27:
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by a series of shorter journeys between islands, as opposed to a single journey directly to the destination. Often this occurs via large rafts of floating vegetation such as are sometimes seen floating down major rivers in the tropics and washing out to sea, occasionally with animals trapped on them.
182:
in the South
Pacific have been hypothesized to be descended from iguanas that rafted 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) from Central or South America (an alternative theory involves dispersal of a putative now-extinct iguana lineage from Australia or Asia). Similarly, a number of
301:
arrived in South
America from Africa in the Oligocene; they were probably aided by their ability to float with their heads up, and to survive up to six months without food or fresh water. South American tortoises then went on to colonize the
361:, where they are indigenous. Examination of the weather patterns and ocean currents indicated that they had probably spent three weeks at sea before landfall. This colony began breeding on the new island within two years of its arrival.
1445:
Pan, T.; Miao, J.-S.; Zhang, H.-B.; Yan, P.; Lee, P.-S.; Jiang, X.-Y.; Ouyang, J.-H.; Deng, Y.-P.; Zhang, B.-W.; Wu, X.-B. (2020). "Near-complete phylogeny of extant
Crocodylia (Reptilia) using mitogenome-based data".
744:
Chaimanee, Y.; Chavasseau, O.; Beard, K. C.; Kyaw, A. A.; Soe, A. N.; Sein, C.; Lazzari, V.; Marivaux, L.; Marandat, B.; Swe, M.; Rugbumrung, M.; Lwin, T.; Valentin, X.; Zin-Maung-Maung-Thein; Jaeger, J. -J. (2012).
364:
The advent of human civilization has created opportunities for organisms to raft on floating artifacts, which may be more durable than natural floating objects. This phenomenon was noted following the
2027:
1970:
1770:
1353:
Le, M.; Raxworthy, C. J.; McCord, W. P.; Mertz, L. (2006-05-05). "A molecular phylogeny of tortoises (Testudines: Testudinidae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear genes".
295:
However, oceanic dispersal of terrestrial species may not always take the form of rafting; in some cases, swimming or simply floating may suffice. Tortoises of the genus
357:– an island where they had never before been recorded. The iguanas had apparently been caught on the trees and rafted 200 mi (320 km) across the ocean from
3114:
2017:
2022:
564:
2007:
2012:
1110:
Mayr, G.; Alvarenga, H.; Mourer-Chauviré, C. C. (2011-10-01). "Out of Africa: Fossils shed light on the origin of the hoatzin, an iconic
Neotropic bird".
1624:
Carlton, J. T.; Chapman, J. W.; Geller, J. B.; Miller, J. A.; Carlton, D. A.; McCuller, M. I.; Treneman, N. C.; Steves, B. P.; Ruiz, G. M. (2017).
325:(relatives and possible descendants of anthracotheres) from Africa to Madagascar may have occurred by floating or swimming. Ancestors of the
2863:
1199:
2163:
1061:
Vidal, N.; Marin, J.; Morini, M.; Donnellan, S.; Branch, W. R.; Thomas, R.; Vences, M.; Wynn, A.; Cruaud, C.; Hedges, S. B. (2010-03-31).
278:
analysis suggests that ancestors of the genus dispersed from southern South
America to South Africa about 10 Ma ago, where the most
438:
2099:
249:
rafting process sometimes called island hopping. Such a process appears to have played a role, for example, in the colonization of the
1551:
3367:
2822:
1980:
227:. (Among lizards, skinks and geckos seem especially capable of surviving long transoceanic journeys.) Surprisingly, even burrowing
1163:
2173:
3130:
2890:
1711:
422:
1855:
1677:
365:
286:
to
Australia, then to New Zealand and finally to Chile by about 2 Ma ago. Another example among spiders is the species
2487:
1780:
1750:
26:
3213:
2133:
1228:
Kuntner, M.; Ceccarelli, F. S.; Opell, B. D.; Haddad, C. R.; Raven, Robert J.; Soto, E. M.; RamĂrez, M. J. (2016-10-12).
