9403:
1984:
10053:
3031:
2940:
the fact that it is ignored in phonetic series. Nonetheless, scholars agree that the difference reflects a real phonological distinction of some sort, often described noncommittally as a distinction between type A and B syllables using a variety of notations. The distinction has been variously ascribed to:
3158:
The following table illustrates these analyses, listing the names of the 31 traditional rhyme groups with their Middle
Chinese reflexes and their postulated Old Chinese vowels in the systems of Li and Baxter. Following the traditional analysis, the rhyme groups are organized into three parallel sets,
2963:
a length distinction of the main vowel. Pulleyblank initially proposed that type B syllables had longer vowels. Later, citing cognates in other Sino-Tibetan languages, Starostin and
Zhengzhang independently proposed long vowels for type A and short vowels for type B. The latter proposal might explain
2939:
in Old
Chinese, others have suggested that the Middle Chinese medial was a secondary development not present in Old Chinese. Evidence includes the use of type B syllables to transcribe foreign words lacking any such medial, the lack of the medial in Tibeto-Burman cognates and modern Min reflexes, and
2920:
These distinctions are assumed by most workers to date from the Old
Chinese period, but they are not reflected in the widely accepted inventory of Old Chinese initials given above. The Old Chinese antecedents of these distinctions are not yet agreed, with researchers proposing a variety of consonant
2067:
However, there are several cases where quite different Middle
Chinese initials appear together in a phonetic series. Karlgren and subsequent workers have proposed either additional Old Chinese consonants or initial consonant clusters in such cases. For example, the Middle Chinese palatal sibilants
2900:
in palatal environments). Other points of articulation show similar distinctions within stops and nasals. Proto-Min voicing is inferred from the development of Min tones, but the phonetic values of the initials are otherwise uncertain. The sounds indicated as *-t, *-d, etc. are known as "softened
1694:
proposed that the division I and IV finals, and the initials with which they occurred, namely labials, dentals, dental sibilants, velars and laryngeals, were primitive. Most scholars believe that finals of divisions I and IV contained back and front vowels respectively. Division II is believed to
790:
initials and finals, though they were influenced by the different pronunciations of that later period. Scholars have attempted to determine the phonetic content of the initials and finals by comparing them with the rhyme tables and by examining pronunciations in modern varieties and loans in
2007:
Although the
Chinese writing system is not alphabetic, comparison of words whose characters share a phonetic element (a phonetic series) yields much information about pronunciation. Often the characters in a phonetic series are still pronounced alike, as in the character
2635:
has proposed a revision of the above scheme to account for the fact that Middle
Chinese glottal stop and laryngeal fricatives occurred together in phonetic series, unlike dental stops and fricatives, which were usually separated. Instead of the glottal stop initial
3159:
depending on the corresponding type of coda in Middle
Chinese. For simplicity, only Middle Chinese finals of divisions I and IV are listed, as the complex vocalism of divisions II and III is believed to reflect the influence of Old Chinese medials
4494:. These glottal post-codas respectively conditioned rising and falling pitch contours, which became distinctive when the post-codas were lost. Haudricourt also suggested that the Chinese departing tone reflected an Old Chinese derivational suffix
3139:) independently argued that these rhyme groups should be split, refining the 31 traditional rhyme groups into more than 50 groups corresponding to a six-vowel system. Baxter supported this thesis with a statistical analysis of the rhymes of the
2060:. The Middle Chinese dental sibilants and retroflex sibilants also occur interchangeably in phonetic series, and are similarly traced to a single Old Chinese sibilant series, with the retroflex sibilants conditioned by the Old Chinese medial
2055:
in Old
Chinese. For example, since Middle Chinese dentals and retroflex stops occur together in phonetic series, they are traced to a single Old Chinese dental series, with the retroflex stops conditioned by an Old Chinese medial
3053:, a collection of songs and poetry from the 11th to 7th centuries BC. Again some of these songs still rhyme in modern varieties of Chinese, but many do not. This was attributed to lax rhyming practice until the late-
128:
Each character of the script represented a single Old
Chinese morpheme. Most scholars believe that these morphemes were overwhelmingly monosyllabic, though some have recently suggested that a minority of them had
4486:, which have a very similar structure to those of Middle Chinese, were derived from earlier final consonants. The Vietnamese counterparts of the rising and departing tones derived from a final glottal stop and
4370:
usually respect these tone categories, there are many cases of characters that are now pronounced with different tones rhyming together in the songs, mostly between the departing and entering tones. This led
1423:
Many potential combinations of initial and final did not occur. To save space, the designers of the rhyme tables separated finals with different patterns of co-occurrence, effectively identifying cases of
4281:
There has been much controversy over the relationship between final consonants and tones, and indeed whether Old Chinese lacked the tones characteristic of later periods, as first suggested by the
102:
Although many details are disputed, most recent reconstructions agree on the basic structure. It is generally agreed that Old Chinese differed from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal
2909:, where they appear as fricatives or approximants (e.g. < *-p *-t *-k in Jianyang) or are missing entirely, while the non-softened variants appear as stops. Evidence from early loans into
136:
Although many details of the sound system are still disputed, recent formulations are in substantial agreement on the core issues. For example, the Old Chinese initial consonants recognized by
4475:
grounds. Wang Li preferred to reallocate words with connections to the entering tone to the corresponding entering tone group, proposing that the final stop was lost after a long vowel.
2044:). In other cases the words in a phonetic series have very different sounds in any known variety of Chinese, but are assumed to have been similar at the time the characters were chosen.
4752:
Baxter also speculated on the possibility of a glottal stop occurring after oral stop finals. The evidence is limited, and consists mainly of contacts between rising tone syllables and
4529:
supported this theory with evidence from early transcriptions of Sanskrit words, and pointed out that rising tone words end in a glottal stop in some modern Chinese dialects, e.g.
4383:(d.1851) decided that the language had the same tones as Middle Chinese, but some words had later shifted between tones, a view that is still widely held among linguists in China.
2199:
medial could occur after labials and velars, complementing the instances proposed as sources of Middle Chinese retroflex dentals and sibilants, to account for such connections as:
3088:, stated the important principle that characters in the same phonetic series would be in the same rhyme group, making it possible to assign almost all words to rhyme groups.
8281:
8826:
1726:. The following table shows Baxter's account of the Old Chinese initials and medials leading to the combinations of initial and final types found in Early Middle Chinese.
1439:) I, II, III and IV based on the rows of the rhyme tables in which they were placed. Most scholars believe that division III finals were characterized by a palatal medial
7046:
Branner, David Prager (2000), "The rime-table system of formal Chinese phonology", in Auroux, Sylvain; Koerner, E. F. K.; Niederehe, Hans-Josef; Versteegh, Kees (eds.),
2995:
stress-based distinction, as later proposed by Pulleyblank, in which type B syllables were stressed in the first mora, while type A syllables were stressed on the second
764:
and its successors grouped characters by tone class, rhyme group and homophone group. The pronunciation of each group of homophonous characters was indicated using the
4471:), in which the traditional analysis already distinguished the syllables with entering tone contacts. The resulting scarcity of open syllables has been criticized on
8788:
9528:
8310:
7865:
1682:
The primary sources of evidence for the reconstruction of the Old Chinese initials are medieval rhyme dictionaries and phonetic clues in the Chinese script.
87:, which split off before the Middle Chinese period, Chinese transcriptions of foreign names, and early borrowings from and by neighbouring languages such as
1452:. Some authors call them type B finals, with type A encompassing all the other divisions. Comparing placement in the rhyme tables with distribution in the
9335:
9325:
2348:
This treatment of the Old Chinese liquids is further supported by Tibeto-Burman cognates and by transcription evidence. For example, the name of a city (
4525:
Pulleyblank took Haudricourt's suggestion to its logical conclusion, proposing that the Chinese rising tone had also arisen from a final glottal stop.
9330:
9089:
8637:
7976:
9244:
7027:(1980), "Proto-Chinese and Sino-Tibetan: data towards establishing the nature of the relationship", in van Coetsem, Frans; Waugh, Linda R. (eds.),
4506:, with the stops later disappearing, allowing rhymes with open syllables. The absence of a corresponding labial final could be attributed to early
4386:
Karlgren also noted many cases where words in the departing and entering tones shared a phonetic element within their respective characters, e.g.
