second Republic of Texas 14231:Republic of the Floridas 14219:Republic of East Florida 14213:Republic of West Florida 14177:United States of America 14121:Santa Fe de Nuevo México 14097:within the contemporary 13828:Santa Fe de Nuevo México 13640:Massachusetts Bay Colony 12889:Administrative divisions 12299:North American timelines 11890:Quito painting tradition 11880:Cusco painting tradition 11241:García López de Cárdenas 11231:Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera 11138:Felipe González de Ahedo 11058:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 9635:Conquest of the Americas 9514:Americas and East Indies 9328:Francisco Javier Venegas 9240:Martín de Mayorga Ferrer 9196:Juan Francisco de Güemes 9049:Marcos de Torres y Rueda 7675:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 7630:Bernal Díaz del Castillo 7476:Santa Fe de Nuevo México 6319:Weber, David J. (1992). 6172:The Caste War of Yucatan 6170:Reed, Nelson A. (1964). 6111:Lockhart, James (1992). 6031:10.1525/ah.2003.77.2.293 6002:Gibson, Charles (1964). 5983:Foster, Lynn V. (2000). 5778:Mexico: The Colonial Era 5528:Navarro y Noriega (1820) 3839: 3612:Bernal Díaz del Castillo 3212:European population (%) 2657: 2159: 1888:, the merchants' guild ( 1875:Cristóbal de Villalpando 1356:, roughly equivalent to 1247:administrative divisions 1166:Santa Fe de Nuevo México 839:, and northern parts of 756:Viceroyalty of New Spain 25:Viceroyalty of New Spain 14565:Former Spanish colonies 14225:First Republic of Texas 13958:Scottish Darien Company 13902:Hospitaller Saint Croix 13701:Dominion of New England 13683:North-Western Territory 13304:Handcrafts and folk art 13073:National stock exchange 12811:Protected natural areas 12639:Second Mexican Republic 12604:Supreme Executive Power 12294:North America by period 12133:Portuguese colonization 12017:History of the Americas 11675:Comuneros (New Granada) 11452:Balearic Islands (1558) 11171:Hernán Pérez de Quesada 11098:Ruy López de Villalobos 11053:Miguel López de Legazpi 10967:García de Toledo Osorio 9831:Western Sahara conflict 9821:Independence of Morocco 9761:Treaty of Madrid (1750) 9704:Piracy in the Caribbean 9689:French Wars of Religion 9177:Pedro Cebrián y Agustín 9098:Payo Enríquez de Rivera 9054:Luis Enríquez de Guzmán 9029:Lope Díez de Armendáriz 8951:Pedro Moya de Contreras 8766:Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo 7750:Dionisio Alcalá Galiano 7715:Ruy López de Villalobos 7660:Miguel López de Legazpi 7655:Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo 6652:Piracy in the Caribbean 6554:and Nicolas de la Fora. 6541:Encyclopædia Britannica 6436:Gerhard, Peter (1993). 6161:Ouweneel, Arij (1997). 6073:von Humboldt, Alexander 5867:Baskes, Jeremy (2000). 5795:Liss, Peggy K. (1975). 4683:, citing Pierre Chaunu 4132:Encyclopædia Britannica 4107:Encyclopædia Britannica 3667:Baroque period of music 3643:Mexican Churrigueresque 3218:Mestizo population (%) 2833:Church of Santo Domingo 2544:replaced them with the 1900:Veracruz to Mexico City 1670:encomenderos de indios) 898:in 1542, following the 507:Treaty of San Ildefonso 220:Official languages 47: 14585:Latin American history 14011:Of Plymouth Plantation 13733:(1779–1783; 1814–1815) 13642:(1629–1686; 1689–1691) 13618:(1620–1686; 1689–1691) 13530:(1664–1673; 1702–1776) 13116:States by unemployment 13106:Science and technology 12609:First Mexican Republic 12248:Pre-Columbian cultures 11920:Colonial Spanish Horse 11594:Colonia del Sacramento 10817:Spanish treasure fleet 10394:Royal Decree of Graces 9348:Juan O'Donojú y O'Ryan 9279:Juan Vicente de Güemes 9152:Fernando de Alencastre 9142:Juan Ortega y Montañés 9118:Juan Ortega y Montañés 8985:Juan de Mendoza y Luna 8641:Colonial Baroque style 8631:Spanish Colonial style 8477:Southeastern Woodlands 7948:Bartolomé de las Casas 7795:Alexander von Humboldt 7188:Treaty of Paris (1783) 6868:Ferdinand VII of Spain 6523:3 October 2010 at the 6421:Encyclopedia of Mexico 6129:McCaa, Robert (2000). 5843:More specialized works 3808:History of El Salvador 3201:Alexander von Humboldt 3195: 3176: 3154: 3109: 3048: 3034: 2979: 2973:Arco de Santa Catalina 2839: 2675: 2650:(1821) and subsequent 2346: 2295:) in 1709. From 1687, 2248: 2193:indigenous populations 2075: 2064:An Indian Wedding and 1910:Alexander von Humboldt 1877: 1861:History of Mexico City 1796:Protestant Reformation 1733:due to the smuggling. 1666:encomenderos de negros 1659:Bartolomé de las Casas 1640: 1629: 1614: 1595: 1422:began phasing out the 1394: 1333:(1st one, 1538–1543); 1245:were the second-level 1203: 1195: 1156:(the modern states of 1093: 1034: 936:its East Indies empire 922:. New Spain's port of 763: 687:Louisiana (New France) 488:• Acquisition of 477:New Kingdom of Granada 246:Oto-Manguean languages 92: 32: 14530:1821 in North America 14505:1519 in North America 14294:Republic of Madawaska 14195:Trans-Oconee Republic 13792:Columbian Viceroyalty 13344:Our Lady of Guadalupe 12838:Territorial evolution 12654:Second Mexican Empire 12304:Mesoamerica by period 12118:European colonization 12098:Indigenous population 11078:Vasco Núñez de Balboa 11038:Juan Sebastián Elcano 10353:Council of the Indies 9714:Spanish–Moro conflict 9684:Ottoman–Habsburg wars 9644:Treaty of Tordesillas 9289:Miguel José de Azanza 9225:Joaquín de Montserrat 8761:Juan Bautista de Anza 8079:Our Lady of Guadalupe 7928:Bernardino de Sahagún 7590:Vasco Núñez de Balboa 7585:Juan Sebastián Elcano 7153:Treaty of Tordesillas 7127:Corregidor (position) 6885:Viceroys of New Spain 6724:Spanish–Moro conflict 6301:Tutino, John (1986). 6231:New Mexico: A History 5926:Chance, John (1989). 5776:Knight, Alan (2002). 5501:Woodward, Ralph Lee. 3820:Louisiana (New Spain) 3569:colonial caste system 3209:Intendancy/territory 3182: 3160: 3149: 3099: 3092:The role of epidemics 3065:Consulado de Comercio 3040: 3032:Tegucigalpa cathedral 3029: 2971: 2900:replaced it in 1563. 2831: 2670: 2441:indigenous population 2341: 2279:(modern Albuquerque, 2242: 2063: 2030:Puebla de los Angeles 1868: 1752:. In the Philippines 1635: 1620: 1601: 1582: 1557:and insurgent leader 1497:Council of the Indies 1380: 1231:Council of the Indies 1219:and appointed by the 1201: 1193: 1091: 1026: 878:, the capital of the 811:, mainly what became 598:Spanish colonial real 407:Council of the Indies 251:Uto-Aztecan languages 194:Columbian Viceroyalty 14575:History of New Spain 14288:Republic of Fredonia 13928:Dutch Virgin Islands 13876:Spanish West Florida 13870:Spanish East Florida 13749:Stickeen Territories 13454:New England Colonies 13361:World Heritage Sites 12776:Environmental issues 12634:Mexican–American War 12592:First Mexican Empire 12472:Fridtjof Nansen Land 12309:Mesoamerica timeline 12222:Indigenous languages 12138:British colonization 12123:Spanish colonization 12108:Christopher Columbus 12063:Andean South America 11875:Mesoamerican Codices 11599:Comuneros (Paraguay) 11437:Siege of Castelnuovo 11023:Christopher Columbus 10842:Consulate of the Sea 10822:Casa de Contratación 10413:Titles and positions 9806:Spanish–American War 9796:Liberal constitution 9639:Asia and the Pacific 9108:Melchor Portocarrero 8053:Manuel Abad y Queipo 7968:Gerónimo de Mendieta 7906:priests, and bishops 7575:Christopher Columbus 6510:1 March 2009 at the 6018:Agricultural History 5849:Altman, Ida (2000). 5472:Sherman, William L. 5123:, pp. 39, 59–60 5018:, Chapters 2 & 3 4786:Rojas Rabiela (1991) 4354:, map 2 p. 6; p. 288 3803:History of Guatemala 3624:Juan Ruiz de Alarcón 3586:Mexican architecture 2818:Caste War of Yucatan 2804:(now Belize) and in 2682:can be considered a 2520:Mexican–American War 2508:the Bay of Monterrey 2414:Española, New Mexico 2243:New Spain after the 1731:Kingdom of Guatemala 1664:In colonial Mexico, 1476:History of New Spain 1470:History of New Spain 1364:-governors known as 1309:The high courts, or 1148:); (from the 1760s) 1099:Mexican–American War 859:", on the island of 789:Kingdom of New Spain 701:Territory of Florida 645:First Mexican Empire 632:Pre-Columbian Mexico 443:Fall of Tenochtitlan 276:Philippine languages 256:Athabaskan languages 14625:Spanish West Indies 14620:Spanish East Indies 14437:Free State of Jones 14330:California Republic 14165:Republic of Watauga 14133:Provincias Internas 14095:unrecognized states 13864:Provincias Internas 13840:Spanish Saint Croix 13464:Chesapeake Colonies 13016:Automotive industry 12904:Chamber of Deputies 12587:War of Independence 12467:Erik the Red's Land 12351:Classical Antiquity 12128:French colonization 11604:Cartagena de Indias 11226:Diego de Mazariegos 11196:Pere Fages i Beleta 11063:Sebastián de Ocampo 10544:Provincias Internas 10516:Captaincies General 10430:Municipal president 10399:School of Salamanca 10170:Spanish East Indies 10149:Misiones Orientales 10021:Spanish West Indies 9985:, Central America ( 9932:Pyrénées-Orientales 9885:Union with Portugal 9776:Napoleonic invasion 9756:War of Jenkins' Ear 9299:José de Iturrigaray 9034:Diego López Pacheco 8048:Francisco Marroquín 7918:Gerónimo de Aguilar 7790:Antonio Gil Y'Barbo 7735:Gil González Dávila 7511:New Kingdom of León 7163:Peace of Westphalia 6978:Provincias Internas 6872:also reigned after 6664:War of Jenkins' Ear 6377:Hurtado, Albert L. 6370:44#1 (2013): 4–20. 5808:Early Latin America 5546:von Humboldt (1811) 5325:, pp. 121–122. 4054:on 6 September 2019 3835:Viceroyalty of Peru 3768:History of Honduras 3636:El Mercurio Volante 3100:Nahua depiction of 3042:Church of la Merced 2605:Provincias Internas 2580:Native Californians 2506:to as far north as 2464:Provincias Internas 2349:During the term of 2235:Spanish borderlands 2016:Veracruz became an 2012:In 1787 during the 1555:Agustín de Iturbide 1391:José de Iturrigaray 1372:captaincies general 1118:Baja California Sur 1097:U.S. following the 1081:, and parts of the 1067:Spanish East Indies 1047:Spanish West Indies 963:Agustín de Iturbide 951:José de Iturrigaray 673:Spanish East Indies 659:Spanish West Indies 14449:Republic of Hawaii 14145:Florida Occidental 14027:Quintipartite Deed 13940:Danish West Indies 13908:French Saint Croix 13217:Indigenous peoples 13121:Telecommunications 12980:State legislatures 12921:Federal government 12801:Metropolitan areas 12679:Mexican Revolution 12253:Indigenous peoples 12145:Columbian Exchange 12093:Indigenous peoples 11900:Academia Antártica 11855:Other civil topics 11221:Pánfilo de Narváez 11123:Sebastián Vizcaíno 11088:Andrés de Urdaneta 11048:Juan Ponce de León 11033:Ferdinand Magellan 11007:Bernardo de Gálvez 10906:Indian auxiliaries 10404:Trial of residence 10384:Laws of the Indies 10168:Asia and Oceania ( 10029:Dominican Republic 9157:Baltasar de Zúñiga 9113:Gaspar de la Cerda 8896:Antonio de Mendoza 8811:Hasekura Tsunenaga 8691:People and classes 8672:Columbian exchange 8558:Peoples of Palawan 8063:José María Morelos 8038:Francisco de Ayeta 7973:Juan de Torquemada 7938:Alonso de Montúfar 7780:José María Narváez 7740:Francisco de Ulloa 7710:Andrés de Urdaneta 7705:Cristóbal de Oñate 7665:Ángel de Villafañe 7640:Pánfilo de Narváez 7620:Juan Ponce de León 7580:Ferdinand Magellan 7158:Treaty of Zaragoza 6940:Captancies General 5006:, pp. 193–194 4866:, pp. 339–378 4769:, pp. 265–274 4583:, pp. 220–224 4569:Deans-Smith (1992) 4557:Deans-Smith (1992) 4545:Deans-Smith (1992) 4535:, pp. 188–189 4300:, pp. 247–254 4256:, pp. 101–103 4214:, pp. 133–135 4190:, pp. 133–135 4166:, pp. 133–135 3687:Philippines portal 3663:Antonio de Salazar 3632:Spanish Literature 3618:. Figures such as 3196: 3177: 3172:children, 1763 by 3155: 3110: 3049: 3035: 2980: 2840: 2806:Laguna de Términos 2742:cajas de comunidad 2676: 2622:California ranchos 2557:(upper) California 2484:Sebastián Vizcaíno 2468:Spanish land grant 2347: 2249: 2076: 2041:of the same name. 1990:Antonio de Mendoza 1912:called this area, 1878: 1641: 1630: 1615: 1596: 1408:(also known as an 1395: 1243:Captaincy Generals 1204: 1196: 1094: 1035: 892:Antonio de Mendoza 787:), originally the 375:Antonio de Mendoza 234:Regional languages 14482: 14481: 14476: 14475: 14312:Republic of Texas 14207:State of Muskogee 14189:State of Franklin 14056: 14055: 14031: 14023: 14015: 14007: 13999: 13995:Mayflower Compact 13991: 13976:Related Documents 13858:Spanish Louisiana 13737:Columbia District 13660:(1643–1654; 1675– 13546:Massachusetts Bay 13474:Southern Colonies 13443:Thirteen Colonies 13409: 13408: 13369: 13368: 13144: 13143: 12993: 12992: 12963:Political parties 12926:Foreign relations 12871: 12870: 12659:Restored Republic 12577:Pre-Columbian era 12523: 12522: 12374: 12373: 12346:Pre-Columbian era 12171:Pre-Columbian era 11976: 11975: 11972: 11971: 11845: 11844: 11750:Spanish conquests 11740: 11739: 11736: 11735: 11732: 11731: 11728: 11727: 11525: 11524: 11206:Pedro de Alvarado 11191:Gaspar de Portolà 11186:Pedro de Valdivia 11161:Francisco Pizarro 11113:Nicolás de Ovando 11108:Alonso de Ercilla 11083:Alonso de Salazar 10916:Ships of the line 10864: 10863: 10860: 10859: 10742: 10741: 10738: 10737: 10457: 10456: 10453: 10452: 10316: 10315: 10312: 10311: 10288: 10287: 10245:Northern Africa ( 10241:Equatorial Guinea 10225: 10224: 10162: 10161: 10077: 10076: 10000: 9999: 9991:Spanish Caribbean 9964:Spanish Louisiana 9940: 9939: 9875:Crown of Castille 9839: 9838: 9816:Spanish Civil War 9791:Adams–Onís Treaty 9771:Nootka Convention 9719:Thirty Years' War 9709:Eighty Years' War 9630:Catholic Monarchs 9620:Timeline–immersed 9574: 9573: 9356: 9355: 9103:Tomás de la Cerda 8936:Gastón de Peralta 8841: 8840: 8819: 8818: 8660:Trade and economy 8617: 8616: 8107: 8106: 8099:Indian Reductions 8028:Sebastián Montero 7933:Juan de Zumárraga 7808: 7807: 7695:Gaspar de Portolá 7635:Pedro de Alvarado 7550: 7549: 7506:Nueva Extremadura 7411:Antigua Guatemala 7206: 7205: 7198:Adams–Onís Treaty 7193:Treaty of Córdoba 7178:Congress of Breda 6800:Joanna of Castile 6768: 6767: 6742:Tzeltal Rebellion 6514:at mexconnect.com 6476:Library resources 6284:978-0-7748-1367-9 6266:. Westview Press. 