266:
270:. Members of this genus inhabit coastal sites and build silken cells which they seal at high tide; however, they do not
107:
Rafting has played an important role in the colonization of isolated land masses by mammals. Prominent examples include
2875:
2535:
238:
An example of a bird that is thought to have reached its present location by rafting is the weak-flying South
American
100:
956:
2942:
1859:
292:, the only Australian member of a genus otherwise endemic to Africa, with a divergence date of 2 to 16 Ma ago.
175:
rodents (ancestral to caviomorphs) are believed to have previously rafted from Asia to Africa about 40 Ma ago.
2947:
2545:
847:
Noonan, Brice P.; Sites, Jack W. (2010). "Tracing the origins of iguanid lizards and boine snakes of the pacific".
575:
3192:
3182:
3106:
2381:
898:
Gamble, T.; Bauer, A. M.; Colli, G. R.; Greenbaum, E.; Jackman, T. R.; Vitt, L. J.; Simons, A. M. (2010-12-03).
3320:
3187:
2967:
2711:
2509:
2413:
2302:
337:
The first documented example of colonization of a land mass by rafting occurred in the aftermath of hurricanes
1176:
1161:
Hedges, S. Blair (2006). "Paleogeography of the
Antilles and Origin of West Indian Terrestrial Vertebrates1".
71:. Colonization of land masses by plants can also occur via long-distance oceanic dispersal of floating seeds.
3426:
3421:
3385:
2972:
2716:
2455:
283:
2917:
3325:
2827:
1293:"Across the Indian Ocean: A remarkable example of trans-oceanic dispersal in an austral mygalomorph spider"
3395:
2989:
2087:
2075:
1230:"Around the World in Eight Million Years: Historical Biogeography and Evolution of the Spray Zone Spider
604:
Ali, J. R.; Huber, M. (2010-01-20). "Mammalian biodiversity on
Madagascar controlled by ocean currents".
151:, when the continents were much closer than they are today. Madagascar also appears to have received its
899:
3091:
2265:
1976:
2885:
2682:
2492:
2260:
2153:
3014:
3308:
3172:
3144:
3119:
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2979:
2912:
2787:
2660:
2628:
2601:
2591:
1930:
1743:
1682:
254:
2792:
3313:
3243:
3152:
2880:
2762:
2530:
2126:
1626:"Tsunami-driven rafting: Transoceanic species dispersal and implications for marine biogeography"
1291:
Kuntner, M.; Harrison, S. E.; Harvey, M. S.; Cooper, S. J. B.; Austin, A. D.; Rix, M. G. (2017).
571:
211:, respectively, during the last 9 Ma. Skinks from the same group have also rafted from Africa to
1398:"A time-calibrated species tree of Crocodylia reveals a recent radiation of the true crocodiles"
3352:
3001:
2870:
2832:
2733:
2704:
2677:
2672:
2270:
2035:
1991:
1924:
1893:
1811:
1785:
2858:
657:
Flynn, J. J.; Wyss, A. R. (1998). "Recent advances in South
American mammalian paleontology".
3416:
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1916:
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to the west coast of North America (although no colonizations have been detected thus far).
307:
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1883:
1637:
1582:
1509:
1362:
1304:
1245:
1119:
972:
758:
747:"Late Middle Eocene primate from Myanmar and the initial anthropoid colonization of Africa"
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386:
47:
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8:
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51:
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723:
693:
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631:
542:
483:
418:
342:
264:
A remarkable example of iterative rafting has been proposed for spiders of the genus
1147:
992:
19:"Rafting event" redirects here. For using rafts as a sport or leisure activity, see
2937:
2504:
2482:
2290:
1950:
1911:
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1517:
1478:
1455:
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37:
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also apparently both floated across the Atlantic from Africa to South America and
79:
3436:
3298:
2922:
2749:
2738:
2692:
2635:
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2364:
2168:
2031:
1873:
1805:
1459:
1317:
1258:
112:
84:
1374:
321:
from Asia to Africa about 40 Ma ago, and the much more recent dispersal of
282:
clade is found; subsequent rafting events then took the genus eastward with the
3138:
3010:
2952:
2312:
2307:
2245:
2223:
2039:
1863:
338:
326:
172:
1131:
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3177:
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2445:
2440:
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in Japan, with about 300 species found to have been carried on debris by the
318:
144:
127:
by this mechanism. According to genetic evidence, the common ancestor of the
116:
96:
1650:
1625:
1594:
771:
527:
191:
seem to have rafted over from Africa during both the Paleogene and Neogene.