2703:, show reflexes of distinctions not reflected in Middle Chinese. For example, the following dental initials have been identified in reconstructed
10087:
4380:
4518:. Pulleyblank supported the theory with several examples of syllables in the departing tone being used to transcribe foreign words ending in
1460:
subdivided division III finals into four distributional classes, which others have called pure (or independent), mixed and two kinds called
5067:
815:
9411:
8649:
7989:
8038:
770:
method, using a pair of other words with the same initial consonant and final (the rest of the syllable) respectively. Analysis of the
5041:(GSR) remains a standard reference, even though Karlgren's reconstructions have been superseded by the work of later scholars such as
4844:
Baxter describes his reconstruction of the palatal initials as "especially tentative, being based largely on scanty graphic evidence".
3084:). These groups were subsequently refined by other scholars, culminating in a standard set of 31 in the 1930s. One of these scholars,
2160:
was also present. Some Old Chinese velars were also palatalized, but the conditioning factors are only partly understood. Li proposed
10753:
10354:
7966:
8613:
8601:
7446:
810:
are slightly different from the rhyme tables, but generally agreed and each traditionally named with an exemplary word as follows:
79:
published in 601 AD, though this falls short of a phonemic analysis. Supplementary evidence has been drawn from cognates in other
8625:
8117:
749:
did not record a single contemporary dialect, but set out to codify the pronunciations of characters to be used when reading the
9709:
66:), shows which words rhymed in that period. Scholars have compared these bodies of contemporary evidence with the much later
10359:
10322:
8948:
7936:
7832:
7801:
7753:
7718:
7642:
7623:
7434:
7415:
7263:
7239:
7205:
7127:
7101:
7082:
7036:
7014:
6971:
9759:
7764:
9601:
774:
spellings allows one to enumerate the initials and finals of the system, but not to determine their phonetic values. The
2609:
in Middle Chinese, but have velar and zero initials respectively in several Min dialects. Most authors now assume both
1466:. Some of the distinctions between the resulting seven classes are found only in the rhyme tables. When considering the
10080:
10892:
7588:
7158:——— (1954b), "Comment reconstruire le chinois archaïque" [How to reconstruct Old Chinese],
7055:
7347:
56:
are believed to link words that were pronounced similarly at that time. The oldest surviving Chinese verse, in the
10189:
7896:
10590:
10577:
10116:
9681:
7599:
745:
published in 601, with many revisions and expansions over the following centuries. According to its preface, the
26:
7958:
2164:
as the source of palatal initials occurring in phonetic series with velars or laryngeals, found no evidence for
10788:
10141:
8388:
8031:
7406:——— (1986), "The origin of Proto-Min softened stops", in McCoy, John; Light, Timothy (eds.),
5165:
5105:
Baxter and Sagart derive the additional aspirated initials from consonant clusters and the softened stops from
735:
The reconstruction of Old Chinese typically starts from "Early Middle Chinese", the phonological system of the
123:
4865:
indicate retroflexion, palatalization or aspiration of the preceding consonant, rather than separate segments.
1470:
only, they reduce to four distinct patterns of co-occurrence with initials at various places of articulation:
10748:
10713:
10344:
10131:
10073:
9997:
9451:
7065:——— (2006), "What are rime tables and what do they mean?", in Branner, David Prager (ed.),
4533:
and some Min dialects. In addition, most of the entering tone words that rhyme with rising tone words in the
10334:
10287:
10126:
10056:
9967:
9491:
4804:
7137:
5080:
4832:
4828:
4788:
4784:
4742:
4737:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4515:
4511:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4491:
4487:
4479:
4468:
4464:
4444:
4440:
4267:
4260:
4255:
4234:
4229:
4172:
4167:
4144:
4139:
4051:
4046:
3982:
3977:
3913:
3908:
3844:
3839:
3763:
3758:
3723:
3718:
3671:
3666:
3588:
3583:
3555:
3550:
3462:
3457:
3393:
3388:
3367:
3362:
3305:
3300:
3279:
3274:
3164:
3160:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3014:
2949:
2945:
2936:
2885:
2881:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2574:
2544:
2540:
2532:
2517:
2493:
2485:
2457:
2429:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2369:
2341:
2326:
2311:
2301:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2261:
2246:
2229:
2214:
2196:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2145:
2130:
2113:
2098:
2083:
2061:
2057:
1950:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1723:
1719:
1696:
695:
691:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
642:
637:
632:
625:
620:
615:
594:
587:
572:
563:
558:
549:
544:
539:
525:
520:
511:
506:
501:
465:
439:
416:
411:
402:
397:
381:
376:
367:
362:
341:
336:
329:
324:
319:
301:
296:
289:
284:
279:
265:
260:
255:
250:
243:
238:
233:
9972:
9844:
9769:
9426:
4293:
110:. Most recent reconstructions also posit consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into
5031:
In 1940, Karlgren published the first complete reconstruction of Old Chinese in a dictionary called the
3021:
have adopted a variant of this proposal, reconstructing pharyngealized initials in all type A syllables.
10726:
10262:
10212:
10146:
10121:
10014:
9987:
9864:
9776:
9523:
9503:
4507:
3091:
Assuming that rhyming syllables had the same main vowel, Li Fang-Kuei proposed a system of four vowels
1922:
authors, that the Middle Chinese dental and retroflex stop series were not distinguished at that time.
1425:
4787:. Other scholars have suggested that such contacts are due to dialectal mixture, citing evidence that
3017:
medial) or pharyngealization, either of which prevented palatalization in Middle Chinese. Baxter and
10435:
10364:
10222:
10202:
9566:
8264:
8024:
8011:
7382:
3002:
2192:) and a front vowel. However a significant number of palatalizations are not explained by this rule.
1931:
medial was unevenly distributed, being distinctive only after velar and laryngeal initials or before
3013:
in Old Chinese. Instead, he proposed that the remaining syllables were marked by retroflexion (the
10758:
10440:
10374:
10339:
9940:
9925:
9915:
9629:
88:
4913:
The point of articulation of the fricatives is not clear, and varies between the modern varieties.
1961:
and labiolaryngeal initials but no labiovelar medial. The remaining occurrences of Middle Chinese
48:
from documentary evidence. Although the writing system does not describe sounds directly, shared
10602:
10485:
10455:
10420:
10207:
10151:
10136:
9952:
8191:
7499:
7275:
5037:
3005:
suggested that type B syllables (his class C), which comprised over half of the syllables of the
10065:
9945:
9794:
7479:
4937:
are reversed from their positions in the rhyme tables, which are believed to have confused them.
10856:
10643:
10450:
10349:
9886:
9729:
8327:
7972:
2914:
803:
80:
22:
4904:
The retroflex and palatal sibilants were treated as a single series in the later rhyme tables.
10500:
10467:
10460:
10369:
10277:
9881:
9804:
9518:
8251:
8084:
7112:
5035:, in which characters are arranged by phonetic series within rhyme groups. The 1957 revision
4439:
He suggested that the departing tone words in such pairs had ended with a final voiced stop (
2052:
1379:
799:
575:
with other consonants, and possibly other clusters as well, but this area remains unsettled.