5750:978-0-1309-1543-6 5743:. Prentice Hall. 5714:General histories 5486:MacLeod, Murdo J. 5364:, pp. xiv–xv 4639:Hirschberg (1979) 4387:Coatsworth (1998) 4026:, 25:2, 125–153, 3989:, pp. 7, 105 3798:History of Mexico 3552: 3547: 3546: 3152:Adams–Onís Treaty 3056:, were Spanish. 3019:and the blue dye 3008:Antigua Guatemala 2977:Antigua Guatemala 2812:) where they cut 2680:Yucatán Peninsula 2582:to Christianity, 2536:. Then, in 1767, 2343:San Miguel chapel 2245:Adams–Onís Treaty 1829:heartland of the 1637:Pedro de Alvarado 1295:Spanish Louisiana 1154:Nueva Extremadura 987:Iberian Peninsula 795:, established by 754:, officially the 749: 748: 745: 744: 741: 740: 637: 636: 552:28 September 1821 520:Adams-Onís Treaty 370:• 1535–1550 337:• 1813–1821 322:• 1521–1556 299:Roman Catholicism 286:Chamorro language 151:Cross of Burgundy 132: 55:Nahuatl languages 14657: 14466: 14465: 14336:State of Deseret 14306:Indian Territory 14274:Coahuila y Tejas 14268:Sonora y Sinaloa 14201:Hawaiian Kingdom 14183:Vermont Republic 14139:Florida Oriental 14083: 14076: 14069: 14060: 14059: 14046: 14045: 14029: 14021: 14013: 14005: 14003:Mourt's Relation 13997: 13989: 13914:French Louisiana 13743:Red River Colony 13666: 13663: 13610:Berkeley Hundred 13469:Tobacco Colonies 13436: 13429: 13422: 13413: 13412: 13389: 13382: 13329:National symbols 13155: 13154: 13096: 13041:Renewable energy 13031:Economic history 13004: 13003: 12882: 12881: 12744: 12743: 12724:Chiapas conflict 12624:Texas Revolution 12550: 12543: 12536: 12527: 12526: 12477:Sverdrup Islands 12401: 12394: 12387: 12378: 12377: 12336:Three-age system 12080: 12015: 12014: 12003: 11996: 11989: 11980: 11979: 11851: 11850: 11817:Chibchan Nations 11746: 11745: 11715:Santiago de Cuba 11574:Guadalupe Island 11534: 11533: 11261: 11260: 11254: 11253: 11216:Diego de Almagro 11093:Antonio de Ulloa 10997:Ambrosio Spinola 10992:Pedro de Zubiaur 10962:Alfonso d'Avalos 10952:Antonio de Leyva 10896:Army of Flanders 10881: 10880: 10870: 10869: 10759: 10758: 10748: 10747: 10474: 10473: 10463: 10462: 10333: 10332: 10322: 10321: 10290: 10289: 10263:Peñón of Algiers 10227: 10226: 10164: 10163: 10079: 10078: 10002: 10001: 9984: 9942: 9941: 9856: 9855: 9845: 9844: 9766:Seven Years' War 9739:Queen Anne's War 9616: 9615: 9601: 9594: 9587: 9578: 9577: 9564: 9554: 9544: 9534: 9524: 9508: 9494: 9484: 9474: 9464: 9454: 9444: 9434: 9424: 9407:Spanish monarchy 9396: 9389: 9382: 9373: 9372: 9360: 9359: 9304:Pedro de Garibay 9093:Pedro Nuño Colón 8966:Gaspar de Zúñiga 8920: 8919: 8913: 8912: 8868: 8861: 8854: 8845: 8844: 8831: 8830: 8791:Fermín de Lasuén 8682:Triangular trade 8129: 8128: 8118: 8117: 8008:Fermín de Lasuén 7953:Alonso de Molina 7943:Vasco de Quiroga 7904:Friars, fathers, 7825:Spanish missions 7821: 7820: 7645:Hernando de Soto 7563: 7562: 7221: 7220: 7173:Peace of Utrecht 7168:Peace of Ryswick 7031:Santiago de Cuba 6876: 6843: 6783: 6782: 6718:Acaxee Rebellion 6670:Seven Years' War 6658:Queen Anne's War 6603: 6602: 6582: 6575: 6568: 6559: 6558: 6464: 6452: 6441: 6409: 6390: 6387:Mexico's Regions 6343: 6334: 6315: 6306: 6297: 6288: 6267: 6258: 6256: 6245: 6234: 6225: 6216: 6204: 6193: 6184: 6175: 6166: 6157: 6154:Mexico's Regions 6148: 6125: 6116: 6107: 6098: 6089: 6080: 6068: 6059: 6050: 6011: 6009: 5998: 5979: 5977: 5963: 5954: 5942: 5931: 5922: 5910: 5899: 5890: 5881: 5872: 5863: 5854: 5813: 5811: 5800: 5791: 5772: 5763: 5754: 5735: 5696: 5695: 5693: 5691: 5668: 5662: 5653: 5647: 5646: 5645:on 4 March 2016. 5644: 5637: 5629: 5623: 5617: 5611: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5588: 5581: 5565: 5559: 5554: 5548: 5543: 5537: 5536: 5525: 5519: 5512: 5506: 5499: 5493: 5483: 5477: 5470: 5464: 5463:, esp. Chapter 5 5458: 5452: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5428: 5427: 5415: 5409: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5385: 5376: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5335: 5326: 5319: 5313: 5312:, pp. 18–19 5307: 5301: 5295: 5289: 5283: 5277: 5272: 5266: 5260: 5254: 5248: 5242: 5237: 5231: 5230:, pp. 50–52 5225: 5219: 5213: 5207: 5201: 5195: 5189: 5183: 5177: 5171: 5170:, pp. 42–46 5165: 5159: 5154: 5148: 5147:, pp. 33–51 5142: 5136: 5135:, pp. 50–51 5130: 5124: 5118: 5112: 5111:, pp. 38–42 5106: 5100: 5099:, pp. 59–60 5094: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5071: 5065: 5059: 5053: 5048: 5042: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5019: 5013: 5007: 5001: 4995: 4990: 4984: 4979: 4973: 4968: 4962: 4957: 4951: 4946: 4940: 4935: 4929: 4924: 4918: 4912: 4906: 4900: 4894: 4888: 4879: 4873: 4867: 4861: 4855: 4854:, pp. 76–77 4849: 4843: 4842:, pp. 52–54 4837: 4831: 4830: 4819: 4813: 4812: 4801: 4795: 4794: 4783: 4777: 4776: 4764: 4758: 4752: 4746: 4741: 4735: 4730: 4724: 4718: 4712: 4706: 4700: 4694: 4688: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4648: 4647: 4636: 4627: 4621: 4615: 4609: 4603: 4602: 4595:, pp. 55–56 4590: 4584: 4578: 4572: 4566: 4560: 4554: 4548: 4542: 4536: 4530: 4524: 4518: 4512: 4506: 4500: 4499:, pp. 83–85 4494: 4488: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4463: 4457: 4451: 4445: 4439: 4433: 4427: 4421: 4415: 4409: 4406:Castleman (2005) 4403: 4397: 4396: 4384: 4378: 4375:Castleman (2005) 4372: 4366: 4361: 4355: 4349: 4343: 4342: 4331: 4325: 4324:, p. xxviii 4322:Van Young (2006) 4319: 4313: 4310:Van Young (1992) 4307: 4301: 4298:Monsivaís (1992) 4295: 4289: 4287:Van Young (1992) 4284: 4278: 4277: 4266: 4257: 4251: 4242: 4236: 4227: 4221: 4215: 4209: 4203: 4197: 4191: 4185: 4179: 4173: 4167: 4161: 4155: 4149: 4143: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4124: 4118: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4099: 4093: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4070: 4064: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4040: 4034: 4020: 4014: 4008: 4002: 3996: 3990: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3965: 3959: 3958: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3927: 3921: 3920: 3900: 3884: 3881: 3875: 3872: 3866: 3859: 3853: 3850: 3731: 3726: 3725: 3724: 3717: 3712: 3711: 3710: 3703: 3698: 3697: 3696: 3689: 3684: 3683: 3682: 3655:Manuel de Zumaya 3645:in the capital, 3550: 3453:Nueva California 3437:Vieja California 3206: 3205: 3106:Florentine Codex 2824:Valley of Oaxaca 2802:British Honduras 2772:(locally called 2637:Native Americans 2538:King Charles III 2488:Nueva California 2435:mountain range. 2433:Sangre de Cristo 2421:Pedro de Peralta 2166:Southwest region 2133:Valley of Mexico 2106:from Oaxaca and 2087:(sales tax) and 2074: 2071: 2024:Valley of Puebla 1906:port of Veracruz 1559:Vicente Guerrero 1075:Caroline Islands 1028:Giacomo Gastaldi 979:Crown of Castile 778: 777: 776: 770: 737: 736: 723: 722: 709: 708: 695: 694: 681: 680: 667: 666: 653: 652: 641: 640: 628: 627: 621: 620: 605: 604: 525:22 February 1819 394: 379: 346: 331: 261:Siouan languages 178: 169: 164: 147:San Juan de Ulúa 134: 133: 118: 101: 100:"Further Beyond" 97: 78: 58: 50: 43: 35: 21: 20: 14665: 14664: 14660: 14659: 14658: 14656: 14655: 14654: 14645:The Californias 14535:Colonial Mexico 14485: 14484: 14483: 14478: 14477: 14472: 14454: 14280:Las Californias 14256:Alta California 14171:United Colonies 14157:Alta California 14101: 14087: 14057: 14052: 14034: 13978: 13969: 13964:Russian America 13882:Alta California 13852:Las Californias 13804:Spanish Florida 13783: 13772: 13664: 13583: 13569: 13483: 13479:United Colonies 13459:Middle Colonies 13445: 13440: 13410: 13405: 13392: 13385: 13378: 13365: 13258: 13234:Public holidays 13207:Nationality law 13202:Life expectancy 13140: 13094: 12989: 12953:Law enforcement 12867: 12858:Water resources 12733: 12709:Mexican miracle 12563: 12554: 12524: 12519: 12508: 12410: 12405: 12375: 12370: 12341:Ancient history 12313: 12277: 12236: 12195: 12154: 12081: 12072: 12043:Central America 12019: 12009: 12007: 11977: 11968: 11944:Old inquisition 11856: 11841: 11751: 11724: 11680:Trinidad (1797) 11650:La Noche Triste 11638: 11634:San Juan (1797) 11584:San Juan (1595) 11521: 11410: 11250:Notable battles 11245: 11211:Martín de Ursúa 11142: 11073:Alonso de Ojeda 11043:Juan de la Cosa 11028:Pinzón brothers 11011: 10982:John of Austria 10957:Martín de Goiti 10935: 10875: 10856: 10800: 10753: 10734: 10646: 10642:Terra Australis 10637:Río de la Plata 10582:Castilla de Oro 10568: 10510: 10506:Río de la Plata 10468: 10449: 10408: 10367: 10363:Santa Hermandad 10327: 10308: 10304:Terra Australis 10295: 10284: 10251:Spanish Morocco 10232: 10221: 10212:Northern Taiwan 10173: 10158: 10129:Río de la Plata 10084: 10073: 10007: 10006:Central America 9996: 9978: 9947: 9936: 9880:Crown of Aragon 9861: 9850: 9835: 9751:Bourbon Reforms 9621: 9610: 9605: 9575: 9570: 9566:Río de la Plata 9509: 9500: 9409: 9400: 9365: 9357: 9352: 9308: 9264: 9205: 9181: 9172:Pedro de Castro 9127: 9078: 9024:Rodrigo Pacheco 9004: 8990:Luis de Velasco 8970: 8961:Luis de Velasco 8921: 8917: 8915: 8914: 8910: 8905: 8901:Luís de Velasco 8881: 8872: 8842: 8837: 8815: 8749: 8686: 8655: 8613: 8609:Chamorro people 8592: 8529: 8471: 8434:Southern Plains 8428: 8365: 8302: 8243:Mission Indians 8229: 8203: 8123: 8113: 8103: 8067: 8023:Mariano Payeras 8003:Francisco Palóu 7905: 7899: 7827:in the Americas 7826: 7816: 7814:Catholic Church 7804: 7755:Bruno de Heceta 7605: 7599: 7567: 7558: 7557:adventurers and 7556: 7546: 7542:Spanish Formosa 7530: 7469:Baja California 7459:Alta California 7454:Las Californias 7431: 7425: 7331:San Luis Potosí 7217:and territories 7216: 7214: 7212: 7202: 7141: 7122:Captain general 7095: 7086:Mérida, Yucatán 7056:San Luis Potosí 7006:State of Mexico 6982: 6934: 6896: 6880: 6871: 6841: 6824: 6778: 6776: 6774: 6764: 6736:Tepehuán Revolt 6686: 6680: 6592: 6586: 6552:José de Urrútia 6533:at ibiblio.org 6525:Wayback Machine 6512:Wayback Machine 6501: 6500: 6499: 6484: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6467: 6461: 6416: 6414:Reference works 6394:Van Young, Eric 6356: 6350: 6331: 6314:(2nd ed.). 