3335:
3283:
3228:
3061:
3056:
2650:
2408:
1877:
1826:
1821:
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350:
322:
275:
228:
179:
3362:
3233:
2962:
2497:
2327:
2233:
2191:
1482:
1014:"Origin of tropical American burrowing reptiles by transatlantic rafting"
462:(Gnetales) – clock calibration when outgroup relationships are uncertain"
329:
are thought to have reached the Americas from Africa 5 to 6 Ma ago.
314:
303:
297:
232:
203:
164:
2802:
1352:
627:
3223:
3124:
3046:
3033:
2667:
2467:
2354:
2332:
2285:
2280:
2228:
2196:
2111:
1962:
1901:
1816:
1759:
1702:
The Monkey's Voyage: How Improbable Journeys Shaped the History of Life
833:
391:
358:
216:
212:
160:
156:
152:
108:
3357:
3208:
2817:
2435:
2183:
957:"Investigating the origin of transoceanic distributions: mtDNA shows
346:
250:
246:
148:
55:
825:
163:
carnivorans (19–26 Ma ago) by this route and South America its
3260:
2462:
1012:
Vidal, N.; Azvolinsky, A.; Cruaud, C.; Hedges, S. B. (2007-12-11).
860:
354:
120:
1522:
1497:
2645:
2359:
1966:
1801:
500:
239:
224:
220:
124:
20:
1200:"Seafaring Spiders Made It around the World—in 8 Million Years"
1063:"Blindsnake evolutionary tree reveals long history on Gondwana"
197:
168:
140:
123:. Both land masses, for example, appear to have received their
501:
Roos, Christian; Schmitz, JĂĽrgen; Zischler, Hans (July 2004).
439:"The monkeys that sailed across the Atlantic to South America"
2566:
1728:
258:
192:
188:
184:
128:
92:
63:
1227:
1109:
743:
417:(2nd ed.). Conservation International. pp. 24–26.
1290:
1011:
349:
in 1995. A raft of uprooted trees carrying fifteen or more
1623:
1177:
10.3417/0026-6493(2006)93[231:POTAAO]2.0.CO;2
1060:
961:
lizards (Reptilia, Scincidae) crossed the Atlantic twice"
900:"Coming to America: Multiple origins of New World geckos"
897:
503:"Primate jumping genes elucidate strepsirrhine phylogeny"
67:
Dispersal via such a raft is sometimes referred to as a
808:(Iguanidae) including the Description of a New Species,
135:
by rafting between 50 and 60 Ma ago. Likewise, the
99:
inside a fishing boat that was washed out to sea by the
804:
Gibbons, J. R. H. (Jul 31, 1981). "The Biogeography of
656:
317:
species is likely to occur similarly. The dispersal of
242:, whose ancestors apparently floated over from Africa.
1573:
Chown, S. L. (2017). "Tsunami debris spells trouble".
1554:
Hapless iguanas float away and voyage grips biologists
353:
was observed by fishermen landing on the east side of
1473:
Lawrence, E. (1998-10-15). "Iguanas ride the waves".
954:
235:
appear to have rafted from Africa to South America.
1498:"Over-water dispersal of lizards due to hurricanes"
1496:Censky, E. J.; Hodge, K.; Dudley, J. (1998-10-08).