489:
7653:
7140:(1954a), "De l'origine des tons en vietnamien" [The origin of tones in Vietnamese],
10887:
10846:
10708:
10618:
10597:
10507:
10495:
10490:
10234:
10217:
9649:
9617:
9446:
8571:
8066:
7760:
7475:
5046:
3128:
2353:
711:
4960:
4954:
2796:
2789:
2782:
2775:
2768:
2761:
2754:
2747:
2740:
2733:
2496:
and so on are proposed (following Karlgren) for alternations of Middle Chinese nasals and
8:
10836:
10743:
10721:
10678:
10663:
10628:
10572:
10517:
10512:
10381:
10267:
10244:
10184:
9893:
9859:
9694:
9661:
9508:
9436:
9353:
9194:
9189:
8943:
8753:
8259:
7846:
4483:
4472:
2051:, holds that the initials of words written with the same phonetic component had a common
1246:
984:
879:
873:
834:
783:
484:
273:
227:
221:
96:
10733:
10542:
10477:
10472:
10427:
10386:
10174:
10100:
10009:
9876:
9839:
9724:
9622:
9556:
9551:
9441:
9431:
9057:
9035:
8928:
8736:
8731:
8654:
8642:
8630:
8618:
8606:
8130:
7888:
7728:
7680:
7564:
7535:
7463:
7394:
7370:
7324:
7312:
7179:
7151:
5042:
4888:
2704:
2578:
2184:
and postulated that plain velars and laryngeals were palatalized when followed by both
1457:
703:
111:
53:
10633:
4451:
extended these final voiced stops to whole rhyme groups. The only exceptions were the
10861:
10826:
10811:
10795:
10783:
10768:
10738:
10698:
10668:
10648:
10638:
10582:
10562:
10552:
10537:
10522:
10407:
10402:
10329:
10299:
10294:
10272:
10254:
10249:
10239:
10229:
9920:
9910:
9789:
9754:
9609:
9561:
9513:
9280:
9133:
9067:
8923:
8908:
8579:
8556:
8510:
8435:
8361:
8241:
8209:
8163:
8102:
8092:
8057:
7962:
7932:
7892:
7828:
7797:
7796:, translated by Laurent Sagart, Paris: École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales,
7749:
7714:
7710:
7684:
7638:
7619:
7584:
7430:
7411:
7280:
7259:
7253:
7249:
7235:
7201:
7197:
Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: System and Philosophy of Sino-Tibetan Reconstruction
7183:
7123:
7097:
7078:
7051:
7032:
7010:
6967:
6959:
5054:
2998:
2400:
2349:
2048:
861:
851:
829:
427:
173:
162:
157:
141:
58:
7965:, European Association of Chinese Linguistics Spring School in Chinese Linguistics,
7191:
4546:
Together, these hypotheses lead to the following set of Old Chinese syllable codas:
2944:
the presence or absence of a prefix. Jakhontov held that type B reflected a prefix
10841:
10773:
10763:
10703:
10693:
10688:
10673:
10658:
10653:
10567:
10557:
10415:
10309:
10197:
10179:
10169:
10026:
9546:
9421:
9285:
9275:
9260:
9206:
9128:
9079:
9040:
8989:
8903:
8855:
8839:
8719:
8679:
8674:
8561:
8515:
8461:
8456:
8446:
8440:
8269:
8214:
8199:
8075:
8047:
7880:
7842:
7780:
7692:
7672:
7556:
7531:
7527:
7455:
7362:
7308:
7304:
7172:
7167:
7070:
7067:
The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology
4892:
4774:
4498:. The connection with stop finals would then be explained as syllables ending with
3132:
2902:
1958:
1954:
1315:
1079:
824:
750:
742:
313:
152:
144:
are given below, with Baxter's (mostly tentative) additions given in parentheses:
10851:
10831:
10816:
10778:
10683:
10623:
10547:
10532:
10527:
10317:
10304:
9977:
9957:
9854:
9814:
9799:
9538:
9388:
9378:
9358:
9315:
9310:
9176:
9140:
9123:
9113:
9052:
8870:
8806:
8748:
8696:
8691:
8593:
8489:
8484:
8393:
8340:
8335:
8315:
8300:
8295:
8236:
8231:
8221:
8204:
8176:
8148:
8125:
7635:
Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa
7024:
3136:
2373:
856:
726:
168:
76:
3047:
A reconstruction of Old Chinese finals must explain the rhyming practice of the
597:
or (in some reconstructions) some other representation of a distinction between
10866:
10821:
10031:
10021:
9992:
9982:
9699:
9671:
9383:
9368:
9270:
9221:
9216:
9201:
9145:
9084:
8966:
8938:
8918:
8865:
8834:
8811:
8801:
8796:
8758:
8741:
8686:
8551:
8533:
8451:
8425:
8366:
8286:
8274:
8226:
8181:
8171:
8097:
7820:
7576:
7002:
6982:
5106:
3018:
2953:
2547:, have been suggested but their existence and nature remains an open question.
2174:
distinction to the vowel. Following proposals by Pulleyblank, Baxter explained
1968:
707:
130:
67:
49:
9402:
8006:
7884:
7676:
2964:
the description in some Eastern Han commentaries of type A and B syllables as
1997:, an early source on the structure of characters, showing characters with the
10881:
9832:
9644:
9639:
9211:
9155:
9150:
9118:
9105:
8981:
8933:
8860:
8816:
8706:
8543:
8466:
8305:
8153:
8140:
7995:
7696:
4348:) tones, with the last category consisting of the syllables ending in stops (
3119:
to account for syllables that were placed in rhyme groups reconstructed with
3065:. The systematic study of Old Chinese rhymes began in the 17th century, when
2910:
1993:
1714:
It is possible to account for the combinations of initials and finals of the
753:, incorporating distinctions made in different parts of China at the time (a
198:
92:
1699:
medial discussed above, while division III is usually taken as indicating a
106:
but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless
9704:
9654:
9030:
8913:
8886:
8430:
8420:
7784:
7292:
7284:
7195:
7074:
5885:
5050:
4980:. It is omitted in many reconstructions, and has no standard Chinese name.
4448:
4376:
4334:
4282:
3062:
3054:
2696:
1988:
779:
775:
137:
7518:——— (1977–1978), "The final consonants of Old Chinese",
2152:
It is believed that Old Chinese dentals followed by an Old Chinese medial
1705:
medial. Since Karlgren, many scholars have projected this medial (but not
9849:
9823:
9719:
9689:
9666:
9634:
9373:
9363:
9167:
9062:
9047:
9010:
8958:
8779:
8770:
8666:
8505:
8380:
8107:
7343:
4875:
4792:
4530:
4526:
4447:) in Old Chinese. Being unwilling to split rhyme groups, Dong Tonghe and
2649:
2588:
2396:
2358:
1919:
84:
45:
7539:
7398:
7316:
9265:
9239:
9005:
8971:
8476:
8403:
7607:
40th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics
7374:
7348:"Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone"
7215:
4758:
finals, which could alternatively be explained as phonetic similarity.
4372:
3085:
3010:
2929:
Although many authors have projected the Middle Chinese palatal medial
1915:
1173:
795:
materials), but many details regarding the finals are still uncertain.
730:
352:
7568:
7467:
2985:
2982:
2973:
2970:
2068:
appear in two distinct kinds of series, with dentals and with velars:
10096:
9714:
9465:
9456:
9184:
9074:
8726:
8714:
8525:
8356:
6257:
2957:
2948:, while Ferlus suggested that type A arose from an unstressed prefix
2632:
1691:
792:
754:
103:
41:
7547:——— (1992), "How do we reconstruct Old Chinese?",
7444:——— (1994), "Pharyngealization in Early Chinese",
7366:
6623:
6365:
6041:
4895:
articulation. They are mostly alveolar in modern Chinese varieties.