6285: 6213: 6145: 5995: 5951: 5919: 5845: 5824:Van Young, Eric 5788: 5751: 5732: 5716: 5710: 5704: 5699: 5689: 5687: 5685: 5669: 5665: 5654: 5650: 5642: 5635: 5631: 5630: 5626: 5618: 5614: 5606: 5602: 5592: 5590: 5589:on 31 July 2017 5586: 5579: 5566: 5562: 5555: 5551: 5544: 5540: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5513: 5509: 5500: 5496: 5484: 5480: 5471: 5467: 5459: 5455: 5447: 5443: 5435: 5431: 5421: 5416: 5412: 5404: 5400: 5390: 5386: 5379: 5372: 5368: 5360: 5356: 5348: 5344: 5336: 5329: 5320: 5316: 5308: 5304: 5296: 5292: 5284: 5280: 5275:Marichal (2006) 5273: 5269: 5261: 5257: 5249: 5245: 5238: 5234: 5226: 5222: 5214: 5210: 5202: 5198: 5190: 5186: 5178: 5174: 5166: 5162: 5155: 5151: 5143: 5139: 5131: 5127: 5119: 5115: 5107: 5103: 5095: 5091: 5083: 5079: 5074:Robinson (1979) 5072: 5068: 5060: 5056: 5051:Gonzales (2003) 5049: 5045: 5040:Gonzales (2003) 5038: 5034: 5026: 5022: 5014: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4991: 4987: 4980: 4976: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4954: 4947: 4943: 4936: 4932: 4925: 4921: 4913: 4909: 4901: 4897: 4889: 4882: 4874: 4870: 4862: 4858: 4850: 4846: 4838: 4834: 4824: 4822:Szewczyk (1976) 4820: 4816: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4770: 4765: 4761: 4753: 4749: 4744:Lockhart (1992) 4742: 4738: 4731: 4727: 4721:Salvucci (1987) 4719: 4715: 4707: 4703: 4695: 4691: 4679: 4675: 4667: 4663: 4655: 4651: 4641: 4637: 4630: 4622: 4618: 4610: 4606: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4579: 4575: 4567: 4563: 4555: 4551: 4543: 4539: 4533:Ouweneel (1997) 4531: 4527: 4519: 4515: 4507: 4503: 4495: 4491: 4483: 4479: 4469: 4464: 4460: 4452: 4448: 4442:Ouweneel (1997) 4440: 4436: 4430:Ouweneel (1997) 4428: 4424: 4418:Ouweneel (1997) 4416: 4412: 4404: 4400: 4390: 4385: 4381: 4373: 4369: 4364:Lockhart (1991) 4362: 4358: 4352:Ouweneel (1997) 4350: 4346: 4336: 4334:Lockhart (1976) 4332: 4328: 4320: 4316: 4308: 4304: 4296: 4292: 4285: 4281: 4271: 4267: 4260: 4252: 4245: 4237: 4230: 4222: 4218: 4210: 4206: 4198: 4194: 4186: 4182: 4174: 4170: 4162: 4158: 4150: 4146: 4136: 4134: 4126: 4125: 4121: 4111: 4109: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4091:de Solís (1771) 4089: 4085: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4057: 4055: 4042: 4041: 4037: 4021: 4017: 4009: 4005: 3997: 3993: 3985: 3981: 3966: 3962: 3947: 3943: 3928: 3924: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3888: 3887: 3882: 3878: 3873: 3869: 3860: 3856: 3851: 3847: 3842: 3817: 3727: 3722: 3720: 3713: 3708: 3706: 3699: 3694: 3692: 3685: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3588: 3580:Main articles: 3578: 3501:Nuevo Santander 3293:San Luis Potosí 3228:State of Mexico 3144: 3094: 3089: 3061:Bourbon Reforms 2966: 2960: 2958:Central America 2890:entailed estate 2879:The Isthmus of 2877: 2826: 2810:Isla del Carmen 2665: 2660: 2611:Las Californias 2546:Dominican Order 2498:as present-day 2492:Las Californias 2480: 2410:Native American 2377:capitán general 2371:. In 1595, Don 2336: 2311:and Arizona). 2273: 2237: 2213: 2205:Alta California 2184:, the other in 2162: 2135: 2127:Bourbon Reforms 2072: 2046:Juan de Palafox 2026: 2014:Bourbon Reforms 1941: 1914:Mesa de Anahuac 1902: 1863: 1857: 1852: 1823: 1777:precious metals 1758:South China Sea 1701:San Luis Potosí 1689:Bourbon Reforms 1652:labor that the 1577: 1571: 1532:Bourbon Reforms 1478: 1472: 1452:Bourbon Reforms 1448: 1426:and introduced 1420:Bourbon dynasty 1400: 1307: 1287:Spanish Florida 1239: 1221:Spanish monarch 1209: 1188: 1182: 1144:, and southern 1122:Alta California 1114:Baja California 1110:Las Californias 1071:Mariana Islands 1021: 1015: 1007:Bourbon Reforms 971: 866:After the 1521 857:Spanish Formosa 833:Central America 772: 771: 734: 720: 706: 692: 678: 664: 650: 625: 582: 572: 549: 536: 533:Trienio Liberal 522: 509: 496: 479: 462: 445: 432: 392: 386: 377: 371: 344: 338: 329: 323: 301: 290: 241:Mayan languages 226: 197: 181: 159: 135: 124: 121: 119: 116: 115: 99: 98: 83: 82: 79: 62: 61: 52: 37: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 14663: 14653: 14652: 14647: 14642: 14637: 14632: 14627: 14622: 14617: 14612: 14607: 14602: 14597: 14592: 14587: 14582: 14577: 14572: 14567: 14562: 14557: 14552: 14547: 14542: 14537: 14532: 14527: 14522: 14517: 14512: 14507: 14502: 14497: 14480: 14479: 14474: 14473: 14471: 14470: 14459: 14456: 14455: 14453: 14452: 14446: 14440: 14434: 14433: 14432: 14427: 14422: 14417: 14412: 14410:South Carolina 14407: 14405:North Carolina 14402: 14397: 14392: 14387: 14382: 14377: 14372: 14367: 14362: 14351: 14345: 14339: 14333: 14327: 14321: 14315: 14309: 14303: 14297: 14291: 14285: 14284: 14283: 14277: 14271: 14265: 14259: 14253: 14240: 14234: 14228: 14222: 14216: 14210: 14204: 14198: 14192: 14186: 14180: 14174: 14168: 14162: 14161: 14160: 14154: 14148: 14142: 14136: 14130: 14124: 14118: 14106: 14103: 14102: 14086: 14085: 14078: 14071: 14063: 14054: 14053: 14051: 14050: 14039: 14036: 14035: 14033: 14032: 14024: 14016: 14008: 14000: 13992: 13983: 13980: 13979: 13974: 13971: 13970: 13968: 13967: 13961: 13955: 13949: 13943: 13937: 13931: 13925: 13922:New Netherland 13919: 13918: 13917: 13911: 13905: 13899: 13896:French Florida 13887: 13886: 13885: 13879: 13873: 13867: 13861: 13855: 13849: 13843: 13837: 13831: 13825: 13819: 13813: 13807: 13795: 13788: 13785: 13784: 13782: 13781: 13777: 13774: 13773: 13771: 13770: 13764: 13758: 13752: 13746: 13740: 13734: 13728: 13722: 13716: 13710: 13707:Indian Reserve 13704: 13698: 13692: 13686: 13680: 13674: 13668: 13655: 13649: 13643: 13637: 13631: 13625: 13619: 13613: 13607: 13601: 13595: 13588: 13585: 13584: 13582: 13581: 13574: 13571: 13570: 13568: 13567: 13561: 13558:South Carolina 13555: 13552:North Carolina 13549: 13543: 13537: 13531: 13525: 13519: 13513: 13507: 13501: 13495: 13488: 13485: 13484: 13482: 13481: 13476: 13471: 13466: 13461: 13456: 13450: 13447: 13446: 13439: 13438: 13431: 13424: 13416: 13407: 13406: 13404: 13403: 13398: 13391: 13390: 13383: 13375: 13374: 13371: 13370: 13367: 13366: 13364: 13363: 13358: 13353: 13348: 13347: 13346: 13336: 13331: 13326: 13321: 13316: 13311: 13306: 13301: 13296: 13295: 13294: 13284: 13279: 13274: 13268: 13266: 13260: 13259: 13257: 13256: 13251: 13246: 13241: 13236: 13231: 13226: 13225: 13224: 13219: 13209: 13204: 13199: 13194: 13189: 13184: 13179: 13174: 13169: 13164: 13158: 13152: 13146: 13145: 13142: 13141: 13139: 13138: 13136:Water scarcity 13133: 13131:Transportation 13128: 13123: 13118: 13113: 13108: 13103: 13098: 13090: 13088:Pension system 13085: 13080: 13075: 13070: 13065: 13060: 13055: 13050: 13045: 13044: 13043: 13033: 13028: 13023: 13018: 13013: 13007: 13001: 12995: 12994: 12991: 12990: 12988: 12987: 12982: 12977: 12976: 12975: 12965: 12960: 12955: 12950: 12945: 12944: 12943: 12938: 12928: 12923: 12918: 12913: 12908: 12907: 12906: 12901: 12891: 12885: 12879: 12873: 12872: 12869: 12868: 12866: 12865: 12860: 12855: 12850: 12845: 12840: 12835: 12830: 12829: 12828: 12826:Municipalities 12818: 12813: 12808: 12803: 12798: 12793: 12788: 12783: 12781:Extreme points 12778: 12773: 12768: 12765:Climate change 12758: 12753: 12747: 12741: 12735: 12734: 12732: 12731: 12726: 12721: 12716: 12711: 12706: 12701: 12696: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12676: 12671: 12666: 12661: 12656: 12651: 12646: 12641: 12636: 12631: 12626: 12621: 12616: 12611: 12606: 12601: 12600: 12599: 12589: 12584: 12579: 12573: 12571: 12565: 12564: 12553: 12552: 12545: 12538: 12530: 12521: 12520: 12518: 12517: 12513: 12510: 12509: 12507: 12506: 12501: 12496: 12491: 12486: 12481: 12480: 12479: 12474: 12469: 12461: 12456: 12451: 12446: 12441: 12436: 12431: 12426: 12421: 12415: 12412: 12411: 12404: 12403: 12396: 12389: 12381: 12372: 12371: 12369: 12368: 12363: 12361:Modern history 12358: 12353: 12348: 12343: 12338: 12333: 12328: 12318: 12315: 12314: 12312: 12311: 12306: 12301: 12296: 12291: 12285: 12283: 12279: 12278: 12276: 12275: 12274: 12273: 12268: 12260: 12255: 12250: 12244: 12242: 12238: 12237: 12235: 12234: 12229: 12224: 12219: 12214: 12209: 12203: 12201: 12197: 12196: 12194: 12193: 12188: 12183: 12178: 12173: 12168: 12162: 12160: 12156: 12155: 12153: 12152: 12150:Decolonization 12147: 12142: 12141: 12140: 12135: 12130: 12125: 12115: 12110: 12105: 12100: 12095: 12089: 12087: 12083: 12082: 12075: 12073: 12071: 12070: 12065: 12060: 12055: 12050: 12045: 12040: 12035: 12029: 12027: 12021: 12020: 12006: 12005: 11998: 11991: 11983: 11974: 11973: 11970: 11969: 11967: 11966: 11961: 11956: 11951: 11946: 11941: 11940: 11939: 11929: 11928: 11927: 11917: 11912: 11907: 11902: 11897: 11892: 11887: 11882: 11877: 11872: 11867: 11861: 11858: 11857: 11847: 11846: 11843: 11842: 11840: 11839: 11834: 11829: 11824: 11819: 11814: 11809: 11804: 11799: 11798: 11797: 11792: 11787: 11782: 11772: 11767: 11762: 11760:Canary Islands 11756: 11753: 11752: 11742: 11741: 11738: 11737: 11734: 11733: 11730: 11729: 11726: 11725: 11723: 11722: 11717: 11712: 11707: 11702: 11697: 11692: 11687: 11682: 11677: 11672: 11667: 11662: 11657: 11652: 11646: 11644: 11640: 11639: 11637: 11636: 11631: 11626: 11621: 11616: 11614:Túpac Amaru II 11611: 11606: 11601: 11596: 11591: 11586: 11581: 11576: 11571: 11566: 11561: 11559:Bogotá savanna 11556: 11551: 11546: 11540: 11538: 11531: 11527: 11526: 11523: 11522: 11520: 11519: 11514: 11509: 11504: 11499: 11494: 11489: 11484: 11479: 11474: 11469: 11467:Spanish Armada 11464: 11459: 11454: 11449: 11444: 11439: 11434: 11429: 11424: 11418: 11416: 11412: 11411: 11409: 11408: 11403: 11398: 11393: 11388: 11383: 11378: 11373: 11368: 11363: 11361:White Mountain 11358: 11356:Cape Celidonia 11353: 11351:English Armada 11348: 11343: 11338: 11333: 11328: 11323: 11318: 11313: 11308: 11303: 11298: 11293: 11288: 11283: 11278: 11273: 11267: 11265: 11258: 11251: 11247: 11246: 11244: 11243: 11238: 11233: 11228: 11223: 11218: 11213: 11208: 11203: 11198: 11193: 11188: 11183: 11178: 11173: 11168: 11163: 11158: 11152: 11150: 11144: 11143: 11141: 11140: 11135: 11130: 11128:Juan Fernández 11125: 11120: 11115: 11110: 11105: 11103:Diego Columbus 11100: 11095: 11090: 11085: 11080: 11075: 11070: 11065: 11060: 11055: 11050: 11045: 11040: 11035: 11030: 11025: 11019: 11017: 11013: 11012: 11010: 11009: 11004: 10999: 10994: 10989: 10984: 10979: 10974: 10969: 10964: 10959: 10954: 10949: 10943: 10941: 10937: 10936: 10934: 10933: 10931:Army of Africa 10928: 10923: 10918: 10913: 10911:Spanish Armada 10908: 10903: 10898: 10893: 10887: 10885: 10877: 10876: 10866: 10865: 10862: 10861: 10858: 10857: 10855: 10854: 10849: 10844: 10839: 10834: 10829: 10824: 10819: 10814: 10812:Manila galleon 10808: 10806: 10802: 10801: 10799: 10798: 10793: 10788: 10783: 10778: 10773: 10767: 10765: 10755: 10754: 10744: 10743: 10740: 10739: 10736: 10735: 10733: 10732: 10727: 10722: 10717: 10712: 10707: 10702: 10697: 10692: 10687: 10682: 10677: 10672: 10667: 10662: 10656: 10654: 10648: 10647: 10645: 10644: 10639: 10634: 10629: 10624: 10619: 10614: 10609: 10604: 10599: 10594: 10589: 10584: 10578: 10576: 10570: 10569: 10567: 10566: 10561: 10556: 10551: 10546: 10541: 10536: 10531: 10526: 10520: 10518: 10512: 10511: 10509: 10508: 10503: 10498: 10493: 10488: 10482: 10480: 10470: 10469: 10459: 10458: 10455: 10454: 10451: 10450: 10448: 10447: 10442: 10437: 10432: 10427: 10422: 10416: 10414: 10410: 10409: 10407: 10406: 10401: 10396: 10391: 10386: 10381: 10375: 10373: 10369: 10368: 10366: 10365: 10360: 10355: 10350: 10345: 10339: 10337: 10329: 10328: 10326:Administration 10318: 10317: 10314: 10313: 10310: 10309: 10307: 10306: 10300: 10297: 10296: 10286: 10285: 10283: 10282: 10247:Western Sahara 10243: 10237: 10234: 10233: 10223: 10222: 10220: 10219: 10214: 10209: 10178: 10175: 10174: 10160: 10159: 10157: 10156: 10145:Banda Oriental 10126: 10112: 10089: 10086: 10085: 10075: 10074: 10072: 10071: 10066: 10061: 10056: 10051: 10046: 10041: 10036: 10018: 10012: 10009: 10008: 9998: 9997: 9995: 9994: 9960:Coastal Alaska 9952: 9949: 9948: 9938: 9937: 9935: 9934: 9929: 9924: 9919: 9914: 9909: 9894: 9893: 9892: 9887: 9882: 9877: 9866: 9863: 9862: 9852: 9851: 9841: 9840: 9837: 9836: 9834: 9833: 9828: 9823: 9818: 9813: 9808: 9803: 9798: 9793: 9788: 9783: 9778: 9773: 9768: 9763: 9758: 9753: 9748: 9743: 9742: 9741: 9731: 9726: 9721: 9716: 9711: 9706: 9701: 9696: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9676: 9671: 9666: 9661: 9656: 9651: 9646: 9641: 9632: 9626: 9623: 9622: 9612: 9611: 9608:Spanish Empire 9604: 9603: 9596: 9589: 9581: 9572: 9571: 9569: 9568: 9558: 9548: 9538: 9528: 9517: 9515: 9511: 9510: 9503: 9501: 9499: 9498: 9488: 9478: 9468: 9458: 9448: 9438: 9428: 9417: 9415: 9411: 9410: 9399: 9398: 9391: 9384: 9376: 9370: 9367: 9366: 9354: 9353: 9351: 9350: 9345: 9340: 9335: 9330: 9325: 9319: 9317: 9310: 9309: 9307: 9306: 9301: 9296: 9291: 9286: 9281: 9275: 9273: 9266: 9265: 9263: 9262: 9257: 9252: 9247: 9242: 9237: 9232: 9227: 9222: 9216: 9214: 9207: 9206: 9204: 9203: 9198: 9192: 9190: 9183: 9182: 9180: 9179: 9174: 9169: 9164: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9144: 9138: 9136: 9129: 9128: 9126: 9125: 