1699:
458:"Dating dispersal and radiation in the gymnosperm
245:Colonization of groups of islands can occur by an
111:, which has been isolated for ~120 million years (
1495:
3408:
1444:
751:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
599:
597:
595:
1697:
1223:
1221:
2127:
1744:
1348:
1346:
603:
592:
1617:
1545:
1543:
1541:
1284:
1218:
950:
948:
946:
846:
739:
737:
696:(2007). "South America's Missing Mammals".
409:
2134:
2120:
1751:
1737:
1675:
1489:
1154:
955:Carranza, S.; Arnold, N. E. (2003-08-05).
891:
403:
131:of Madagascar appears to have crossed the
1649:
1566:
1521:
1448:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
1413:
1343:
1326:
1316:
1267:
1257:
1191:
1086:
1054:
1037:
1005:
926:
780:
770:
558:
556:
536:
526:
477:
455:
3368:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2141:
1538:
1472:
1389:
1103:
943:
734:
78:
25:
1438:
1164:Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden
803:
797:
562:
3409:
1160:
840:
553:
3131:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
2115:
1732:
1572:
1355:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1197:
119:, which was isolated for much of the
58:to another by way of a sea crossing.
2070:
1549:
1395:
685:
2094:
494:
449:
13:
2536:Evolutionary developmental biology
1669:
139:are thought to have originated in
101:2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami
16:Biological dispersal across oceans
14:
3448:
1698:de Queiroz, A. (7 January 2014).
720:10.1038/scientificamerican0507-68
3390:
3381:
3380:
2093:
2081:
2069:
2058:
2057:
1415:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01373.x
919:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02184.x
692:Flynn, John J.; Wyss, André R.;
574:. pp. 13–17. Archived from
257:(i.e., caviomorphs, monkeys and
255:mammals of South American origin
159:rodents (20–24 Ma ago) and
3193:Extended evolutionary synthesis
2382:Gene-centered view of evolution
1466:
907:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
659:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
456:Won, H.; Renner, S. S. (2006).
167:rodents (over 30 Ma ago).
3321:Hologenome theory of evolution
3188:History of molecular evolution
2414:Evolutionarily stable strategy
2303:Last universal common ancestor
1758:
650:
431:
332:
1:
3115:Renaissance and Enlightenment
1676:de Queiroz, A. (2014-01-01).
671:10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01457-8
397:
284:Antarctic Circumpolar Current
30:The colonization pathways of
3326:Missing heritability problem
2953:Gamete differentiation/sexes
1318:10.1371/journal.pone.0180139
1259:10.1371/journal.pone.0163740
965:Systematics and Biodiversity
563:Sellers, Bill (2000-10-20).
7:
2088:Evolutionary biology Portal
1375:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.003
375:
171:(ancestral to monkeys) and
10:
3453:
2958:Life cycles/nuclear phases
2510:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
1550:Yoon, C. K. (1998-10-08).
1460:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa074
74:
18:
3376:
3276:
3201:
3105:
3032:
2988:
2843:
2747:
2564:
2523:
2456:Parent–offspring conflict
2392:
2261:Earliest known life forms
2182:
2149:
2053:
2000:
1949:
1892:
1840:
1794:
1766:
1132:10.1007/s00114-011-0849-1
985:10.1017/S1477200003001099
479:10.1080/10635150600812619
3309:Cultural group selection
3173:The eclipse of Darwinism
3145:On the Origin of Species
3120:Transmutation of species
1931:Nonecological speciation
1234:(Araneae: Anyphaenidae)"
1198:Kukso, F. (2016-11-08).
614:(4 Feb. 2010): 653–656.
3314:Dual inheritance theory
3153:History of paleontology
1678:"Evolution's Stowaways"
1651:10.1126/science.aao1498
1595:10.1126/science.aao5677
849:The American Naturalist
772:10.1073/pnas.1200644109
572:University of Edinburgh
528:10.1073/pnas.0403852101
180:several iguanid species
91:) was transported from
3002:Punctuated equilibrium
2323:Non-adaptive radiation
2271:Evolutionary arms race
2036:Punctuated equilibrium
1992:Character displacement
1812:Reproductive isolation
1781:Laboratory experiments
1079:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0220
1030:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0531
814:Journal of Herpetology
413:; et al. (2006).