1448:
Division III finals occur in more than half of the syllables of the
10004:
9590:
9231:
8412:
8016:
7560:
7459:
5079:
Karlgren originally postulated Old Chinese consonant clusters with
4976:
4297:
3066:
3034:
2992:
1462:
186:
107:
32:
10036:
6503:
5801:
5092:
Originally proposed as voiced and voiceless fricative initials in
10095:
9903:
9583:
9470:
9299:
8895:
7583:, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company,
7120:
Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistic Society
5005:
4993:
4969:
4947:
4778:
4768:
4762:
4753:
4538:
4430:
4419:
4406:
4395:
4361:
4355:
4349:
4286:
4248:
4241:
4222:
4216:
4210:
4191:
4158:
4151:
4132:
4101:
4070:
4039:
4020:
4001:
3970:
3951:
3932:
3901:
3882:
3863:
3832:
3813:
3794:
3751:
3744:
3737:
3730:
3711:
3704:
3697:
3690:
3659:
3628:
3609:
3576:
3569:
3562:
3543:
3512:
3481:
3450:
3431:
3412:
3381:
3374:
3355:
3336:
3293:
3286:
3267:
3248:
3058:
3049:
3039:
2930:
2895:
2889:
2880:
Proto-Min *nh and *lh are distinct from the Old Chinese initials
2870:
2863:
2856:
2849:
2842:
2604:
2582:
2568:
2562:
2561:
occurs only in palatal environments, Li attempted to derive both
2556:
2526:
2511:
2497:
2479:
2468:
2451:
2440:
2423:
2412:
2335:
2320:
2305:
2295:
2269:
2255:
2240:
2223:
2208:
2139:
2124:
2107:
2092:
2077:
1962:
1944:
1938:
1932:
1926:
1914:
stand for consonant classes in Old Chinese. The Qing philologist
1706:
1700:
1669:
1440:
1409:
1391:
1370:
1356:
1344:
1332:
1305:
1291:
1279:
1267:
1235:
1223:
1207:
1195:
1183:
1162:
1150:
1138:
1126:
1114:
1102:
1090:
1067:
1055:
1043:
1031:
1019:
1007:
995:
974:
962:
950:
938:
926:
914:
902:
890:
868:
578:
In recent reconstructions, such as the widely accepted system of
216:
7600:"Reconstructing Old Chinese uvulars in the Baxter-Sagart system"
6864:
6852:
6816:
2372:. Traces of the earlier liquids are also found in the divergent
2286:
are proposed to account for a different group of series such as
9962:
9764:
6317:
6293:
6053:
5945:
3176:
rhyme groups and Middle Chinese reflexes in divisions I and IV
2906:
2700:
1983:
766:
737:
72:
7200:, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 543–576,
6443:
6421:
6419:
6329:
5909:
5897:
5431:
5429:
1695:
represent retroflexion, and is traced back to the Old Chinese
9475:
7192:"Appendix A: A Concise Introduction to Old Chinese Phonology"
7029:
Contributions to historical linguistics: issues and materials
6599:
4827:
with some graphical substitutions from his more recent work:
3127:
but were distinguished in Middle Chinese. In the late 1980s,
2377:
605:
6587:
6455:
6233:
5513:
5210:
814:
Initials of Early Middle Chinese with traditional names and
8001:
6575:
6416:
6281:
6209:
5726:
5651:
5639:
5525:
5426:
4490:
respectively, the latter developing to a glottal fricative
3030:
2577:, but had to assume irregular developments in some cases.
1918:
had already discovered, by studying sound glosses given by
7931:] (in Chinese), Shanghai: Shànghǎi Jiàoyù Chūbǎn Shè,
6936:
6912:
6900:
6828:
6792:
6780:
6768:
6720:
6647:
6563:
6539:
6515:
6404:
6353:
6341:
6269:
6173:
6065:
5969:
5921:
5789:
5779:
5777:
5738:
5141:
rhymes, with the choice sometimes varying between authors.
5137:
Each rhyme group was named after one of the corresponding
2047:
A key principle, first proposed by the Swedish sinologist
798:
In the rhyme table tradition, initials were classified by
7742:] (in Chinese), Beijing: China Social Sciences Press.
6804:
6467:
6392:
6382:
6380:
6197:
6185:
5933:
5849:
5690:
5306:
5294:
4270:: Old Chinese finals reconstructed with labiovelar codas
7703:
Reconstruction of the Phonological System of Old Chinese
6840:
6029:
5813:
5680:
5678:
5627:
5581:
5579:
5270:
5258:
6677:, pp. 141–150, 170, 243–246, 254–255, 298–302 and
5825:
5774:
5663:
5554:
5552:
5501:
5477:
5453:
5414:
5402:
5390:
5378:
5366:
5354:
5330:
5318:
4823:
Reconstructed Old Chinese forms are starred and follow
4375:
to suggest that Old Chinese lacked the departing tone.
6924:
6888:
6732:
6708:
6696:
6684:
6551:
6431:
6377:
6305:
5222:
4761:
To account for phonetic series and rhymes in which MC
3061:
argued that a former consistency had been obscured by
2581:
showed that several words with Middle Chinese initial
1718:
by combining these initials with Old Chinese medials *
1685:
7698:
Rekonstrukcija drevnekitajskoj fonologičeskoj sistemy
6611:
6527:
6479:
6161:
6137:
6113:
6089:
6017:
5993:
5873:
5750:
5714:
5675:
5591:
5576:
5537:
5234:
5123:
4835:
and consonants rendered according to IPA conventions.
4343:
4328:
4317:
4306:
4203:
4184:
4125:
4113:
4094:
4082:
4063:
4032:
4013:
3994:
3963:
3944:
3925:
3894:
3875:
3856:
3825:
3806:
3787:
3775:
3683:
3652:
3640:
3621:
3602:
3536:
3524:
3505:
3493:
3474:
3443:
3424:
3405:
3348:
3329:
3317:
3260:
3241:
3219:
3205:
3191:
3074:
2977:
2965:
2175:
2169:
2033:
2021:
2015:
1663:
1652:
1434:
5702:
5615:
5564:
5549:
5489:
5465:
5441:
5342:
5282:
717:
31:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
6635:
6491:
6245:
5603:
5246:
5198:
582:, the rest of the Old Chinese syllable consists of
7234:(in Chinese), Beijing: Shāngwù Yìnshūguǎn Chūbǎn,
2020:, 'middle'), which was adapted to write the words
4874:The rhyme tables describe a later stage in which
1668:), with the latter believed to indicate a medial
10879:
7517:
7279:, Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities,
7255:Analytic dictionary of Chinese and Sino-Japanese
6876:
6666:
6371:
1978:
7996:The Baxter-Sagart reconstruction of Old Chinese
7500:"The Consonantal System of Old Chinese, part 2"
1730:Reconstructed Old Chinese initials and medials
7959:"Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology"
7122:, Arizona State University, pp. 297–313,
4992:In the rhyme tables, the palatal allophone of
3155:to produce statistically significant results.
3143:, though there were too few rhymes with codas
10081:
8032:
7975:(videos), William Baxter and Laurent Sagart,
7229:
5176:
5151:
5118:
5017:
5011:
4999:
4932:
4926:
4791:had disappeared from eastern dialects by the
4605:
4598:
4591:
4584:
4577:
4570:
4563:
4458:
4452:
4425:
4414:
4401:
4390:
4338:
4323:
4312:
4301:
4276:
4198:
4179:
4120:
4108:
4089:
4077:
4058:
4027:
4008:
3989:
3958:
3939:
3920:
3889:
3870:
3851:
3820:
3801:
3782:
3770:
3678:
3647:
3635:
3616:
3597:
3531:
3519:
3500:
3488:
3469:
3438:
3419:
3400:
3343:
3324:
3312:
3255:
3236:
3214:
3200:
3186:
3079:
2960:contrasting with laxness in type B syllables.
2598:
2592:
2521:
2506:
2474:
2463:
2446:
2435:
2418:
2407:
2363:
2330:
2315:
2290:
2250:
2235:
2218:
2203:
2134:
2119:
2102:
2087:
2072:
2039:
2027:
2009:
1998:
1658:
1647:
1429:
1404:
1386:
1365:
1351:
1339:
1327:
1300:
1286:
1274:
1262:
1230:
1218:
1202:
1190:
1178:
1157:
1145:
1133:
1121:
1109:
1097:
1085:
1062:
1050:
1038:
1026:
1014:
1002:
990:
969:
957:
945:
933:
921:
909:
897:
885:
9831:
7977:École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales
7497:
7474:
7303:, translated by Gilbert L. Mattos: 219–287,
7157:
7136:
7069:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 1–34,
7000:
6870:
6858:
6822:
6810:
6509:
6335:
6287:
6071:
6059:
5951:
5903:
5732:
5216:
5093:
2690:
2625:is assumed as the labialized counterpart of
2278:. Old Chinese voiced and voiceless laterals
7546:
7295:(1974–1975), "Studies on Archaic Chinese",
6425:
1428:. Thus finals are split between divisions (
598:
40:Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the
10088:
10074:
10052:
9822:
8039:
8025:
7791:
7759:
7632:
7616:ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese
7613:
6593:
6461:
6449:
6398:
6239:
6215:
6035:
5819:
5435:
5276:
5228:
4988:
4986:
4296:of Middle Chinese were first described by
7967:International Institute for Asian Studies
7913:
7841:
7691:
7651:
7429:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
7410:, Leiden: E. J. Brill, pp. 375–384,
7171:
6605:
6473:
5156:group included departing tone words only.