9120: 9115: 9110: 9105: 9100: 9095: 9089: 9087: 9080: 9079: 9077: 9076: 9071: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9031: 9026: 9021: 9015: 9013: 9006: 9005: 9003: 9002: 8997: 8992: 8987: 8981: 8979: 8972: 8971: 8969: 8968: 8963: 8958: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8932: 8930: 8923: 8922: 8908: 8906: 8904: 8903: 8898: 8892: 8890: 8883: 8882: 8871: 8870: 8863: 8856: 8848: 8839: 8838: 8836: 8835: 8824: 8821: 8820: 8817: 8816: 8814: 8813: 8808: 8806:Junípero Serra 8803: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8783: 8778: 8773: 8768: 8763: 8757: 8755: 8751: 8750: 8748: 8747: 8742: 8737: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8717: 8712: 8707: 8706: 8705: 8694: 8692: 8688: 8687: 8685: 8684: 8679: 8677:Manila galleon 8674: 8669: 8663: 8661: 8657: 8656: 8654: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8627: 8625: 8619: 8618: 8615: 8614: 8612: 8611: 8606: 8600: 8598: 8594: 8593: 8591: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8575: 8570: 8565: 8560: 8555: 8550: 8545: 8539: 8537: 8531: 8530: 8528: 8527: 8522: 8517: 8512: 8507: 8502: 8497: 8492: 8487: 8481: 8479: 8473: 8472: 8470: 8469: 8464: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8438: 8436: 8430: 8429: 8427: 8426: 8421: 8416: 8411: 8406: 8401: 8396: 8391: 8386: 8381: 8375: 8373: 8367: 8366: 8364: 8363: 8358: 8356:Tohono O'odham 8353: 8348: 8343: 8341:Pueblo peoples 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8316:Akimel O'odham 8312: 8310: 8304: 8303: 8301: 8300: 8295: 8290: 8285: 8280: 8275: 8270: 8265: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8245: 8239: 8237: 8231: 8230: 8228: 8227: 8222: 8217: 8211: 8209: 8205: 8204: 8202: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8186: 8181: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8141: 8135: 8133: 8126: 8115: 8109: 8108: 8105: 8104: 8102: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8075: 8073: 8069: 8068: 8066: 8065: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8045: 8043:Antonio Margil 8040: 8035: 8033:Marcos de Niza 8030: 8025: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7998:Junípero Serra 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7963:Diego de Landa 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7913:Pedro de Gante 7909: 7907: 7901: 7900: 7898: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7831: 7829: 7818: 7810: 7809: 7806: 7805: 7803: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7765:Alonso de León 7762: 7757: 7752: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7722: 7717: 7712: 7707: 7702: 7700:Manuel Quimper 7697: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7625:Nuño de Guzmán 7622: 7617: 7611: 7609: 7601: 7600: 7598: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7571: 7569: 7560: 7552: 7551: 7548: 7547: 7545: 7544: 7538: 7536: 7532: 7531: 7529: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7493: 7483: 7473: 7472: 7471: 7466: 7451: 7441: 7435: 7433: 7427: 7426: 7424: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7227: 7225: 7218: 7208: 7207: 7204: 7203: 7201: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7149: 7147: 7143: 7142: 7140: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7109: 7103: 7101: 7097: 7096: 7094: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6992: 6990: 6984: 6983: 6981: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6944: 6942: 6936: 6935: 6933: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6906: 6904: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6894: 6888: 6886: 6882: 6881: 6879: 6878: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6834: 6832: 6826: 6825: 6823: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6802: 6797: 6791: 6789: 6787:Habsburg Spain 6780: 6779:administration 6770: 6769: 6766: 6765: 6763: 6762: 6757: 6751: 6745: 6739: 6733: 6730:Acoma Massacre 6727: 6721: 6715: 6709: 6706:Chichimeca War 6703: 6697: 6690: 6688: 6682: 6681: 6679: 6678: 6673: 6667: 6661: 6655: 6649: 6643: 6637: 6631: 6625: 6619: 6613: 6606: 6600: 6594: 6593: 6585: 6584: 6577: 6570: 6562: 6556: 6555: 6545: 6537: 6528: 6515: 6498: 6497: 6492: 6486: 6485: 6474: 6473: 6471: 6470:External links 6468: 6466: 6465: 6459: 6442: 6433: 6425: 6415: 6412: 6411: 6410: 6401: 6391: 6382: 6375: 6364: 6359:Hanke, Lewis. 6349: 6348:Historiography 6346: 6345: 6344: 6335: 6329: 6316: 6307: 6298: 6289: 6283: 6268: 6259: 6246: 6235: 6226: 6217: 6211: 6194: 6185: 6176: 6167: 6158: 6149: 6143: 6126: 6117: 6108: 6099: 6090: 6081: 6069: 6060: 6051: 6025:(2): 293–324. 6012: 5999: 5993: 5980: 5968:Farriss, Nancy 5964: 5955: 5949: 5932: 5923: 5917: 5900: 5891: 5882: 5873: 5864: 5855: 5844: 5841: 5840: 5839: 5821: 5814: 5801: 5792: 5786: 5773: 5764: 5755: 5749: 5736: 5730: 5715: 5712: 5711: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5697: 5684:978-6073143646 5683: 5674:Mexico Racista 5663: 5648: 5624: 5612: 5600: 5560: 5549: 5538: 5520: 5507: 5494: 5478: 5465: 5461:Zeitlin (2005) 5453: 5441: 5429: 5418:Zeitlin (1989) 5410: 5398: 5388:Zeitlin (1989) 5377: 5366: 5362:Zeitlin (2005) 5354: 5352:, p. 265. 5350:Gerhard (1993) 5342: 5338:Gerhard (1993) 5327: 5321:For instance, 5314: 5302: 5290: 5278: 5267: 5263:Hamnett (1971) 5255: 5243: 5232: 5228:Gerhard (1993) 5220: 5216:Farriss (1984) 5208: 5204:Farriss (1984) 5196: 5192:Farriss (1984) 5184: 5180:Restall (1997) 5172: 5160: 5157:Restall (2009) 5149: 5137: 5125: 5113: 5101: 5089: 5085:Gerhard (1993) 5077: 5066: 5054: 5043: 5032: 5020: 5008: 4996: 4993:Jackson (1994) 4985: 4974: 4963: 4952: 4941: 4930: 4919: 4907: 4895: 4880: 4868: 4856: 4852:Brading (1978) 4844: 4832: 4814: 4796: 4778: 4759: 4747: 4736: 4725: 4713: 4701: 4689: 4681:Thomson (1989) 4673: 4669:Thomson (1989) 4661: 4657:Thomson (1989) 4649: 4628: 4624:Thomson (1989) 4616: 4604: 4585: 4581:Gerhard (1993) 4573: 4561: 4549: 4537: 4525: 4521:Carroll (1991) 4513: 4509:Gerhard (1993) 4501: 4497:Gerhard (1993) 4489: 4485:Gerhard (1993) 4477: 4466:Carroll (1979) 4458: 4454:Carroll (1991) 4446: 4434: 4422: 4410: 4398: 4379: 4367: 4356: 4344: 4326: 4314: 4302: 4290: 4279: 4258: 4243: 4228: 4216: 4204: 4192: 4180: 4168: 4156: 4144: 4119: 4094: 4083: 4065: 4035: 4015: 4003: 3991: 3979: 3960: 3941: 3922: 3911:(in Spanish). 3894: 3892: 3889: 3886: 3885: 3876: 3867: 3863:Hamnett (1971) 3854: 3844: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3738:Criollo people 3734: 3733: 3732: 3729:History portal 3718: 3704: 3690: 3674: 3671: 3577: 3574: 3545: 3544: 3541: 3538: 3535: 3529: 3528: 3525: 3522: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3509: 3506: 3503: 3497: 3496: 3493: 3490: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3477: 3474: 3471: 3465: 3464: 3461: 3458: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3445: 3442: 3439: 3433: 3432: 3429: 3426: 3423: 3417: 3416: 3413: 3410: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3397: 3394: 3391: 3385: 3384: 3381: 3378: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3337: 3336: 3333: 3330: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3317: 3314: 3311: 3305: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3285: 3282: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3269: 3266: 3263: 3257: 3256: 3253: 3250: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3237: 3234: 3231: 3220: 3219: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3194:children, 1763 3174:Miguel Cabrera 3143: 3140: 3093: 3090: 3088: 3085: 3073:Mosquito Coast 2962:Main article: 2959: 2956: 2876: 2873: 2825: 2822: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2652:secularization 2592:municipalities 2542:José de Gálvez 2479: 2476: 2359:Chichimeca War 2335: 2332: 2330:in his honor. 2305:Sonoran Desert 2272: 2269: 2236: 2233: 2212: 2209: 2161: 2158: 2134: 2131: 2025: 2022: 1967:, east of the 1954:Manila Galleon 1940: 1937: 1901: 1898: 1859:Main article: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1850:Central region 1848: 1822: 1819: 1762:Manila Galleon 1750:Manila Galleon 1573:Main article: 1570: 1567: 1551:Cry of Dolores 1528:Chichimeca War 1474:Main article: 1471: 1468: 1447: 1444: 1436:Mexican states 1399: 1396: 1319:Nuño de Guzmán 1306: 1303: 1238: 1235: 1208: 1205: 1184:Main article: 1181: 1178: 1055:Cayman Islands 1019:Spanish Empire 1017:Main article: 1014: 1011: 1003:Spanish empire 995:Patronato real 983:Queen Isabella 970: 967: 959:Mexican Empire 932:Manila galleon 797:Habsburg Spain 793:Spanish Empire 747: 746: 743: 742: 739: 738: 731: 725: 724: 717: 715:Oregon Country 711: 710: 703: 697: 696: 689: 683: 682: 675: 669: 668: 661: 655: 654: 647: 638: 635: 634: 629: 617: 616: 611: 601: 600: 595: 591: 590: 587: 586: 583: 580: 577: 576: 573: 570: 567: 566: 563: 562: 558: 557: 554: 553: 550: 544: 541: 540: 537: 530: 527: 526: 523: 517: 514: 513: 512:1 October 1800 510: 504: 501: 500: 497: 487: 484: 483: 480: 470: 467: 466: 463: 453: 450: 449: 448:13 August 1521 446: 440: 437: 436: 433: 427: 424: 423: 420: 419: 414: 413:Historical era 410: 409: 404: 400: 399: 396: 395: 387: 384: 381: 380: 372: 369: 366: 365: 362: 361: 358: 352: 351: 348: 347: 339: 336: 333: 332: 324: 321: 318: 317: 314: 313: 310: 304: 303: 296: 292: 291: 289: 288: 283: 273: 263: 258: 253: 248: 243: 237: 235: 231: 230: 221: 217: 216: 211: 207: 206: 203:Spanish Empire 187: 183: 182: 179: 171: 170: 137: 136: 122: 103: 102: 85: 84: 80: 73: 72: 69: 68: 64: 63: 60: 59: 44: 28: 27: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14662: 14651: 14648: 14646: 14643: 14641: 14638: 14636: 14633: 14631: 14628: 14626: 14623: 14621: 14618: 14616: 14615:Spanish Texas 14613: 14611: 14608: 14606: 14603: 14601: 14598: 14596: 14593: 14591: 14588: 14586: 14583: 14581: 14578: 14576: 14573: 14571: 14568: 14566: 14563: 14561: 14558: 14556: 14553: 14551: 14548: 14546: 14543: 14541: 14538: 14536: 14533: 14531: 14528: 14526: 14523: 14521: 14518: 14516: 14513: 14511: 14508: 14506: 14503: 14501: 14498: 14496: 14493: 14492: 14490: 14469: 14461: 14460: 14457: 14450: 14447: 14444: 14441: 14438: 14435: 14431: 14430:West Virginia 14428: 14426: 14423: 14421: 14418: 14416: 14413: 14411: 14408: 14406: 14403: 14401: 14398: 14396: 14393: 14391: 14388: 14386: 14383: 14381: 14378: 14376: 14373: 14371: 14368: 14366: 14363: 14361: 14357: 14356: 14355: 14352: 14349: 14346: 14343: 14340: 14337: 14334: 14331: 14328: 14325: 14322: 14319: 14316: 14313: 14310: 14307: 14304: 14301: 14298: 14295: 14292: 14289: 14286: 14281: 14278: 14275: 14272: 14269: 14266: 14263: 14260: 14257: 14254: 14251: 14250:Mexican Texas 14247: 14246: 14244: 14241: 14238: 14235: 14232: 14229: 14226: 14223: 14220: 14217: 14214: 14211: 14208: 14205: 14202: 14199: 14196: 14193: 14190: 14187: 14184: 14181: 14178: 14175: 14172: 14169: 14166: 14163: 14158: 14155: 14152: 14149: 14146: 14143: 14140: 14137: 14134: 14131: 14128: 14125: 14122: 14119: 14116: 14113: 14112: 14111: 14108: 14107: 14104: 14100: 14099:United States 14096: 14092: 14084: 14079: 14077: 14072: 14070: 14065: 14064: 14061: 14049: 14041: 14040: 14037: 14028: 14025: 14020: 14017: 14012: 14009: 14004: 14001: 13996: 13993: 13988: 13985: 13984: 13981: 13977: 13972: 13965: 13962: 13959: 13956: 13953: 13950: 13947: 13944: 13941: 13938: 13935: 13932: 13929: 13926: 13923: 13920: 13915: 13912: 13909: 13906: 13903: 13900: 13897: 13893: 13892: 13891: 13888: 13883: 13880: 13877: 13874: 13871: 13868: 13865: 13862: 13859: 13856: 13853: 13850: 13847: 13846:Spanish Texas 13844: 13841: 13838: 13835: 13832: 13829: 13826: 13823: 13820: 13817: 13814: 13811: 13808: 13805: 13801: 13800: 13799: 13796: 13793: 13790: 13789: 13786: 13779: 13778: 13775: 13768: 13765: 13762: 13759: 13756: 13753: 13750: 13747: 13744: 13741: 13738: 13735: 13732: 13729: 13726: 13723: 13720: 13717: 13714: 13711: 13708: 13705: 13702: 13699: 13696: 13693: 13690: 13687: 13684: 13681: 13678: 13677:Rupert's Land 13675: 13672: 13669: 13659: 13656: 13653: 13650: 13647: 13644: 13641: 13638: 13635: 13632: 13629: 13626: 13623: 13620: 13617: 13614: 13611: 13608: 13605: 13602: 13599: 13596: 13593: 13590: 13589: 13586: 13580: 13579:United States 13576: 13575: 13572: 13565: 13562: 13559: 13556: 13553: 13550: 13547: 13544: 13541: 13538: 13535: 13532: 13529: 13526: 13523: 13520: 13517: 13514: 13511: 13508: 13505: 13502: 13499: 13498:New Hampshire 13496: 13493: 13490: 13489: 13486: 13480: 13477: 13475: 13472: 13470: 