195:of the related genera
104:
62:is the crossing of an
40:
3294:Evolutionary medicine
3168:Mendelian inheritance
2876:Biological complexity
2864:Programmed cell death
2556:Phenotypic plasticity
2276:Evolutionary pressure
2266:Evidence of evolution
2164:Timeline of evolution
1917:Ecological speciation
1832:Evidence of evolution
382:Allopatric speciation
370:North Pacific Current
155:(25–42 Ma ago),
89:Oplegnathus fasciatus
82:
52:terrestrial organisms
29:
3427:Evolutionary biology
3422:Biological evolution
3268:Teleology in biology
3163:Blending inheritance
2541:Genetic assimilation
2404:Artificial selection
2143:Evolutionary biology
1483:10.1038/news981015-3
415:Lemurs of Madagascar
387:Biological dispersal
48:biological dispersal
36:through the eastern
3331:Molecular evolution
3289:Ecological genetics
3158:Transitional fossil
2948:Sexual reproduction
2788:endomembrane system
2717:pollinator-mediated
2673:dolphins and whales
2451:Parental investment
1921:Parallel speciation
1642:2017Sci...357.1402C
1636:(6358): 1402–1406.
1587:2017Sci...357.1356C
1514:1998Natur.395..556C
1396:Oaks, J.R. (2011).
1367:2006MolPE..40..517L
1309:2017PLoSO..1280139H
1250:2016PLoSO..1163740C
1205:Scientific American
1124:2011NW.....98..961M
1112:Naturwissenschaften
977:2003SyBio...1..275C
855:(Jan 2010): 61–72.
763:2012PNAS..10910293C
712:2007SciAm.296e..68F
699:Scientific American
628:10.1038/nature08706
620:2010Natur.463..653A
565:"Primate Evolution"
519:2004PNAS..10110650R
513:(29): 10650–10654.
366:2011 TĹŤhoku tsunami
289:Moggridgea rainbowi
209:Fernando de Noronha
33:Theridion grallator
3304:Cultural evolution
2419:Fisher's principle
2348:Handicap principle
2338:Parallel evolution
2202:Adaptive radiation
2001:Speciation in taxa
1936:Assortative mating
1686:. LabX Media Group
1560:The New York Times
694:Charrier, Reynaldo
466:Systematic Biology
445:. 26 January 2016.
215:, Madagascar, the
133:Mozambique Channel
105:
54:transfer from one
41:
3404:
3403:
3020:Uniformitarianism
2973:Sex-determination
2478:Sexual dimorphism
2473:Natural selection
2377:Unit of selection
2343:Signalling theory
2109:
2108:
1987:Secondary contact
1959:Hybrid speciation
1907:Natural selection
1894:Isolating factors
1713:978-0-465-02051-5
1408:(11): 3285–3297.
424:978-1-881173-88-5
411:Mittermeier, R.A.
313:The dispersal of
308:Galápagos Islands
137:New World monkeys
50:that occurs when
44:Oceanic dispersal
3444:
3394:
3384:
3383:
3183:Modern synthesis
2943:Multicellularity
2938:Mosaic evolution
2823:auditory ossicle
2505:Social selection
2488:Flowering plants
2483:Sexual selection
2136:
2129:
2122:
2113:
2112:
2097:
2096:
2085:
2073:
2072:
2061:
2060:
1912:Sexual selection
1841:Geographic modes
1753:
1746:
1739:
1730:
1729:
1725:
1705:
1694:
1692:
1691:
1664:
1663:
1653:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1547:
1536:
1535:
1525:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1454:(4): 1075–1089.
1442:
1436:
1435:
1417:
1393:
1387:
1386:
1350:
1341:
1340:
1330:
1320:
1288:
1282:
1281:
1271:
1261:
1244:(10): e0163740.