2924:
2905:and nearby Min varieties in northwestern
651:an optional coda, which could be a glide
7973:"Summer School on Old Chinese Phonology"
7912:Translation of Chapter 2 (Phonetics) of
7637:, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
7618:, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
7549:Journal of the American Oriental Society
7447:Journal of the American Oriental Society
7272:
7248:
7031:, Leiden: E. J. Brill, pp. 34–199,
6774:
6762:
6750:
6227:
6155:
6131:
6107:
6083:
6011:
5987:
5963:
5867:
5843:
5768:
3029:
2621:in non-palatal environments. Similarly
1982:
1971:of a back vowel before these codas (see
9747:
7480:"The Consonantal System of Old Chinese"
7291:
7064:
7045:
6678:
6581:
6179:
5927:
5795:
5744:
5633:
5597:
5543:
5240:
4983:
4783:in such cases derived from Old Chinese
1677:
10880:
7794:The Phonological system of Old Chinese
7773:Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale
7597:
7575:
7443:
7424:
7405:
7381:
7189:
7110:
7023:
6983:"Eulogy: Sergej Anatol'evič Starostin"
6980:
6958:
6942:
6930:
6918:
6906:
6894:
6846:
6834:
6798:
6786:
6726:
6714:
6702:
6690:
6674:
6670:
6653:
6641:
6629:
6617:
6569:
6557:
6545:
6533:
6521:
6497:
6485:
6437:
6410:
6386:
6359:
6347:
6323:
6311:
6299:
6275:
6263:
6251:
6203:
6191:
6167:
6143:
6119:
6095:
6047:
6023:
5999:
5975:
5939:
5915:
5891:
5879:
5855:
5831:
5807:
5783:
5756:
5708:
5696:
5684:
5669:
5657:
5645:
5621:
5585:
5570:
5558:
5531:
5519:
5507:
5495:
5483:
5471:
5459:
5447:
5420:
5408:
5396:
5384:
5372:
5360:
5348:
5336:
5324:
5312:
5300:
5288:
5264:
5252:
5204:
4921:
4919:
4824:
4300:around AD 500. They were the 'level' (
2913:suggests that the softened stops were
579:
571:Most scholars reconstruct clusters of
10069:
8020:
7879:, translated by Jerry Norman: 37–40,
7408:Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies
7050:, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 46–55,
5894:, pp. 193–194, 210–214, 569–570.
4887:It is not clear whether these had an
4164:
3233:
1734:
1482:
806:of articulation. The initials of the
791:Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese (the
149:
117:
70:reading pronunciations listed in the
8046:
7727:
7654:"William H. Baxter, Laurent Sagart.
7385:(1973), "Tonal development in Min",
7091:
6738:
5720:
5182:
3107:. He also included three diphthongs
3037:, who began the systematic study of
2156:were palatalized, unless the medial
706:; the rising and departing tones of
702:In such systems, Old Chinese has no
7342:
7338:] (in Chinese), Beijing: Kexue.
7113:"The Origin of Tones in Viet–Muong"
6964:A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology
6882:
4916:
4878:fricatives were also distinguished.
4482:'s demonstration that the tones of
4478:Another perspective is provided by
2663:, and similarly labio-uvular stops
2274:is believed to reflect Old Chinese
2195:Similarly, it is proposed that the
1957:) to indicate that Old Chinese had
1686:Middle Chinese initials and medials
13:
7812:
7355:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
7323:
7214:
5609:
5066:Middle Chinese forms are given in
2888:, which both yield Middle Chinese
2699:, particularly those of northwest
2539:Other cluster initials, including
14:
10904:
7947:
7864:——— (1978–79),
7656:Old Chinese. A New Reconstruction
7094:A History of the Chinese Language
7007:Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
4952:initial occurs in only two words
3069:divided the rhyming words of the
10051:
9529:Literary and colloquial readings
9401:
7665:Journal of Language Relationship
7118:, in Burusphat, Somsonge (ed.),
7048:History of the Language Sciences
6756:
6744:
6665:Tabulation of rhyme groups from
6659:
5159:
5144:
5131:
5112:
5099:
2901:stops" due to their reflexes in
2550:
2268:Thus the Middle Chinese lateral
114:distinctions in Middle Chinese.
7498:——— (1962b),
6221:
6149:
6125:
6101:
6077:
6005:
5981:
5957:
5861:
5837:
5762:
5086:
5073:
5060:
5025:
4940:
4907:
4898:
4881:
4868:
4847:
4838:
714:of the Old Chinese post-codas.
599:"type-A" and "type-B" syllables
27:International Phonetic Alphabet
7920:Zhengzhang, Shangfang (2003),
7792:——— (2000),
7633:——— (2009),
7598:——— (2007),
7532:10.1080/02549948.1977.11745046
7425:——— (1988),
7387:Journal of Chinese Linguistics
7309:10.1080/02549948.1974.11731100
7273:——— (1957),
7230:
7173:10.1080/00437956.1954.11659532
6990:Journal of Chinese Linguistics
6981:——— (2006),
6951:
6266:, pp. 227, 230, 233, 235.
6050:, pp. 795, 802, 785, 773.
5177:
5169:
5152:
5119:
5018:
5012:
5000:
4959:
4953:
4933:
4927:
4817:
4606:
4599:
4592:
4585:
4578:
4571:
4564:
4459:
4453:
4426:
4415:
4402:
4391:
4339:
4324:
4313:
4302:
4199:
4180:
4121:
4109:
4090:
4078:
4059:
4028:
4009:
3990:
3959:
3940:
3921:
3890:
3871:
3852:
3821:
3802:
3783:
3771:
3679:
3648:
3636:
3617:
3598:
3532:
3520:
3501:
3489:
3470:
3439:
3420:
3401:
3344:
3325:
3313:
3256:
3237:
3215:
3201:
3187:
3135:and William Baxter (following
3080:
2956:), which conditioned syllabic
2795:
2788:
2781:
2774:
2767:
2760:
2753:
2746:
2739:
2732:
2617:, with subsequent lenition of
2599:
2593:
2522:
2507:
2475:
2464:
2447:
2436:
2419:
2408:
2364:
2331:
2316:
2291:
2251:
2236:
2219:
2204:
2135:
2120:
2103:
2088:
2073:
2040:
2028:
2010:
1999:
1659:
1648:
1430:
1405:
1387:
1366:
1352:
1340:
1328:
1301:
1287:
1275:
1263:
1231:
1219:
1203:
1191:
1179:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1122:
1110:
1098:
1086:
1063:
1051:
1039:
1027:
1015:
1003:
991:
970:
958:
946:
934:
922:
910:
898:
886:
124:Reconstructions of Old Chinese
1:
7827:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins,
6966:, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter,
6632:, pp. 180, 253–254, 813.
5192:
2587:were distinguished in modern
2368:⟩, which is reconstructed as
1979:Evidence from phonetic series
10057:List of varieties of Chinese
7984:Databases of reconstructions
7859:(in Russian), Moscow: Nauka.
7740:History of Chinese Phonetics
7194:, in Matisoff, James (ed.),
5810:, pp. 191–196, 203–206.
5006:
4994:
4970:
4948:
4805:Historical Chinese phonology
4779:
4769:
4763:
4754:
4539:
4431:
4420:
4407:
4396:
4362:
4356:
4350:
4249:
4242:
4223:
4217:
4211:
4192:
4159:
4152:
4133:
4102:
4071:
4040:
4021:
4002:
3971:
3952:
3933:
3902:
3883:
3864:
3833:
3814:
3795:
3752:
3745:
3738:
3731:
3712:
3705:
3698:
3691:
3660:
3629:
3610:
3577:
3570:
3563:
3544:
3513:
3482:
3451:
3432:
3413:
3382:
3375:
3356:
3337:
3294:
3287:
3268:
3249:
2931:
2896:
2890:
2871:
2864:
2857:
2850:
2843:
2605:
2583:
2569:
2563:
2557:
2527:
2512:
2498:
2480:
2469:
2452:
2441:
2424:
2413:
2336:
2321:
2306:
2296:
2270:
2256:
2241:
2224:
2209:
2140:
2125:
2108:
2093:
2078:
1967:are believed to result from
1963:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1927:
1707:
1701:
1670:
1642:The rhyme tables classified
1474:Co-occurrence of classes of
1441:
1410:
1392:
1371:
1357:
1345:
1333:
1306:
1292:
1280:
1268:
1236:
1224:
1208:
1196:
1184:
1163:
1151:
1139:
1127:
1115:
1103:
1091:
1068:
1056:
1044:
1032:
1020:
1008:
996:
975:
963:
951:
939:
927:
915:
903:
891:
7:
10323:Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect
7009:, Oxford University Press,
5124:
4798:
4344:
4329:
4318:
4307:
4204:
4185:
4126:
4114:
4095:
4083:
4064:
4033:
4014:
3995:
3964:
3945:
3926:
3895:
3876:
3857:
3826:
3807:
3788:
3776:
3684:
3653:
3641:
3622:
3603:
3537:
3525:
3506:
3494:
3475:
3444:
3425:
3406:
3349:
3330:
3318:
3261:
3242:
3220:
3206:
3192:
3075:
3001:of the initial consonant.