13467: 13465: 13462: 13460: 13457: 13455: 13452: 13451: 13448: 13444: 13437: 13432: 13430: 13425: 13423: 13418: 13417: 13414: 13402: 13399: 13397: 13394: 13393: 13388: 13384: 13381: 13377: 13376: 13372: 13362: 13359: 13357: 13354: 13352: 13349: 13345: 13342: 13341: 13340: 13337: 13335: 13332: 13330: 13327: 13325: 13322: 13320: 13317: 13315: 13312: 13310: 13307: 13305: 13302: 13300: 13297: 13293: 13290: 13289: 13288: 13285: 13283: 13280: 13278: 13275: 13273: 13270: 13269: 13267: 13265: 13261: 13255: 13252: 13250: 13247: 13245: 13242: 13240: 13239:States by HDI 13237: 13235: 13232: 13230: 13227: 13223: 13220: 13218: 13215: 13214: 13213: 13210: 13208: 13205: 13203: 13200: 13198: 13195: 13193: 13190: 13188: 13185: 13183: 13180: 13178: 13175: 13173: 13170: 13168: 13165: 13163: 13160: 13159: 13156: 13153: 13151: 13147: 13137: 13134: 13132: 13129: 13127: 13124: 13122: 13119: 13117: 13114: 13112: 13111:States by GDP 13109: 13107: 13104: 13102: 13099: 13097: 13091: 13089: 13086: 13084: 13081: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13071: 13069: 13068:Manufacturing 13066: 13064: 13061: 13059: 13056: 13054: 13051: 13049: 13046: 13042: 13039: 13038: 13037: 13034: 13032: 13029: 13027: 13024: 13022: 13019: 13017: 13014: 13012: 13009: 13008: 13005: 13002: 13000: 12996: 12986: 12985:Supreme Court 12983: 12981: 12978: 12974: 12971: 12970: 12969: 12966: 12964: 12961: 12959: 12956: 12954: 12951: 12949: 12946: 12942: 12939: 12937: 12934: 12933: 12932: 12929: 12927: 12924: 12922: 12919: 12917: 12914: 12912: 12909: 12905: 12902: 12900: 12897: 12896: 12895: 12892: 12890: 12887: 12886: 12883: 12880: 12878: 12874: 12864: 12861: 12859: 12856: 12854: 12851: 12849: 12846: 12844: 12841: 12839: 12836: 12834: 12831: 12827: 12824: 12823: 12822: 12819: 12817: 12814: 12812: 12809: 12807: 12804: 12802: 12799: 12797: 12794: 12792: 12789: 12787: 12784: 12782: 12779: 12777: 12774: 12772: 12769: 12766: 12762: 12759: 12757: 12754: 12752: 12749: 12748: 12745: 12742: 12740: 12736: 12730: 12727: 12725: 12722: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12712: 12710: 12707: 12705: 12702: 12700: 12697: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12672: 12670: 12667: 12665: 12662: 12660: 12657: 12655: 12652: 12650: 12647: 12645: 12642: 12640: 12637: 12635: 12632: 12630: 12627: 12625: 12622: 12620: 12617: 12615: 12612: 12610: 12607: 12605: 12602: 12598: 12595: 12594: 12593: 12590: 12588: 12585: 12583: 12580: 12578: 12575: 12574: 12572: 12570: 12566: 12562: 12558: 12551: 12546: 12544: 12539: 12537: 12532: 12531: 12528: 12515: 12514: 12511: 12505: 12502: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12478: 12475: 12473: 12470: 12468: 12465: 12464: 12462: 12460: 12457: 12455: 12452: 12450: 12447: 12445: 12442: 12440: 12437: 12435: 12432: 12430: 12427: 12425: 12422: 12420: 12417: 12416: 12413: 12409: 12402: 12397: 12395: 12390: 12388: 12383: 12382: 12379: 12367: 12364: 12362: 12359: 12357: 12354: 12352: 12349: 12347: 12344: 12342: 12339: 12337: 12334: 12332: 12329: 12327: 12323: 12320: 12319: 12316: 12310: 12307: 12305: 12302: 12300: 12297: 12295: 12292: 12290: 12287: 12286: 12284: 12280: 12272: 12271:South America 12269: 12267: 12266:North America 12264: 12263: 12261: 12259: 12256: 12254: 12251: 12249: 12246: 12245: 12243: 12239: 12233: 12230: 12228: 12225: 12223: 12220: 12218: 12215: 12213: 12210: 12208: 12205: 12204: 12202: 12198: 12192: 12189: 12187: 12184: 12182: 12179: 12177: 12174: 12172: 12169: 12167: 12166:Paleo-Indians 12164: 12163: 12161: 12157: 12151: 12148: 12146: 12143: 12139: 12136: 12134: 12131: 12129: 12126: 12124: 12121: 12120: 12119: 12116: 12114: 12111: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12101: 12099: 12096: 12094: 12091: 12090: 12088: 12084: 12079: 12069: 12066: 12064: 12061: 12059: 12058:South America 12056: 12054: 12053:Latin America 12051: 12049: 12046: 12044: 12041: 12039: 12036: 12034: 12033:North America 12031: 12030: 12028: 12026: 12022: 12018: 12013: 12004: 11999: 11997: 11992: 11990: 11985: 11984: 11981: 11965: 11962: 11960: 11957: 11955: 11952: 11950: 11947: 11945: 11942: 11938: 11935: 11934: 11933: 11930: 11926: 11923: 11922: 11921: 11918: 11916: 11913: 11911: 11908: 11906: 11903: 11901: 11898: 11896: 11895:Tapada limeña 11893: 11891: 11888: 11886: 11883: 11881: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11871: 11868: 11866: 11863: 11862: 11859: 11852: 11848: 11838: 11835: 11833: 11830: 11828: 11825: 11823: 11820: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11810: 11808: 11805: 11803: 11800: 11796: 11793: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11783: 11781: 11778: 11777: 11776: 11773: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11763: 11761: 11758: 11757: 11754: 11747: 11743: 11721: 11718: 11716: 11713: 11711: 11708: 11706: 11703: 11701: 11698: 11696: 11693: 11691: 11688: 11686: 11683: 11681: 11678: 11676: 11673: 11671: 11668: 11666: 11663: 11661: 11658: 11656: 11653: 11651: 11648: 11647: 11645: 11641: 11635: 11632: 11630: 11627: 11625: 11622: 11620: 11617: 11615: 11612: 11610: 11607: 11605: 11602: 11600: 11597: 11595: 11592: 11590: 11587: 11585: 11582: 11580: 11577: 11575: 11572: 11570: 11567: 11565: 11562: 11560: 11557: 11555: 11552: 11550: 11547: 11545: 11542: 11541: 11539: 11535: 11532: 11528: 11518: 11515: 11513: 11510: 11508: 11505: 11503: 11500: 11498: 11495: 11493: 11490: 11488: 11487:Montes Claros 11485: 11483: 11480: 11478: 11475: 11473: 11470: 11468: 11465: 11463: 11460: 11458: 11455: 11453: 11450: 11448: 11445: 11443: 11440: 11438: 11435: 11433: 11430: 11428: 11427:Vienna (1529) 11425: 11423: 11420: 11419: 11417: 11413: 11407: 11404: 11402: 11399: 11397: 11394: 11392: 11389: 11387: 11384: 11382: 11379: 11377: 11374: 11372: 11369: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11342: 11339: 11337: 11334: 11332: 11329: 11327: 11324: 11322: 11319: 11317: 11314: 11312: 11309: 11307: 11304: 11302: 11299: 11297: 11294: 11292: 11289: 11287: 11284: 11282: 11279: 11277: 11274: 11272: 11269: 11268: 11266: 11262: 11259: 11255: 11252: 11248: 11242: 11239: 11237: 11234: 11232: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11219: 11217: 11214: 11212: 11209: 11207: 11204: 11202: 11199: 11197: 11194: 11192: 11189: 11187: 11184: 11182: 11179: 11177: 11174: 11172: 11169: 11167: 11164: 11162: 11159: 11157: 11156:Hernán Cortés 11154: 11153: 11151: 11149: 11148:Conquistadors 11145: 11139: 11136: 11134: 11131: 11129: 11126: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11118:Juan de Ayala 11116: 11114: 11111: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11074: 11071: 11069: 11066: 11064: 11061: 11059: 11056: 11054: 11051: 11049: 11046: 11044: 11041: 11039: 11036: 11034: 11031: 11029: 11026: 11024: 11021: 11020: 11018: 11014: 11008: 11005: 11003: 11000: 10998: 10995: 10993: 10990: 10988: 10985: 10983: 10980: 10978: 10975: 10973: 10972:Duke of Savoy 10970: 10968: 10965: 10963: 10960: 10958: 10955: 10953: 10950: 10948: 10945: 10944: 10942: 10938: 10932: 10929: 10927: 10924: 10922: 10919: 10917: 10914: 10912: 10909: 10907: 10904: 10902: 10899: 10897: 10894: 10892: 10889: 10888: 10886: 10882: 10878: 10871: 10867: 10853: 10850: 10848: 10845: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10835: 10833: 10830: 10828: 10825: 10823: 10820: 10818: 10815: 10813: 10810: 10809: 10807: 10803: 10797: 10794: 10792: 10789: 10787: 10784: 10782: 10779: 10777: 10774: 10772: 10771:Dollar (Peso) 10769: 10768: 10766: 10764: 10760: 10756: 10749: 10745: 10731: 10730:Santo Domingo 10728: 10726: 10723: 10721: 10718: 10716: 10713: 10711: 10708: 10706: 10703: 10701: 10698: 10696: 10693: 10691: 10688: 10686: 10683: 10681: 10678: 10676: 10673: 10671: 10668: 10666: 10663: 10661: 10658: 10657: 10655: 10653: 10649: 10643: 10640: 10638: 10635: 10633: 10630: 10628: 10625: 10623: 10620: 10618: 10615: 10613: 10610: 10608: 10607:New Andalusia 10605: 10603: 10600: 10598: 10595: 10593: 10590: 10588: 10585: 10583: 10580: 10579: 10577: 10575: 10571: 10565: 10562: 10560: 10557: 10555: 10554:Santo Domingo 10552: 10550: 10547: 10545: 10542: 10540: 10537: 10535: 10532: 10530: 10527: 10525: 10522: 10521: 10519: 10517: 10513: 10507: 10504: 10502: 10499: 10497: 10494: 10492: 10489: 10487: 10484: 10483: 10481: 10479: 10478:Viceroyalties 10475: 10471: 10464: 10460: 10446: 10443: 10441: 10438: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10421: 10418: 10417: 10415: 10411: 10405: 10402: 10400: 10397: 10395: 10392: 10390: 10387: 10385: 10382: 10380: 10377: 10376: 10374: 10370: 10364: 10361: 10359: 10356: 10354: 10351: 10349: 10346: 10344: 10341: 10340: 10338: 10334: 10330: 10323: 10319: 10305: 10302: 10301: 10298: 10291: 10280: 10276: 10272: 10268: 10264: 10260: 10256: 10252: 10248: 10244: 10242: 10239: 10238: 10235: 10228: 10218: 10215: 10213: 10210: 10207: 10203: 10199: 10195: 10191: 10187: 10183: 10180: 10179: 10176: 10171: 10165: 10154: 10150: 10146: 10142: 10138: 10134: 10130: 10127: 10124: 10120: 10116: 10113: 10110: 10106: 10102: 10098: 10094: 10091: 10090: 10087: 10083:South America 10080: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10062: 10060: 10057: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10037: 10034: 10030: 10026: 10022: 10019: 10017: 10014: 10013: 10010: 10003: 9992: 9988: 9982: 9977: 9973: 9969: 9968:Spanish Texas 9965: 9961: 9957: 9954: 9953: 9950: 9946:North America 9943: 9933: 9930: 9928: 9927:Franche-Comté 9925: 9923: 9920: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9907: 9903: 9899: 9895: 9891: 9888: 9886: 9883: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9873: 9872: 9871: 9868: 9867: 9864: 9857: 9853: 9846: 9842: 9832: 9829: 9827: 9824: 9822: 9819: 9817: 9814: 9812: 9809: 9807: 9804: 9802: 9799: 9797: 9794: 9792: 9789: 9787: 9784: 9782: 9779: 9777: 9774: 9772: 9769: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9757: 9754: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9744: 9740: 9737: 9736: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9725: 9722: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9700: 9697: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9667: 9665: 9662: 9660: 9657: 9655: 9652: 9650: 9647: 9645: 9642: 9640: 9636: 9633: 9631: 9628: 9627: 9624: 9617: 9613: 9609: 9602: 9597: 9595: 9590: 9588: 9583: 9582: 9579: 9567: 9563: 9559: 9557: 9553: 9549: 9547: 9543: 9539: 9537: 9533: 9529: 9527: 9523: 9519: 9518: 9516: 9512: 9507: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9487: 9483: 9479: 9477: 9473: 9469: 9467: 9463: 9459: 9457: 9453: 9449: 9447: 9443: 9439: 9437: 9433: 9429: 9427: 9423: 9419: 9418: 9416: 9412: 9408: 9404: 9397: 9392: 9390: 9385: 9383: 9378: 9377: 9374: 9368: 9361: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9341: 9339: 9336: 9334: 9331: 9329: 9326: 9324: 9321: 9320: 9318: 9315: 9314:Ferdinand VII 9311: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9297: 9295: 9292: 9290: 9287: 9285: 9282: 9280: 9277: 9276: 9274: 9271: 9267: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9238: 9236: 9233: 9231: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9221: 9218: 9217: 9215: 9212: 9208: 9202: 9199: 9197: 9194: 9193: 9191: 9188: 9184: 9178: 9175: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9163: 9162:Juan de Acuña 9160: 9158: 9155: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9143: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9134: 9130: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9104: 9101: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9081: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9016: 9014: 9011: 9007: 9001: 8998: 8996: 8995:García Guerra 8993: 8991: 8988: 8986: 8983: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8973: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8959: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8924: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8884: 8879: 8876: 8869: 8864: 8862: 8857: 8855: 8850: 8849: 8846: 8834: 8826: 8825: 8822: 8812: 8809: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8784: 8782: 8779: 8777: 8774: 8772: 8771:Francis Drake 8769: 8767: 8764: 8762: 8759: 8758: 8756: 8752: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8708: 8704: 8701: 8700: 8699: 8696: 8695: 8693: 8689: 8683: 8680: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8668: 8665: 8664: 8662: 8658: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8628: 