1225:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1212:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1090:
1058:
1052:
1051:
1041:
1009:
1003:
1002:
1000:
999:
952:
941:
940:
930:
904:
895:
889:
888:
844:
838:
837:
801:
795:
794:
784:
774:
741:
732:
731:
689:
683:
682:
654:
648:
647:
601:
590:
589:
587:
586:
580:
569:
560:
551:
550:
540:
530:
498:
492:
491:
481:
453:
447:
446:
435:
429:
428:
407:
178:Among reptiles,
3452:
3451:
3447:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3442:
3441:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3400:
3372:
3299:Group selection
3272:
3197:
3101:
3028:
2990:Tempo and modes
2984:
2839:
2743:
2560:
2519:
2395:
2388:
2365:Species complex
2178:
2169:History of life
2145:
2140:
2110:
2105:
2049:
2032:Paleopolyploidy
1996:
1951:Hybrid concepts
1945:
1888:
1836:
1806:Species complex
1790:
1762:
1757:
1714:
1706:. Basic Books.
1689:
1687:
1672:
1670:Further reading
1667:
1622:
1618:
1571:
1567:
1548:
1539:
1494:
1490:
1471:
1467:
1443:
1439:
1394:
1390:
1351:
1344:
1303:(8): e0180139.
1289:
1285:
1226:
1219:
1210:
1208:
1196:
1192:
1159:
1155:
1118:(11): 961–966.
1108:
1104:
1067:Biology Letters
1059:
1055:
1018:Biology Letters
1010:
1006:
997:
995:
953:
944:
902:
896:
892:
845:
841:
826:10.2307/1563429
802:
798:
757:(26): 10293–7.
742:
735:
690:
686:
665:(11): 449–454.
655:
651:
602:
593:
584:
582:
578:
567:
561:
554:
499:
495:
454:
450:
437:
436:
432:
425:
408:
404:
400:
378:
335:
169:Simian primates
85:barred knifejaw
77:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3450:
3440:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3398:
3388:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3349:
3348:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3317:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3280:
3278:
3274:
3273:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3211:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3139:Charles Darwin
3136:
3135:
3134:
3122:
3117:
3111:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3077:Non-ecological
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3038:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3017:
3008:
2994:
2992:
2986:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2894:
2893:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2867:
2866:
2861:
2850:
2848:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2830:
2828:nervous system
2825:
2820:
2815:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2754:
2752:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2720:
2719:
2709:
2708:
2707:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2695:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2664:
2663:
2658:
2648:
2638:
2633:
2632:
2631:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2594:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2577:
2571:
2569:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2527:
2525:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2501:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2400:
2398:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2374:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2362:
2352:
2351:
2350:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2328:Origin of life
2325:
2320:
2315:
2313:Microevolution
2310:
2308:Macroevolution
2305:
2300:
2295:
2294:
2293:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2246:Common descent
2243:
2242:
2241:
2231:
2226:
2224:Baldwin effect
2221:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2188:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2177:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2139:
2138:
2131:
2124:
2116:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2091:
2079:
2067:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2040:Macroevolution
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1974:
1955:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1941:Haldane's rule
1938:
1933:
1928:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1898:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1881:
1867:
1864:Founder effect
1844:
1842:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1798:
1796:
1795:Basic concepts
1792:
1791:
1789:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1756:
1755:
1748:
1741:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1712:
1695:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1616:
1581:(6358): 1356.
1565:
1537:
1488:
1465:
1437:
1388:
1361:(2): 517–531.
1342:
1283:
1217:
1190:
1171:(2): 231–244.
1153:
1102:
1073:(4): 558–561.
1053:
1024:(1): 115–118.
1004:
971:(2): 275–282.
942:
913:(2): 231–244.
890:
861:10.1086/648607
839:
820:(3): 255–273.
812:, from Fiji".
796:
733:
706:(May): 68–75.
684:
649:
591:
552:
493:
472:(4): 610–622.