2988:'fast breath' respectively.
2978:
2966:
2176:
2170:
2034:
2022:
2016:
1972:
1949:. This is taken (following
1690:Early in the 20th century,
1664:
1653:
1435:
718:Phonological system of the
10:
10909:
10015:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
7769:(Song of the Yue boatman)"
7652:Starostin, George (2015),
7138:Haudricourt, André-Georges
6510:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
6336:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
6288:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
6060:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
5217:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
4366:). Although rhymes in the
4277:Tones and final consonants
4266:
4056:
3676:
1426:complementary distribution
724:
121:
10804:
10611:
10395:
10162:
10107:
10049:
9933:
9902:
9813:
9738:
9680:
9600:
9575:
9537:
9484:
9410:
9399:
9346:
9298:
9253:
9230:
9175:
9166:
9104:
9023:
8998:
8980:
8957:
8894:
8885:
8848:
8825:
8787:
8778:
8769:
8705:
8665:
8592:
8570:
8542:
8524:
8498:
8475:
8411:
8402:
8379:
8349:
8326:
8250:
8190:
8162:
8139:
8116:
8083:
8074:
8065:
8054:
7885:10.1017/S0362502800005873
7746:Shāngwù Yìnshūguǎn Chūbǎn
7677:10.31826/jlr-2016-133-412
7614:Schuessler, Axel (2007),
6673:, p. 48. Data from
4746:
4613:
4576:
4557:
4551:
4240:
4197:
4190:
4178:
4150:
4076:
4069:
4057:
4000:
3931:
3862:
3793:
3677:
3634:
3615:
3596:
3594:
3561:
3518:
3487:
3480:
3468:
3411:
3342:
3311:
3254:
3235:
3211:
3197:
3183:
3178:
3172:
3025:
2869:
2862:
2855:
2841:
2723:
2720:
2717:
2714:
2691:Evidence from Min Chinese
2543:with stops or stops with
2383:Voiceless nasal initials
2356:) was transcribed in the
2086:) 'cycle; Zhou dynasty',
1951:André-Georges Haudricourt
1835:
1780:
1740:
1711:) back onto Old Chinese.
1646:finals as either 'open' (
1583:
1528:
1488:
1378:
1245:
1172:
867:
821:
483:
426:
351:
215:
172:
167:
161:
156:
151:
10893:Sino-Tibetan phonologies
7924:
7825:The Roots of Old Chinese
7735:
7581:The Roots of Old Chinese
7331:
7258:, Paris: Paul Geuthner,
7222:
6326:, pp. 187, 219–220.
6302:, pp. 192–193, 197.
5918:, pp. 210–214, 280.
5172:in Chen Di (1541–1617),
4810:
3167:(see previous section).
2591:dialects. For example,
2395:are proposed (following
782:contain a sophisticated
10355:Regional North American
7992:, by Georgiy Starostin.
7866:"Old Chinese Phonology"
7276:Grammata Serica Recensa
7190:Handel, Zev J. (2003),
7111:Ferlus, Michel (2001),
7092:Dong, Hongyuan (2014),
6667:Pulleyblank (1977–1978)
6372:Pulleyblank (1977–1978)
5038:Grammata Serica Recensa
4853:The additional letters
3073:into ten rhyme groups (
2839:Middle Chinese initial
2217:) 'writing pencil' and
23:phonetic transcriptions
10789:Dialects and varieties
10350:Received Pronunciation
10190:American Sign Language
7785:10.3406/clao.1991.1345
7709:(in Russian), Moscow:
7075:10.1075/cilt.271.01bra
5648:, p. 837, n. 171.
5522:, pp. 56–57, 206.
5016:) as a single initial
3044:
2925:Type A and B syllables
2004:
1987:Page from a copy of a
690:an optional post-coda
81:Sino-Tibetan languages
20:This article contains
7969:, Leiden, March 2006.
7929:Old Chinese Phonology
7848:Drevnekitajskij jazyk
7761:Zhengzhang, Shangfang
7476:Pulleyblank, Edwin G.
6512:, pp. 43, 68–76.
5660:, pp. 32, 36–38.
5534:, pp. 55–56, 59.
5125:Tóng shēng bì tóng bù
4968:, and is merged with
3033:
2403:) in series such as:
2168:, and attributed the
2053:point of articulation
1986:
1865:Mixed and chongniu-3
1613:Mixed and chongniu-3
7693:Starostin, Sergei A.
7227:Hànyǔ Zhīshì Cóngshū
5978:, pp. 280, 775.
3129:Zhengzhang Shangfang
2354:Alexandria Arachosia
1841:Pure and chongniu-4
1678:Initials and medials
1589:Pure and chongniu-4
1478:initials and finals
52:of the most ancient
10714:Proto-Indo-European
10360:White South African
7979:, Paris, July 2007.
7902:on 31 December 2013
7748:, Beijing in 2008,
7180:English translation
7152:English translation
7025:Bodman, Nicholas C.
6945:, pp. 294–297.
6921:, pp. 323–324.
6909:, pp. 181–183.
6873:, pp. 225–227.
6871:Pulleyblank (1962b)
6861:, pp. 216–225.
6859:Pulleyblank (1962b)
6837:, pp. 308–317.
6825:, pp. 363–364.
6823:Haudricourt (1954b)
6811:Haudricourt (1954a)
6801:, pp. 340–342.
6789:, pp. 331–333.
6729:, pp. 304–305.
6681:, pp. 252–279.
6656:, pp. 560–562.
6608:, pp. 343–429.
6584:, pp. 243–247.
6572:, pp. 157–170.
6548:, pp. 155–157.
6524:, pp. 150–155.
6452:, pp. 160–161.
6413:, pp. 305–307.
6374:, pp. 183–185.
6362:, pp. 400–402.
6350:, pp. 287–290.
6278:, pp. 228–229.
6206:, pp. 209–210.
6194:, pp. 227–234.
6182:, pp. 241–243.
6072:Pulleyblank (1962a)
6062:, pp. 109–110.
5954:, pp. 110–111.
5952:Pulleyblank (1962a)
5942:, pp. 199–202.
5930:, pp. 240–241.
5904:Pulleyblank (1962a)
5858:, pp. 192–193.
5798:, pp. 228–232.
5747:, pp. 233–234.
5733:Haudricourt (1954b)
5699:, pp. 235–290.
5315:, pp. 178–185.
5303:, pp. 222–232.
5267:, pp. 188–215.
5096:, pp. 114–119.
5094:Pulleyblank (1962a)
5004:) is combined with
2370:*ʔa-ljək-srjan-rjaj
1925:The Middle Chinese
1784:Divisions I and IV
1731:
1532:Divisions I and IV
1479:
1445:in Middle Chinese.
818:
593:an optional medial
586:an optional medial
97:Tocharian languages
50:phonetic components
10010:Cantonese Bopomofo
9877:Chinese characters
9805:Written Sichuanese
8389:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
7250:Karlgren, Bernhard
6960:Baxter, William H.
6669:, p. 181 and
6426:Pulleyblank (1992)
5906:, pp. 98–107.