8626: 8624: 8620: 8610: 8607: 8605: 8602: 8601: 8599: 8595: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8559: 8556: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8540: 8538: 8536: 8532: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8482: 8480: 8478: 8474: 8468: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8457:Plains Apache 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8439: 8437: 8435: 8431: 8425: 8422: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8407: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8390: 8387: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8376: 8374: 8372: 8368: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8313: 8311: 8309: 8305: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8269: 8266: 8264: 8261: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8244: 8241: 8240: 8238: 8236: 8232: 8226: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8216: 8213: 8212: 8210: 8206: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8167: 8165: 8162: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8136: 8134: 8130: 8127: 8125: 8119: 8116: 8110: 8100: 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8076: 8074: 8070: 8064: 8061: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8013:Esteban Tápis 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7910: 7908: 7902: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7832: 7830: 7828: 7822: 7819: 7815: 7811: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7685:Juan de Oñate 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7615:Hernán Cortés 7613: 7612: 7610: 7608: 7607:conquistadors 7604:Explorers and 7602: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7572: 7570: 7566:Pre-New Spain 7564: 7561: 7559:conquistadors 7553: 7543: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7533: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7501:Nueva Vizcaya 7499: 7497: 7496:Nueva Galicia 7494: 7491: 7487: 7484: 7481: 7477: 7474: 7470: 7467: 7464: 7460: 7457: 7456: 7455: 7452: 7449: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7436: 7434: 7430:Provinces and 7428: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7401:Santo Domingo 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7391:St. Augustine 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7222: 7219: 7209: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7150: 7148: 7144: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7112:Gobernaciones 7110: 7108: 7105: 7104: 7102: 7098: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6989: 6985: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6968:Santo Domingo 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6945: 6943: 6941: 6937: 6931: 6930:Santo Domingo 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6907: 6905: 6903: 6899: 6893: 6890: 6889: 6887: 6883: 6875: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6839: 6836: 6835: 6833: 6831: 6830:Bourbon Spain 6827: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6811: 6808: 6806: 6803: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6792: 6790: 6788: 6784: 6781: 6771: 6761: 6758: 6755: 6752: 6749: 6748:Pueblo Revolt 6746: 6743: 6740: 6737: 6734: 6731: 6728: 6725: 6722: 6719: 6716: 6713: 6710: 6707: 6704: 6701: 6698: 6695: 6692: 6691: 6689: 6683: 6677: 6674: 6671: 6668: 6665: 6662: 6659: 6656: 6653: 6650: 6647: 6644: 6641: 6638: 6635: 6632: 6629: 6626: 6623: 6620: 6617: 6614: 6611: 6608: 6607: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6595: 6590: 6583: 6578: 6576: 6571: 6569: 6564: 6563: 6560: 6553: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6542: 6538: 6536: 6532: 6529: 6526: 6522: 6519: 6516: 6513: 6509: 6506: 6503: 6502: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6462: 6460:0-299-09714-5 6456: 6451: 6450: 6443: 6439: 6434: 6431: 6430: 6426: 6423: 6422: 6418: 6417: 6407: 6402: 6399: 6395: 6392: 6388: 6383: 6380: 6376: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6362: 6358: 6357: 6355: 6341: 6336: 6332: 6326: 6322: 6317: 6313: 6308: 6304: 6299: 6295: 6290: 6286: 6280: 6276: 6275: 6269: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6254: 6247: 6243: 6242: 6236: 6232: 6227: 6223: 6218: 6214: 6212:9780520038752 6208: 6203: 6202: 6195: 6191: 6186: 6182: 6177: 6173: 6168: 6164: 6159: 6155: 6150: 6146: 6144:9780521496667 6140: 6136: 6132: 6127: 6123: 6118: 6114: 6109: 6105: 6100: 6096: 6091: 6087: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6061: 6057: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6019: 6013: 6008: 6007: 6000: 5996: 5994:0-8160-3962-3 5990: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5975: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5956: 5952: 5950:9780826316417 5946: 5941: 5940: 5933: 5929: 5924: 5920: 5918:9780816524396 5914: 5909: 5908: 5901: 5897: 5892: 5888: 5883: 5879: 5874: 5870: 5865: 5861: 5856: 5852: 5847: 5846: 5837: 5836:9781442209015 5833: 5829: 5825: 5822: 5819: 5815: 5810: 5809: 5802: 5798: 5793: 5789: 5787:9780521891967 5783: 5779: 5774: 5770: 5765: 5761: 5756: 5752: 5746: 5742: 5737: 5733: 5731:0-87903-036-4 5727: 5723: 5718: 5717: 5709: 5686: 5680: 5676: 5675: 5667: 5660: 5657: 5652: 5641: 5634: 5628: 5621: 5616: 5609: 5604: 5585: 5577: 5573: 5572: 5564: 5558: 5553: 5547: 5542: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5517: 5511: 5504: 5498: 5491: 5487: 5482: 5475: 5469: 5462: 5457: 5450: 5445: 5438: 5433: 5425: 5419: 5414: 5407: 5402: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5382: 5375: 5370: 5363: 5358: 5351: 5346: 5340:, p. 264 5339: 5334: 5332: 5324: 5323:Chance (1989) 5318: 5311: 5310:Baskes (2000) 5306: 5300:, p. 121 5299: 5298:Chance (1989) 5294: 5288:, p. 185 5287: 5286:Baskes (2000) 5282: 5276: 5271: 5264: 5259: 5253:, p. 186 5252: 5251:Baskes (2000) 5247: 5241: 5236: 5229: 5224: 5218:, p. 270 5217: 5212: 5206:, p. 267 5205: 5200: 5194:, p. 266 5193: 5188: 5182:, p. 185 5181: 5176: 5169: 5164: 5158: 5153: 5146: 5141: 5134: 5129: 5122: 5117: 5110: 5105: 5098: 5093: 5086: 5081: 5075: 5070: 5064:, p. 242 5063: 5058: 5052: 5047: 5041: 5036: 5030:, p. 194 5029: 5024: 5017: 5012: 5005: 5000: 4994: 4989: 4983: 4978: 4972: 4971:Spicer (1962) 4967: 4961: 4960:Cutter (1995) 4956: 4950: 4949:Bolton (1956) 4945: 4939: 4934: 4928: 4927:Bannon (1974) 4923: 4917:, p. 366 4916: 4915:Tutino (1979) 4911: 4905:, p. 363 4904: 4903:Tutino (1979) 4899: 4893:, p. 364 4892: 4891:Tutino (1979) 4887: 4885: 4878:, p. 354 4877: 4876:Tutino (1979) 4872: 4865: 4864:Tutino (1979) 4860: 4853: 4848: 4841: 4840:Tutino (1986) 4836: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4774: 4768: 4763: 4757:, p. 409 4756: 4755:Gibson (1964) 4751: 4745: 4740: 4734: 4733:Gibson (1964) 4729: 4722: 4717: 4710: 4709:Altman (2000) 4705: 4698: 4697:Altman (2000) 4693: 4686: 4682: 4677: 4670: 4665: 4658: 4653: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4633: 4625: 4620: 4614:, p. 219 4613: 4612:Israel (1975) 4608: 4600: 4594: 4593:Gibson (1952) 4589: 4582: 4577: 4571:, p. 157 4570: 4565: 4559:, p. 106 4558: 4553: 4546: 4541: 4534: 4529: 4522: 4517: 4511:, p. 206 4510: 4505: 4498: 4493: 4487:, p. 205 4486: 4481: 4473: 4468:, p. 124 4467: 4462: 4455: 4450: 4443: 4438: 4431: 4426: 4419: 4414: 4407: 4402: 4394: 4388: 4383: 4376: 4371: 4365: 4360: 4353: 4348: 4340: 4335: 4330: 4323: 4318: 4311: 4306: 4299: 4294: 4288: 4283: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4263: 4255: 4254:Foster (2000) 4250: 4248: 4241:, p. 172 4240: 4235: 4233: 4225: 4220: 4213: 4212:Haring (1947) 4208: 4201: 4196: 4189: 4188:Haring (1947) 4184: 4177: 4172: 4165: 4164:Haring (1947) 4160: 4153: 4148: 4133: 4129: 4123: 4108: 4104: 4098: 4092: 4087: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4039: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4019: 4012: 4011:Haring (1947) 4007: 4000: 3995: 3988: 3987:Haring (1947) 3983: 3976:(in Nāhuatl). 3975: 3971: 3964: 3957:(in Spanish). 3956: 3952: 3945: 3938:(in Spanish). 3937: 3933: 3926: 3919: 3918: 3910: 3906: 3899: 3895: 3880: 3871: 3865:, p. 16. 3864: 3858: 3849: 3845: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3735: 3730: 3719: 3716: 3705: 3702: 3701:Mexico portal 3691: 3688: 3677: 3670: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3639: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3594: 3587: 3583: 3573: 3570: 3565: 3563: 3562:United States 3559: 3553: 3542: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3523: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3443: 3440: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3427: 3424: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3315: 3312: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3283: 3280: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3267: 3264: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3251: 3248: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3230:and capital) 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3204: 3202: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3153: 3148: 3139: 3136: 3130: 3127: 3123: 3122:typhoid fever 3119: 3115: 3107: 3103: 3098: 3084: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3055: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3033: 3028: 3024: 3022: 3018: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2944: 2940: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2914: 2911:The Villa of 2909: 2907: 2901: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2886:Hernán Cortés 2882: 2872: 2868: 2866: 2862: 2857: 2852: 2850: 2845: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2821: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2794: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2674: 2669: 2655: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2614: 2612: 2608: 2606: 2599: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2568: 2565: 2560: 2558: 2556: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2521: 2517: 2511: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2496:Pacific Coast 2493: 2489: 2485: 2475: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2456: 2454: 2453:Ciudad Juárez 2450: 2449:Pueblo Revolt 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2398:Ohkay Owingeh 2395: 2391: 2387: 2386: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2373:Juan de Oñate 2370: 2369: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2345:in New Mexico 2344: 2340: 2331: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2312: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2285:Ciudad Juárez 2282: 2278: 2268: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2253: 2246: 2241: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2218: 2208: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2189: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2145: 2139: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2099: 2097: 2092: 2090: 2089:almojarifazgo 2086: 2082: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2047: 2042: 2040: 2036: 2031: 2021: 2019: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2003: 1997: 1993: 1991: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1966: 1961: 1959: 1955: 1949: 1945: 1936: 1932: 1930: 1925: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1897: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1876: 1872: 1867: 1862: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1832: 1828: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1765: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1734: 1732: 1727: 1723: 1722: 1717: 1714: 1711:The fast red 1709: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1638: 1634: 1627: 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988: 984: 980: 976: 966: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 939: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 916: 912: 908: 903: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 872:Hernán Cortés 869: 864: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 841:South America 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 809:North America 806: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 775: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 732: 730: 727: 726: 718: 716: 713: 712: 704: 702: 699: 698: 690: 688: 685: 684: 676: 674: 