448:
430:
423:
401:
399:
396:
395:
394:
389:
384:
377:
374:
334:
331:
327:Nile crocodile
319:anthracotheres
229:amphisbaenians
143:and rafted to
76:
73:
60:Island hopping
38:Hawaii islands
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3449:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3387:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3341:Phylogenetics
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3269:
3266:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3244:Structuralism
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3219:Catastrophism
3217:
3216:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3178:Neo-Darwinism
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3147:
3146:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3137:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3127:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3104:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3092:Reinforcement
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3025:
3024:Catastrophism
3021:
3018:
3016:
3015:Macromutation
3012:
3011:Micromutation
3009:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2918:Immune system
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2842:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2778:symbiogenesis
2776:
2775:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2746:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2718:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2710:
2706:
2703:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2586:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2563:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2446:Kin selection
2444:
2442:
2441:Genetic drift
2439:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2391:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2356:
2353:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2181:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2137:
2132:
2130:
2125:
2123:
2118:
2117:
2114:
2102:
2101:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2084:
2080:
2078:
2077:
2068:
2066:
2065:
2056:
2055:
2052:
2045:
2044:Chronospecies
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1978:
1977:Reinforcement
1975:
1972:
1971:Recombination
1968:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1882:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1839:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1765:
1761:
1754:
1749:
1747:
1742:
1740:
1735:
1734:
1731:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1709:
1704:
1703:
1696:
1685:
1684:
1683:The Scientist
1679:
1674:
1673:
1661:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1620:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1561:
1557:
1555:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1523:10.1038/26886
1519:
1515:
1511:
1508:(6702): 556.
1507:
1503:
1499:
1492:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1392:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1349:
1347:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1287:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1233:
1232:Amaurobioides
1224:
1222:
1207:
1206:
1201:
1194:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1165:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1106:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1057:
1049:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1008:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
960:
951:
949:
947:
938:
934:
929:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
901:
894:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
843:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
800:
792:
788:
783:
778:
773:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
740:
738:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
700:
695:
688:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
653:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
608:
600:
598:
596:
581:on 2009-02-25
577:
573:
566:
559:
557:
548:
544:
539:
534:
529:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
497:
489:
485:
480:
475:
471:
467:
463:
461:
452:
444:
440:
434:
426:
420:
416:
412:
406:
402:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
379:
373:
371:
367:
362:
360:
356:
352:
351:green iguanas
348:
344:
340:
330:
328:
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3062:Cospeciation
3057:Cladogenesis
3006:Saltationism
2963:Mating types
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2154:Introduction
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2881:Cooperation
2809:In animals
2629:butterflies
2602:Cephalopods
2592:Brachiopods
2524:Development
2498:Mate choice
2251:Convergence
2234:Coevolution
2192:Abiogenesis
2100:WikiProject
1860:Centrifugal
333:Observation
315:semiaquatic
304:West Indies
298:Chelonoidis
204:Trachylepis
3432:Speciation
3411:Categories
3224:Lamarckism
3202:Philosophy
3125:David Hume
3087:Peripatric
3082:Parapatric
3067:Ecological
3047:Anagenesis
3042:Allopatric
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2998:Gradualism
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2783:chromosome
2773:Eukaryotes
2551:Modularity
2468:Population
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2333:Panspermia
2286:Extinction
2281:Exaptation
2256:Divergence
2229:Cladistics
2217:Reciprocal
2197:Adaptation
1963:Polyploidy
1925:Allochrony
1902:Adaptation
1870:Parapatric
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1817:Anagenesis
1760:Speciation
1690:2014-01-16
1211:2016-11-10
998:2008-04-04
585:2008-10-23
398:References
392:Panspermia
359:Guadeloupe
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165:caviomorph
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2372:Taxonomy
2318:Mismatch
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2207:Altruism
2064:Category
1981:evidence
1786:Glossary
1660:28963256
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1297:PLOS ONE
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2291:Event
2174:Index
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