671: 670: 662: 660: 657: 656: 648: 646: 643: 642: 639: 633: 630: 623: 622: 619: 618: 615: 612: 610: 607: 606: 602: 599: 596: 592: 588: 584: 578: 574: 568: 564: 559: 555: 551: 548: 542: 538: 534: 528: 524: 521: 515: 511: 508: 502: 498: 495: 491: 485: 481: 478: 474: 468: 464: 461: 457: 451: 447: 444: 438: 434: 431: 425: 421: 418: 415: 411: 408: 405: 401: 397: 391: 390:Juan O'Donojú 388: 382: 376: 373: 367: 363: 359: 357: 353: 349: 343: 342:Ferdinand VII 340: 334: 328: 325: 319: 315: 311: 309: 305: 300: 297: 293: 287: 284: 281: 277: 274: 271: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 238: 236: 232: 229: 225: 222: 218: 215: 212: 208: 204: 200: 195: 191: 188: 184: 177: 172: 168: 163: 158: 156: 155:military flag 152: 148: 144: 143:Flag of Spain 138: 117:"Royal March" 114: 113: 108: 104: 96: 95: 90: 86: 77: 70: 65: 56: 49: 45: 41: 34: 30: 29: 22: 19: 14245:(1823–1824) 14109: 13975: 13952:Krabbeninsel 13797: 13725:West Florida 13719:East Florida 13540:Pennsylvania 13516:Rhode Island 13272:Architecture 13177:Demographics 13021:Central bank 12931:Human rights 12911:Constitution 12729:War on drugs 12704:World War II 12689:Cristero War 12582:Colonial era 12581: 12498: 11870:Architecture 11765:The Americas 11629:Newfoundland 11619:Túpac Katari 11609:Cuerno Verde 11544:Tenochtitlan 11376:Valenciennes 11133:Luis Fajardo 11002:Blas de Lezo 10947:Duke of Alba 10827:Spanish Road 10665:Buenos Aires 10621: 10574:Governorates 10343:Ayuntamiento 10336:Organization 9955: 9801:Carlist Wars 9649:Italian Wars 9545: 9187:Ferdinand VI 8877: 8801:Moctezuma II 8781:Eusebio Kino 8703:Peninsulares 8623:Architecture 8452:Lipan Apache 8389:Coahuiltecan 8371:Aridoamerica 8225:Guanahatabey 8132:Mesoamerican 8094:Cargo system 8072:Other events 7988:Eusebio Kino 7817:in New Spain 6853:Ferdinand VI 6640:Dutch Revolt 6588: 6550:is a map by 6540: 6534: 6480: 6448: 6437: 6427: 6419: 6405: 6386: 6378: 6367: 6360: 6339: 6320: 6311: 6302: 6293: 6273: 6263: 6252: 6240: 6230: 6221: 6200: 6189: 6180: 6171: 6162: 6153: 6134: 6121: 6112: 6103: 6094: 6085: 6076: 6064: 6055: 6022: 6016: 6005: 5984: 5973: 5959: 5938: 5927: 5906: 5895: 5886: 5877: 5868: 5859: 5850: 5827: 5817: 5807: 5796: 5777: 5768: 5759: 5740: 5721: 5702:Bibliography 5688:. Retrieved 5673: 5666: 5658: 5651: 5640:the original 5627: 5615: 5607: 5603: 5591:. Retrieved 5584:the original 5575: 5570: 5563: 5557:McCaa (2000) 5552: 5541: 5523: 5515: 5510: 5502: 5497: 5489: 5481: 5473: 5468: 5456: 5451:, p. 16 5444: 5439:, p. 15 5432: 5420:, p. 55 5413: 5401: 5369: 5357: 5345: 5317: 5305: 5293: 5281: 5270: 5265:, p. 40 5258: 5246: 5235: 5223: 5211: 5199: 5187: 5175: 5163: 5152: 5140: 5128: 5116: 5104: 5092: 5080: 5069: 5062:Weber (1992) 5057: 5046: 5035: 5023: 5011: 4999: 4988: 4982:Weber (1992) 4977: 4966: 4955: 4944: 4938:Weber (1991) 4933: 4922: 4910: 4898: 4871: 4859: 4847: 4835: 4817: 4804:Lewis (1976) 4799: 4781: 4767:Cline (1991) 4762: 4750: 4739: 4728: 4723:, p. 80 4716: 4711:, p. 62 4704: 4699:, p. 51 4692: 4684: 4676: 4671:, p. 12 4664: 4652: 4626:, p. 16 4619: 4607: 4588: 4576: 4564: 4552: 4540: 4528: 4523:, p. 93 4516: 4504: 4492: 4480: 4461: 4449: 4437: 4432:, p. 68 4425: 4420:, p. 90 4413: 4408:, p. 31 4401: 4389:, p. 34 4382: 4377:, p. 10 4370: 4359: 4347: 4329: 4317: 4305: 4293: 4282: 4226:, p. 50 4219: 4207: 4202:, p. 50 4195: 4183: 4178:, p. 50 4171: 4159: 4154:, p. 69 4147: 4135:. Retrieved 4131: 4122: 4110:. Retrieved 4106: 4097: 4086: 4068: 4056:. Retrieved 4052:the original 4047: 4038: 4023: 4018: 4006: 4001:, p. 33 3994: 3982: 3974:ResearchGate 3973: 3963: 3955:ResearchGate 3954: 3944: 3936:ResearchGate 3935: 3925: 3915: 3912: 3908: 3898: 3879: 3870: 3857: 3848: 3715:Spain portal 3640: 3635: 3615: 3610:". In 1568, 3607: 3597: 3592: 3589: 3566: 3554: 3548: 3421:Nuevo México 3197: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3131: 3111: 3087:Demographics 3080: 3064: 3058: 3053: 3050: 2981: 2953: 2945: 2941: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2910: 2905: 2902: 2878: 2869: 2860: 2853: 2841: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2778:congregación 2777: 2773: 2755: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2738:gobernadores 2737: 2733: 2724: 2722: 2701: 2691: 2677: 2645: 2626: 2615: 2602: 2600: 2595: 2587: 2575: 2569: 2561: 2554: 2531: 2524: 2512: 2487: 2481: 2457: 2418: 2383: 2381: 2376: 2366: 2348: 2313: 2275:The town of 2274: 2254: 2250: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2214: 2190: 2163: 2152: 2148: 2140: 2136: 2120: 2100: 2093: 2088: 2084: 2077: 2055: 2051: 2043: 2027: 2011: 2007:estanquillos 2006: 1998: 1994: 1986: 1982:Gaspar Yanga 1969:Citlaltepetl 1962: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1933: 1928: 1926: 1922: 1913: 1903: 1889: 1879: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1831:Aztec Empire 1827:Mesoamerican 1824: 1815:stock market 1789: 1766: 1735: 1719: 1710: 1686: 1675: 1669: 1663: 1642: 1602: 1587: 1544: 1536:intendancies 1505: 1490: 1479: 1464: 1460: 1456:intendancies 1449: 1440:independence 1431: 1424:corregidores 1423: 1413: 1409: 1403: 1401: 1365: 1362:conquistador 1353: 1350:governorates 1347: 1310: 1308: 1298: 1290: 1283:governorates 1240: 1224: 1215:residing in 1210: 1107: 1095: 1043:the Floridas 1036: 1031: 991: 972: 940: 904: 876:Tenochtitlan 870:, conqueror 865: 788: 784: 755: 751: 750: 614:Succeeded by 613: 608: 581:• 1810 571:• 1519 417:Colonial era 385:• 1821 140: 110: 106: 89:Motto: 88: 18: 14451:(1894–1898) 14445:(1893–1894) 14439:(1863–1865) 14395:Mississippi 14358:1861–1865; 14350:(1850–1856) 14338:(1849–1850) 14326:(1841–1848) 14314:(1836–1846) 14308:(1834–1907) 14302:(1832–1835) 14290:(1826–1827) 14282:, 1836–1846 14276:, 1824–1835 14270:, 1824–1830 14264:, 1821–1846 14258:, 1821–1836 14252:, 1821–1824 14248:1835–1846; 14227:(1812–1813) 14209:(1799–1803) 14203:(1795–1893) 14191:(1784–1788) 14185:(1777–1791) 14179:(1776–1783) 14173:(1775–1776) 14167:(1772–1777) 14159:, 1804–1821 14153:, 1769–1801 14151:La Luisiana 14147:, 1783–1821 14141:, 1783–1821 14135:, 1776–1821 14129:, 1690–1821 14123:, 1598–1821 14117:, 1565–1821 14115:New Navarre 14014:(1630–1651) 13966:(1799–1867) 13954:(1689–1693) 13948:(1685–1754) 13942:(1672–1917) 13936:(1638–1655) 13930:(1625–1672) 13924:(1614–1667) 13910:, 1665–1733 13904:, 1651–1665 13898:, 1562–1565 13894:1534–1763; 13884:, 1804–1821 13878:, 1783–1821 13872:, 1783–1821 13866:, 1776–1821 13860:, 1769–1801 13854:, 1767–1804 13848:, 1690–1821 13842:, 1650–1651 13836:, 1607–1801 13830:, 1598–1821 13824:, 1580–1898 13818:, 1565–1898 13812:, 1565–1821 13810:New Navarre 13806:, 1565–1763 13802:1521–1821; 13794:(1492–1535) 13769:(1871–1903) 13763:(1866–1871) 13757:(1863–1866) 13751:(1862–1863) 13745:(1811–1818) 13739:(1810–1846) 13731:New Ireland 13727:(1763–1783) 13721:(1763–1783) 13715:(1763–1783) 13709:(1763–1783) 13703:(1686–1689) 13697:(1674–1702) 13695:West Jersey 13691:(1674–1702) 13689:East Jersey 13685:(1670–1870) 13679:(1670–1811) 13673:(1663–1712) 13665: 1680 13654:(1638–1664) 13648:(1635–1644) 13636:(1629–1663) 13630:(1625–1650) 13628:Saint Croix 13624:(1622–1658) 13606:(1607–1699) 13600:(1607–1608) 13594:(1585–1590) 13566:(1732–1776) 13560:(1712–1776) 13554:(1712–1776) 13548:(1691–1776) 13542:(1681–1776) 13536:(1664–1776) 13524:(1664–1776) 13518:(1636–1776) 13512:(1636–1776) 13510:Connecticut 13506:(1632–1776) 13494:(1607–1776) 13197:Immigration 13063:Land reform 13011:Agriculture 12833:Territories 12771:Earthquakes 12719:Peso crisis 12714:Lost Decade 12454:Hospitaller 12356:Middle Ages 12113:Exploration 12038:Mesoamerica 11837:Philippines 11802:El Salvador 11422:Capo d'Orso 11306:St. Quentin 11281:Rome (1527) 10940:Strategists 10690:Guadalajara 10617:New Navarre 10612:New Castile 10597:La Luisiana 10549:Puerto Rico 10539:Philippines 10496:New Granada 10186:Philippines 10147:(Uruguay), 10143:(Bolivia), 10093:New Granada 10033:Puerto Rico 9979: [ 9849:Territories 9669:Encomiendas 9536:New Granada 9316:(1809–1821) 9272:(1789–1809) 9213:(1760–1789) 9211:Charles III 9189:(1746–1760) 9135:(1701–1746) 9086:(1665–1701) 9012:(1621–1665) 8978:(1603–1621) 8929:(1566–1603) 8889:(1535–1564) 8880:(1535–1821) 8875:Viceroys of 8786:La Malinche 8159:P'urhépecha 8114:and culture 7958:Diego Durán 7800:Thomas Gage 7535:Other areas 7432:territories 7376:San Antonio 7361:Albuquerque 7336:Los Ángeles 7286:Guadalajara 7231:Mexico City 7046:Guadalajara 7001:New Orleans 6963:Puerto Rico 6958:Philippines 6910:Guadalajara 6858:Charles III 6754:Pima Revolt 6591:(1521–1821) 5690:23 February 5408:, p. 9 5240:Reed (1964) 5168:Hunt (1976) 5145:Hunt (1976) 5133:Hunt (1976) 5121:Hunt (1976) 5109:Hunt (1976) 5097:Hunt (1976) 5087:, p. 3 4659:, p. 6 4456:, p. 3 4312:, p. 3 n. 3 4013:, p. 7 3999:Liss (1975) 3604:Juan Pablos 3582:Mexican art 3373:Guadalajara 3190:with their 3168:with their 2992:El Salvador 2913:Tehuantepec 2881:Tehuantepec 2875:Tehuantepec 2865:nopal cacti 2849:Oaxaca City 2837:Oaxaca City 2641:Californios 2618:land grants 2550:Franciscans 2522:(1846–48). 2460:land grants 2396:village of 2390:Mexico City 2328:San Antonio 2324:St. Anthony 2307:(in modern 2277:Albuquerque 2073: 1690 2066:Flying Pole 1929:Camino Real 1886:Inquisition 1871:Plaza Mayor 1775:, plus the 1773:Philippines 1646:encomiendas 1584:Silver coin 1516:Guadalajara 1508:Mexico City 1367:adelantados 1339:Guadalajara 1305:High courts 1263:Puerto Rico 1259:Philippines 1217:Mexico City 1207:Viceroyalty 1077:, parts of 1063:Bay Islands 926:became the 888:viceroyalty 849:Philippines 819:, but also 805:Mexico City 609:Preceded by 539:31 May 1820 475:annexed to 465:27 May 1717 458:annexed to 403:Legislature 205:(1535–1821) 199:Viceroyalty 196:(1521–1535) 190:Governorate 120:(1775–1821) 112:Marcha Real 14489:Categories 13934:New Sweden 13890:New France 13528:New Jersey 13356:Television 13314:Literature 13192:Healthcare 13167:Censorship 13162:Corruption 13095:(currency) 13053:Irrigation 12674:Porfiriato 12669:Yaqui Wars 12644:La Reforma 12629:Pastry War 12484:Portuguese 12463:Norwegian 12282:Chronology 12262:Conflicts 12258:Population 12086:Settlement 11507:Somosierra 11497:Manila Bay 11371:Nördlingen 11311:Gravelines 10791:Columnario 10763:Currencies 10680:Concepción 10652:Audiencias 10627:New Toledo 10592:La Florida 10425:Corregidor 10389:Papal bull 10294:Antarctica 10202:Micronesia 9659:Golden Age 9270:Charles IV 9084:Charles II 8976:Philip III 8636:by country 8384:Chichimeca 8235:California 8122:Indigenous 7555:Explorers, 7480:New Mexico 7463:California 7444:La Florida 7306:Guanajuato 7256:Cuernavaca 7215:provinces, 7137:Encomienda 7117:Adelantado 7091:La Florida 7041:Valladolid 7036:Guanajuato 6988:Intendancy 6902:Audiencias 6863:Charles IV 6820:Charles II 6775:government 6700:Yaqui Wars 6694:Mixtón War 6352:See also: 6330:0300059175 5706:See also: 3891:References 3626:, and don 3485:Nuevo León 3405:Valladolid 3277:Guanajuato 3126:antibodies 3004:Costa Rica 2935:, and the 2892:including 2791:cofradías' 2766:escarpment 2709:Valladolid 2704:encomienda 2684:cul-de-sac 2646:After the 2478:California 2445:encomienda 2423:, a later 2406:Rio Grande 2363:Chichimeca 2334:New Mexico 2281:New Mexico 2197:New Mexico 2186:Guanajuato 2144:Xochimilco 2123:intendancy 2039:intendancy 2035:encomienda 2018:intendancy 1800:buccaneers 1792:Metropolis 1697:Guanajuato 1626:Carl Nebel 1590:Carlos III 1524:Guanajuato 1428:intendants 1405:corregidor 1311:audiencias 1297:(Spanish: 1291:La Florida 1289:(Spanish: 1251:autonomous 1226:audiencias 1180:Government 1174:New Mexico 1168:(parts of 1140:, western 1130:California 1061:, and the 1051:Hispaniola 947:Charles IV 843:; several 821:California 575:10 million 561:Population 302:(official) 94:Plus Ultra 14495:New Spain 14415:Tennessee 14390:Louisiana 14091:sovereign 13798:New Spain 13652:New Haven 13604:Jamestown 13319:Monuments 13309:Languages 13182:Education 13101:Petroleum 13058:Labor law 13026:Companies 12968:President 12916:Elections 12806:Mountains 12739:Geography 12664:Caste War 12331:By region 12326:By period 12227:Epidemics 12217:Geography 12159:Societies 12048:Caribbean 11812:Nicaragua 11790:Guatemala 11700:Pichincha 11685:Chacabuco 11624:Pensacola 11569:Mataquito 11549:Cajamarca 11530:New World 11502:Trafalgar 11406:Alhucemas 11286:Landriano 11271:Comuneros 11257:Old World 11201:Joan Orpí 10921:Royalists 10695:Guatemala 10622:New Spain 10559:Venezuela 10534:Guatemala 10491:New Spain 10486:Columbian 10379:Exequatur 10279:Cape Juby 10133:Argentina 9956:New Spain 9890:Gibraltar 9654:Habsburgs 9546:New Spain 9526:Columbian 9436:Catalonia 9010:Philip IV 8927:Philip II 8887:Charles V 8878:New Spain 8535:Filipinos 8510:Pensacola 8490:Apalachee 8208:Caribbean 8184:Kaqchikel 7568:explorers 7439:Louisiana 7386:Pensacola 7371:Los Adaes 7351:San Diego 7321:Querétaro 7311:Zacatecas 7296:Monterrey 7051:Zacatecas 7021:Nicaragua 7016:Comayagua 6953:Guatemala 6815:Philip IV 6810:Philp III 6805:Philip II 6795:Charles I 6598:Conflicts 6589:New Spain 6481:New Spain 6047:154553608 5593:24 August 3614:finished 3309:Zacatecas 3012:Audiencia 3000:Nicaragua 2988:Guatemala 2906:cacicazgo 2861:aviadores 2856:cochineal 2787:cofradías 2770:sinkholes 2758:limestone 2746:Cofradías 2734:cofradías 2588:presidios 2504:San Diego 2482:In 1602, 2419:In 1610, 2408:near the 2293:Chihuahua 2259:(forts), 2257:Presidios 2182:Zacatecas 2116:Querétaro 2112:Guatemala 2104:cochineal 1890:consulado 1812:Amsterdam 1756:near the 1716:cochineal 1693:Zacatecas 1611:Cochineal 1588:8 reales 1520:Zacatecas 1501:Audiencia 1358:provinces 1345:(1583). 1335:Guatemala 1317:'s rival 1271:Guatemala 1150:Louisiana 928:New World 915:Zacatecas 837:Caribbean 829:Louisiana 752:New Spain 585:8 million 490:Louisiana 456:Venezuela 435:1519–1521 327:Charles I 295:Religion 270:Louisiana 67:1521–1821 14468:Category 14425:Virginia 14400:Missouri 14385:Kentucky 14370:Arkansas 14048:Category 13671:Carolina 13646:Saybrook 13634:Carolana 13616:Plymouth 13534:New York 13522:Delaware 13504:Maryland 13492:Virginia 13396:Category 13339:Religion 13299:Folklore 12958:Military 12936:Intersex 12894:Congress 12877:Politics 12863:Wildlife 12853:Volcanos 12694:Maximato 12561:articles 12494:Scottish 12429:Curonian 12068:Genetics 11822:Colombia 11807:Honduras 11720:Asomante 11705:Ayacucho 11695:Carabobo 11670:Curalaba 11447:Ceresole 11341:Gembloux 11301:Mühlberg 11016:Mariners 10874:Military 10796:Doubloon 10781:Maravedí 10725:Santiago 10632:Paraguay 10358:Germania 10198:Caroline 10153:Malvinas 10137:Paraguay 10097:Colombia 10039:Trinidad 9906:Sardinia 9746:Bourbons 9496:Valencia 9476:Sardinia 9466:Portugal 9403:Viceroys 9133:Philip V 8833:Category 8796:Limahong 8651:Missions 8515:Seminole 8500:Muscogee 8447:Comanche 8419:Tepehuán 8409:La Junta 8331:Hualapai 8268:Kumeyaay 8248:Cahuilla 7526:Pampanga 7406:San Juan 7356:Santa Fe 7346:San José 7326:Saltillo 7276:Campeche 7271:Acapulco 7236:Veracruz 7146:Treaties 7100:Politics 7061:Veracruz 7026:Camagüey 6874:Joseph I 6838:Philip V 6521:Archived 6508:Archived 6075:(1811). 5970:(1984). 4058:20 March 3673:See also 3533:Tlaxcala 3469:Coahuila 3389:Veracruz 3114:smallpox 3102:smallpox 3081:criollos 3071:and the 3054:añileros 3046:Honduras 2996:Honduras 2949:cimarrón 2898:Acapulco 2894:Huatulco 2750:cofradía 2696:Campeche 2576:misiones 2572:missions 2437:Missions 2429:Santa Fe 2392:and the 2388:between 2301:missions 2289:Monclova 2265:misiones 2154:Tlaxcala 2096:Brihuega 2085:alcabala 1978:cimarrón 1918:Acapulco 1804:corsairs 1802:, Dutch 1746:Acapulco 1742:Atlantic 1738:Veracruz 1622:Arrieros 1609:(1777). 1549:'s 1810 1499:and the 1432:cabildos 1341:(1548); 1337:(1543); 1299:Luisiana 1277:(1617); 1273:(1609); 1269:(1608); 1265:(1580); 1261:(1565); 1257:(1535); 1158:Coahuila 1142:Colorado 1124:(modern 1083:Moluccas 1059:Trinidad 924:Acapulco 907:Veracruz 882:(Aztec) 815:and the 594:Currency 14380:Georgia 14375:Florida 14365:Arizona 14360:Alabama 14089:Former 13592:Roanoke 13564:Georgia 13380:Outline 13287:Cuisine 13264:Culture 13254:Welfare 13244:Smoking 13229:Poverty 13150:Society 13126:Tourism 12999:Economy 12973:Cabinet 12791:Islands 12786:Forests 12761:Climate 12751:Borders 12569:History 12504:Swedish 12499:Spanish 12489:Russian 12424:Belgian 12419:British 12232:Slavery 12212:Culture 12200:Related 12025:History 11954:Asiento 11925:Mustang 11785:Yucatán 11780:Chiapas 11660:Tucapel 11492:Passaro 11442:Algiers 11432:Preveza 11401:Tetouan 11396:Vitoria 11386:Bitonto 11326:Antwerp 11321:Lepanto 11276:Bicocca 10752:Economy 10675:Charcas 10670:Caracas 10564:Yucatán 10435:Regidor 10420:Alcalde 10348:Cabildo 10255:Tripoli 10194:Mariana 10141:Charcas 10117:(Peru, 10101:Ecuador 10064:Bonaire 10059:Curazao 10044:Jamaica 9972:Florida 9456:Navarre 9405:of the 8730:Coyotes 8725:Castizo 8720:Mestizo 8710:Criollo 8588:Cebuano 8583:Tagalog 8553:Mangyan 8543:Negrito 8525:Yustaga 8520:Timucua 8467:Wichita 8462:Tonkawa 8399:Cocopah 8394:Cochimí 8346:Quechan 8293:Serrano 8273:Luiseño 8263:Juaneño 8253:Chumash 8220:Ciboney 8194:Poqomam 8189:Zapotec 8179:Kʼicheʼ 8164:Totonac 8149:Huastec 8124:peoples 8112:Society 7521:Bulacan 7448:Florida 7366:El Paso 7316:Pachuca 7291:Durango 7266:Morelia 7213:cities, 7211:Notable 7132:Cabildo 7107:Viceroy 7076:Durango 7011:Chiapas 6973:Yucatán 6848:Louis I 6773:Central 6363:(1964). 6039:3744837 3917:México. 3647:Ocotlan 3593:cabildo 3357:Yucatán 3325:Durango 3184:Mestizo 3170:Morisco 3162:Español 3118:measles 2929:Zapotec 2814:logwood 2798:Tabasco 2774:cenotes 2663:Yucatán 2596:pueblos 2564:Spanish 2527:Jesuits 2472:Mission 2404:on the 2351:viceroy 2303:in the 2261:pueblos 2174:Bolivia 1974:Córdoba 1965:Orizaba 1808:pirates 1705:Hidalgo 1569:Economy 1540:Jesuits 1415:cabildo 1412:) or a 1383:Nahuatl 1275:Yucatán 1213:viceroy 1202:In 1819 1194:In 1794 1164:); and 1146:Wyoming 1126:Arizona 999:viceroy 845:Pacific 825:Florida 781:Nahuatl 760:Spanish 545:• 531:• 518:• 505:• 471:• 454:• 441:• 428:• 378:(first) 356:Viceroy 330:(first) 228:Nahuatl 224:Spanish 210:Capital 201:of the 192:of the 107:Anthem: 40:Spanish 14344:(1850) 14332:(1846) 14320:(1840) 14296:(1827) 14239:(1819) 14233:(1817) 14221:(1812) 14215:(1810) 14197:(1794) 14030:(1676) 14022:(1638) 14006:(1622) 13998:(1620) 13990:(1584) 13960:(1698) 13713:Quebec 13612:(1619) 13598:Popham 13401:Portal 13351:Sports 13282:Cinema 13212:People 13036:Energy 12899:Senate 12821:States 12816:Rivers 12756:Cities 12559: 12557:Mexico 12449:French 12439:German 12434:Danish 12366:Future 12186:Muisca 11932:Castas 11690:Boyacá 11665:Guiana 11655:Iguape 11579:Recife 11517:Mactan 11512:Annual 11477:Rocroi 11472:Leiden 11457:Djerba 11391:Bailén 11346:Ostend 11331:Azores 10926:Legión 10891:Tercio 10884:Armies 10786:Escudo 10715:Panamá 10710:Mexico 10705:Manila 10660:Bogotá 10445:Vecino 10440:Syndic 10271:Béjaïa 10231:Africa 10217:Tidore 10105:Panama 10069:Belize 9976:Mexico 9902:Sicily 9898:Naples 9860:Europe 9486:Sicily 9446:Naples 9426:Aragon 9414:Europe 8754:People 8745:Negros 8735:Pardos 8715:Indios 8597:Others 8548:Igorot 8505:Jororo 8495:Calusa 8404:Kiliwa 8379:Acaxee 8351:Solano 8336:Navajo 8321:Apache 8298:Tongva 8288:Ohlone 8283:Mohave 8258:Cupeño 8215:Arawak 8154:Mixtec 8139:Aztecs 7421:Manila 7396:Havana 7381:Tucson 7281:Mérida 7261:Oaxaca 7251:Toluca 7246:Puebla 7241:Xalapa 7224:Cities 7081:Sonora 7071:Oaxaca 7066:Puebla 6996:Havana 6925:Mexico 6920:Manila 6478:about 6457: 6372:online 6327: 6281: 6209: 6141: 6045: 6037: 5991: 5947: 5915: 5834: 5784: 5747: 5728: 5681: 5578:] 4137:8 July 4112:8 July 3661:, and 3651:Puebla 3543:13.8% 3540:72.4% 3537:13.6% 3527:32.4% 3524:27.3% 3521:39.7% 3511:50.8% 3508:23.3% 3505:25.8% 3495:31.6% 3492:05.5% 3489:62.6% 3479:40.0% 3476:28.9% 3473:30.9% 3463:09.8% 3460:89.9% 3447:47.9% 3444:51.7% 3431:69.0% 3428:30.8% 3415:29.6% 3412:42.5% 3409:27.6% 3399:15.2% 3396:74.0% 3393:10.4% 3383:34.7% 3380:33.3% 3377:31.7% 3367:12.3% 3364:72.6% 3361:14.8% 3351:26.4% 3348:44.9% 3345:28.5% 3341:Sonora 3335:43.5% 3332:36.0% 3329:20.2% 3319:55.1% 3316:29.0% 3313:15.8% 3303:35.7% 3300:51.2% 3297:13.0% 3287:29.9% 3284:44.0% 3281:25.8% 3271:05.2% 3268:88.2% 3265:06.3% 3261:Oaxaca 3255:15.3% 3252:74.3% 3249:10.1% 3245:Puebla 3239:16.7% 3236:66.1% 3233:16.9% 3226:(only 3224:México 3192:Coyote 3166:Mulata 3108:(1576) 3077:Belize 3021:indigo 3002:, and 2931:, the 2844:Oaxaca 2842:Since 2729:cotton 2717:Blacks 2713:castas 2688:Mérida 2500:Oregon 2309:Sonora 2178:Potosí 2170:silver 2108:indigo 1894:castas 1754:Manila 1744:, and 1726:indigo 1654:Mexica 1650:corvee 1592:- 1778 1563:Mexico 1514:, and 1512:Puebla 1438:after 1343:Manila 1331:Panama 1327:Mexico 1134:Nevada 1079:Taiwan 1073:, the 1045:. The 1039:Panama 911:silver 884:Empire 880:Mexica 861:Taiwan 835:, the 813:Mexico 494:France 473:Panama 360: 345:(last) 312: 266:French 214:México 186:Status 141:Left: 109: 51: 36: 14420:Texas 14127:Tejas 13622:Maine 13387:Index 13334:Radio 13324:Music 13222:Women 13187:Flags 13172:Crime 13093:Peso 12796:Lakes 12459:Norse 12444:Dutch 12241:Lists 12176:Aztec 11827:Chile 11795:Petén 11770:Aztec 11589:Bahia 11564:Penco 11554:Cusco 11482:Downs 11462:Tunis 11381:Ceuta 11366:Breda 11316:Malta 11296:Tunis 11291:Pavia 10805:Trade 10720:Quito 10685:Cusco 10524:Chile 10259:Tunis 10206:Palau 10123:Chile 10054:Aruba 10049:Haiti 9983:] 9912:Milan 9870:Spain 8740:Zambo 8698:Casta 8646:Forts 8578:Bajau 8573:Lumad 8568:Panay 8442:Caddo 8424:Yaqui 8414:Opata 8278:Miwok 8174:Kowoj 8169:Pipil 7490:Texas 7486:Tejas 6043:S2CID 6035:JSTOR 5659:Istmo 5643:(PDF) 5636:(PDF) 5587:(PDF) 5580:(PDF) 5574:[ 4048:LANIC 3840:Notes 3517:Texas 3188:India 3135:maize 3069:Petén 3017:cacao 2937:Huave 2933:Zoque 2692:villa 2658:South 2633:Spain 2584:forts 2217:Bajío 2172:. In 2160:North 2110:from 2081:Bajío 2002:casta 1958:Cádiz 1769:Cádiz 1721:Cacao 1682:Taxco 1678:mit'a 1170:Texas 1162:Texas 492:from 13292:Wine 12941:LGBT 12843:Time 12207:Maps 12191:Inca 12181:Maya 11832:Inca 11775:Maya 11710:Guam 11643:Lost 11415:Lost 11336:Mons 10776:Real 10700:Lima 10587:Cuba 10529:Cuba 10501:Perú 10277:and 10275:Ifni 10267:Oran 10190:Guam 10119:Acre 10115:Peru 10025:Cuba 9904:and 9556:Peru 8667:Real 8361:Zuni 8326:Hopi 8144:Maya 7516:Cebu 7416:Cebu 7301:León 6948:Cuba 6455:ISBN 6325:ISBN 6279:ISBN 6207:ISBN 6139:ISBN 5989:ISBN 5945:ISBN 5913:ISBN 5832:ISBN 5782:ISBN 5745:ISBN 5726:ISBN 5692:2018 5679:ISBN 5595:2017 5533:help 5424:help 5393:help 4827:help 4809:help 4791:help 4773:help 4644:help 4599:help 4472:help 4393:help 4339:help 4274:help 4139:2013 4114:2013 4078:help 4060:2008 3598:The 3584:and 3186:and 3164:and 2783:mule 2678:The 2671:The 2629:Dons 2555:Alta 2532:Baja 2394:Tewa 2353:Don 2255:The 2215:The 2203:and 2201:Baja 1869:The 1806:and 1785:gold 1781:US$ 1724:and 1703:and 1522:and 1267:Cuba 1241:The 1172:and 1160:and 1138:Utah 1116:and 896:Peru 853:Guam 851:and 827:and 499:1762 482:1739 308:King 14093:or 13277:Art 13083:Oil 12948:Law 12322:Era 11537:Won 11264:Won 10372:Law 10269:, 9989:), 9970:), 8563:Ati 8199:Mam 6777:and 6027:doi 4028:doi 3023:. 2725:cah 2694:of 2631:of 1960:. 1713:dye 1605:by 1389:to 1301:). 1176:). 913:in 14491:: 13662:c. 12324:: 10273:, 10265:, 10261:, 10257:, 10253:, 10249:, 10204:, 10200:, 10196:, 10192:, 10188:, 10151:, 10139:, 10135:, 10121:, 10107:, 10103:, 10099:, 10031:, 10027:, 9981:es 9974:, 9900:, 9637:, 6041:. 6033:. 6023:77 6021:. 5826:. 5488:, 5380:^ 5330:^ 4883:^ 4631:^ 4261:^ 4246:^ 4231:^ 4130:. 4105:. 4046:. 3972:. 3953:. 3934:. 3669:. 3657:, 3649:, 3622:, 3457:~ 3441:~ 3425:~ 3120:, 3116:, 2998:, 2994:, 2990:, 2975:, 2835:, 2820:. 2559:. 2510:. 2455:. 2188:. 2146:. 2129:. 2070:c. 2068:, 1908:. 1896:. 1699:, 1695:, 1510:, 1442:. 1233:. 1136:, 1132:, 1128:, 1120:; 1057:, 1009:. 989:. 938:. 863:. 831:; 823:, 783:: 779:; 762:: 14082:e 14075:t 14068:v 13667:) 13435:e 13428:t 13421:v 12767:) 12763:( 12549:e 12542:t 12535:v 12400:e 12393:t 12386:v 12002:e 11995:t 11988:v 10281:) 10208:) 10184:( 10172:) 10155:) 10131:( 10125:) 10095:( 10035:) 10023:( 9993:) 9958:( 9908:) 9600:e 9593:t 9586:v 9395:e 9388:t 9381:v 8867:e 8860:t 8853:v 7492:) 7488:( 7482:) 7478:( 7465:) 7461:( 7450:) 7446:( 6877:) 6870:( 6844:) 6840:( 6756:→ 6750:→ 6744:→ 6738:→ 6732:→ 6726:→ 6720:→ 6714:→ 6708:→ 6702:→ 6696:→ 6672:→ 6666:→ 6660:→ 6654:→ 6648:→ 6642:→ 6636:→ 6630:→ 6624:→ 6618:→ 6612:→ 6581:e 6574:t 6567:v 6463:. 6374:. 6333:. 6287:. 6233:. 6215:. 6147:. 6049:. 6029:: 5997:. 5953:. 5921:. 5838:. 5790:. 5753:. 5734:. 5694:. 5597:. 5535:) 5426:) 5395:) 4829:) 4811:) 4793:) 4775:) 4646:) 4601:) 4474:) 4395:) 4341:) 4276:) 4141:. 4116:. 4080:) 4062:. 4030:: 3549:~ 2847:( 2808:( 2732:( 2607:) 2603:( 2594:( 2586:( 2574:( 2005:( 1628:. 1594:. 1352:( 758:( 282:) 278:( 272:) 268:( 157:) 57:) 53:( 42:) 38:(

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