5174:Máo Shī Gǔ Yīn Kǎo
3045:
2976:'slow breath' and
2804:Proto-Min initial
2603:'after' were both
2555:As Middle Chinese
2005:
1729:
1473:
813:
131:minor presyllables
118:Syllable structure
54:Chinese characters
10875:
10874:
10365:Standard Canadian
10101:world's languages
10063:
10062:
10045:
10044:
9872:
9871:
9790:Written Cantonese
9785:
9784:
9567:Classical grammar
9562:Cantonese grammar
9397:
9396:
9294:
9293:
9100:
9099:
9019:
9018:
8881:
8880:
8588:
8587:
8375:
8374:
8265:Chengdu–Chongqing
8058:Sinitic languages
7990:StarLing database
7963:Guillaume Jacques
7938:978-7-5320-9244-4
7834:978-90-272-3690-6
7803:978-2-910216-04-7
7765:"Decipherment of
7754:978-7-100-05390-7
7720:978-5-02-016986-9
7644:978-0-8248-3264-3
7625:978-0-8248-2975-9
7436:978-0-521-29653-3
7417:978-90-04-07850-5
7265:978-0-486-21887-8
7241:978-7-100-00072-7
7207:978-0-520-09843-5
7184:Guillaume Jacques
7154:by Marc Brunelle)
7142:Journal Asiatique
7129:978-1-881044-34-5
7103:978-1-317-74389-7
7084:978-90-272-4785-8
7038:978-90-04-06130-9
7016:978-0-19-994537-5
7001:Baxter, William;
6973:978-3-11-012324-1
6849:, pp. 54–57.
6777:, pp. 27–30.
6741:, pp. 72–77.
6596:, pp. 42–43.
6594:Zhengzhang (2000)
6464:, pp. 48–57.
6462:Zhengzhang (2000)
6450:Zhengzhang (1991)
6399:Schuessler (2007)
6338:, pp. 91–93.
6242:, pp. 14–15.
6240:Zhengzhang (2000)
6218:, pp. 13–14.
6216:Zhengzhang (2000)
6036:Zhengzhang (2000)
5834:, pp. 45–85.
5820:Schuessler (2009)
5786:, pp. 43–44.
5723:, pp. 33–35.
5672:, pp. 64–81.
5636:, pp. 32–33.
5612:, pp. 77–79.
5510:, pp. 52–54.
5486:, pp. 54–55.
5462:, pp. 46–49.
5438:, pp. 12–13.
5436:Zhengzhang (2000)
5423:, pp. 45–59.
5411:, pp. 30–31.
5399:, pp. 34–42.
5387:, pp. 32–44.
5375:, pp. 28–34.
5363:, pp. 41–44.
5339:, pp. 33–35.
5327:, pp. 24–25.
5277:Schuessler (2007)
5229:Schuessler (2009)
5219:, pp. 50–53.
5068:Baxter's notation
5047:E. G. Pulleyblank
4777:proposed that MC
4750:
4749:
4274:
4273:
2999:pharyngealization
2935:back to a medial
2878:
2877:
2573:from Old Chinese
2520:) 'resemble' and
2401:Edwin Pulleyblank
2350:Alexandria Ariana
2049:Bernhard Karlgren
1892:
1891:
1674:or lip rounding.
1640:
1639:
1421:
1420:
1318:
1253:
1082:
987:
882:
816:Baxter's notation
648:
647:
569:
568:
534:
496:
460:
434:
394:
359:
316:
276:
230:
211:
206:
201:
194:
189:
182:
59:Classic of Poetry
10900:
10727:Kerkrade dialect
10340:General American
10090:
10083:
10076:
10067:
10066:
10055:
10054:
10027:Taiwanese Hangul
9916:Mainland Chinese
9829:
9828:
9820:
9819:
9745:
9744:
9422:Standard Chinese
9405:
9173:
9172:
8892:
8891:
8785:
8784:
8776:
8775:
8658:
8646:
8634:
8622:
8610:
8409:
8408:
8081:
8080:
8072:
8071:
8048:Chinese language
8041:
8034:
8027:
8018:
8017:
7942:
7914:Yakhontov (1965)
7911:
7909:
7907:
7901:
7895:, archived from
7870:
7860:
7858:
7838:
7807:
7788:
7743:
7724:
7708:
7688:
7663:, Book reviews,
7662:
7648:
7629:
7610:
7604:
7594:
7572:
7543:
7520:Monumenta Serica
7514:
7504:
7494:
7484:
7471:
7440:
7421:
7402:
7378:
7352:
7339:
7336:Qieyun phonology
7320:
7297:Monumenta Serica
7288:
7269:
7245:
7233:
7232:
7211:
7177:
7175:
7166:(2–3): 351–364,
7149:
7133:
7117:
7107:
7088:
7061:
7042:
7020:
6997:
6987:
6977:
6946:
6940:
6934:
6928:
6922:
6916:
6910:
6904:
6898:
6892:
6886:
6880:
6874:
6868:
6862:
6856:
6850:
6844:
6838:
6832:
6826:
6820:
6814:
6808:
6802:
6796:
6790:
6784:
6778:
6772:
6766:
6760:
6754:
6748:
6742:
6736:
6730:
6724:
6718:
6712:
6706:
6700:
6694:
6688:
6682:
6663:
6657:
6651:
6645:
6639:
6633:
6627:
6621:
6615:
6609:
6606:Starostin (1989)
6603:
6597:
6591:
6585:
6579:
6573:
6567:
6561:
6555:
6549:
6543:
6537:
6531:
6525:
6519:
6513:
6507:
6501:
6495:
6489:
6483:
6477:
6474:Starostin (2015)
6471:
6465:
6459:
6453:
6447:
6441:
6435:
6429:
6423:
6414:
6408:
6402:
6396:
6390:
6384:
6375:
6369:
6363:
6357:
6351:
6345:
6339:
6333:
6327:
6321:
6315:
6309:
6303:
6297:
6291:
6285:
6279:
6273:
6267:
6261:
6255:
6249:
6243:
6237:
6231:
6225:
6219:
6213:
6207:
6201:
6195:
6189:
6183:
6177:
6171:
6165:
6159:
6153:
6147:
6141:
6135:
6129:
6123:
6117:
6111:
6105:
6099:
6093:
6087:
6081:
6075:
6069:
6063:
6057:
6051:
6045:
6039:
6033:
6027:
6021:
6015:
6009:
6003:
5997:
5991:
5985:
5979:
5973:
5967:
5961:
5955:
5949:
5943:
5937:
5931:
5925:
5919:
5913:
5907:
5901:
5895:
5889:
5883:
5877:
5871:
5865:
5859:
5853:
5847:
5841:
5835:
5829:
5823:
5817:
5811:
5805:
5799:
5793:
5787:
5781:
5772:
5766:
5760:
5754:
5748:
5742:
5736:
5730:
5724:
5718:
5712:
5706:
5700:
5694:
5688:
5682:
5673:
5667:
5661:
5655:
5649:
5643:
5637:
5631:
5625:
5619:
5613:
5607:
5601:
5595:
5589:
5583:
5574:
5568:
5562:
5556:
5547:
5541:
5535:
5529:
5523:
5517:
5511:
5505:
5499:
5493:
5487:
5481:
5475:
5469:
5463:
5457:
5451:
5445:
5439:
5433:
5424:
5418:
5412:
5406:
5400:
5394:
5388:
5382:
5376:
5370:
5364:
5358:
5352:
5346:
5340:
5334:
5328:
5322:
5316:
5310:
5304:
5298:
5292:
5286:
5280:
5274:
5268:
5262:
5256:
5250:
5244:
5238:
5232:
5226:
5220:
5214:
5208:
5202:
5186:
5180:
5179:
5171:
5163:
5157:
5155:
5154:
5148:
5142:
5135:
5129:
5127:
5122:
5121:
5116:
5110:
5103:
5097:
5090:
5084:
5082:
5077:
5071:
5064:
5058:
5029:
5023:
5021:
5020:
5015:
5014:
5009:
5003:
5002:
4997:
4990:
4981:
4973:
4963:
4957:
4951:
4944:
4938:
4936:
4935:
4930:
4929:
4923:
4914:
4911:
4905:
4902:
4896:
4885:
4879:
4872:
4866:
4851:
4845:
4842:
4836:
4834:
4830:
4821:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4775:Sergei Starostin
4772:
4767:alternates with
4766:
4757:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4717:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4609:
4608:
4602:
4601:
4595:
4594:
4588:
4587:
4581:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4567:
4566:
4552:MC vocalic coda
4549:
4548:
4542:
4517:
4513:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4461:
4456:
4455:
4446:
4442:
4434:
4429:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4417:
4410:
4405:
4404:
4400:'depend on' and
4399:
4394:
4393:
4379:(1744–1832) and
4365:
4359:
4353:
4347:
4342:
4341:
4332:
4327:
4326:
4322:), 'departing' (
4321:
4316:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4304:
4269:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4245:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4220:
4214:
4207:
4202:
4201:
4195:
4188:
4183:
4182:
4174:
4169:
4162:
4155:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4129:
4124:
4123:
4117:
4112:
4111:
4105:
4098:
4093:
4092:
4086:
4081:
4080:
4074:
4067:
4062:
4061:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4036:
4031:
4030:
4024:
4017:
4012:
4011:
4005:
3998:
3993:
3992:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3967:
3962:
3961:
3955:
3948:
3943:
3942:
3936:
3929:
3924:
3923:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3898:
3893:
3892:
3886:
3879:
3874:
3873:
3867:
3860:
3855:
3854:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3829:
3824:
3823:
3817:
3810:
3805:
3804:
3798:
3791:
3786:
3785:
3779:
3774:
3773:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3748:
3741:
3734:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3708:
3701:
3694:
3687:
3682:
3681:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3656:
3651:
3650:
3644:
3639:
3638:
3632:
3625:
3620:
3619:
3613:
3606:
3601:
3600:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3573:
3566:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3540:
3535:
3534:
3528:
3523:
3522:
3516:
3509:
3504:
3503:
3497:
3492:
3491:
3485:
3478:
3473:
3472:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3447:
3442:
3441:
3435:
3428:
3423:
3422:
3416:
3409:
3404:
3403:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3378:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3352:
3347:
3346:
3340:
3333:
3328:
3327:
3321:
3316:
3315:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3290:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3264:
3259:
3258:
3252:
3245:
3240:
3239:
3223:
3218:
3217:
3209:
3204:
3203:
3195:
3190:
3189:
3170:
3169:
3166:
3162:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3133:Sergei Starostin
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3083:
3082:
3078:
3016:
2981:
2969:
2951:
2947:
2938:
2934:
2899:
2893:
2887:
2883:
2874:
2867:
2860:
2853:
2846:
2799:
2792:
2785:
2778:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2715:Voiceless stops
2710:
2709:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2601:
2596:
2595:
2586:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2560:
2546:
2542:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2509:
2501:
2495:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2466:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2449:
2445:'difficult' and
2444:
2439:
2438:
2431:
2427:
2422:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2410:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2371:
2367:
2366:
2343:
2339:
2334:
2333:
2329:) 'pleased' and
2328:
2324:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2309:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2293:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2253:
2249:) 'look at' and
2248:
2244:
2239:
2238:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2206:
2198:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2173:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2137:
2133:) 'cut out' and
2132:
2128:
2123:
2122:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2090:
2085:
2081:
2076:
2075:
2063:
2059:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2012:
2002:
2001:
1966:
1955:Sergei Yakhontov
1948:
1942:
1936:
1930:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1732:
1728:
1725:
1721:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1673:
1667:
1662:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1650:
1480:
1472:
1444:
1438:
1433:
1432:
1413:
1408:
1407:
1395:
1390:
1389:
1374:
1369:
1368:
1360:
1355:
1354:
1348:
1343:
1342:
1336:
1331:
1330:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1303:
1295:
1290:
1289:
1283:
1278:
1277:
1271:
1266:
1265:
1251:
1239:
1234:
1233:
1227:
1222:
1221:
1211:
1206:
1205:
1199:
1194:
1193:
1187:
1182:
1181:
1166:
1161:
1160:
1154:
1149:
1148:
1142:
1137:
1136:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1118:
1113:
1112:
1106:
1101:
1100:
1094:
1089:
1088:
1078:
1071:
1066:
1065:
1059:
1054:
1053:
1047:
1042:
1041:
1035:
1030:
1029:
1023:
1018:
1017:
1011:
1006:
1005:
999:
994:
993:
983:
978:
973:
972:
966:
961:
960:
954:
949:
948:
942:
937:
936:
930:
925:
924:
918:
913:
912:
906:
901:
900:
894:
889:
888:
878:
819:
812:
786:analysis of the
743:rhyme dictionary
697:
693:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
644:
639:
634:
627:
622:
617:
612:
611:
596:
589:
574:
565:
560:
551:
546:
541:
532:
527:
522:
513:
508:
503:
494:
467:
458:
441:
432:
418:
413:
404:
399:
392:
383:
378:
369:
364:
357:
343:
338:
331:
326:
321:
312:
303:
298:
291:
286:
281:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
245:
240:
235:
226:
209:
204:
197:
192:
185:
180:
147:
146:
10908:
10907:
10903:
10902:
10901:
10899:
10898:
10897:
10878:
10877:
10876:
10871:
10800:
10754:Scottish Gaelic
10607:
10451:Standard Modern
10391:
10198:Modern Standard
10158:
10103:
10094:
10064:
10059:
10041:
9978:Tongyong Pinyin
9958:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
9946:Dungan Cyrillic
9929:
9898:
9868:
9809:
9800:Written Hokkien
9781:
9740:
9734:
9710:Middle Mandarin
9676:
9596:
9571:
9533:
9480:
9413:
9406:
9393:
9342:
9290:
9249:
9226:
9162:
9096:
9015:
8994:
8976:
8953:
8877:
8844:
8821:
8765:
8701:
8661:
8652:
8640:
8628:
8616:
8604:
8584:
8566:
8538:
8520:
8494:
8471:
8398:
8371:
8345:
8322:
8246:
8186:
8158:
8135:
8112:
8061:
8050:
8045:
7950:
7945:
7939:
7926:
7919:
7905:
7903:
7899:
7868:
7863:
7856:
7843:Yakhontov, S.E.
7835:
7821:Sagart, Laurent
7819:
7815:
7813:Further reading
7810:
7804:
7737:
7733:Hànyǔ Yǔyīn Shǐ
7721:
7706:
7660:
7645:
7626:
7602:
7591:
7577:Sagart, Laurent
7502:
7482:
7437:
7418:
7367:10.2307/2718766
7350:
7333:
7266:
7242:
7224:
7208:
7130:
7115:
7104:
7085:
7058:
7039:
7017:
7003:Sagart, Laurent
6985:
6974:
6954:
6949:
6941:
6937:
6929:
6925:
6917:
6913:
6905:
6901:
6893:
6889:
6881:
6877:
6869:
6865:
6857:
6853:
6845:
6841:
6833:
6829:
6821:
6817:
6809:
6805:
6797:
6793:
6785:
6781:
6775:Karlgren (1923)
6773:
6769:
6761:
6757:
6749:
6745:
6737:
6733:
6725:
6721:
6713:
6709:
6701:
6697:
6689:
6685:
6664:
6660:
6652:
6648:
6640:
6636:
6628:
6624:
6616:
6612:
6604:
6600:
6592:
6588:
6580:
6576:
6568:
6564:
6556:
6552:
6544:
6540:
6532:
6528:
6520:
6516:
6508:
6504:
6496:
6492:
6484:
6480:
6472:
6468:
6460:
6456:
6448:
6444:
6436:
6432:
6424:
6417:
6409:
6405:
6397:
6393:
6385:
6378:
6370:
6366:
6358:
6354:
6346:
6342:
6334:
6330:
6322:
6318:
6310:
6306:
6298:
6294:
6286:
6282:
6274:
6270:
6262:
6258:
6250:
6246:
6238:
6234:
6226:
6222:
6214:
6210:
6202:
6198:
6190:
6186:
6178:
6174:
6166:
6162:
6154:
6150:
6142:
6138:
6130:
6126:
6118:
6114:
6106:
6102:
6094:
6090:
6082:
6078:
6070:
6066:
6058:
6054:
6046:
6042:
6034:
6030:
6022:
6018:
6010:
6006:
5998:
5994:
5986:
5982:
5974:
5970:
5962:
5958:
5950:
5946:
5938:
5934:
5926:
5922:
5914:
5910:
5902:
5898:
5890:
5886:
5878:
5874:
5866:
5862:
5854:
5850:
5842:
5838:
5830:
5826:
5818:
5814:
5806:
5802:
5794:
5790:
5782:
5775:
5767:
5763:
5755:
5751:
5743:
5739:
5731:
5727:
5719:
5715:
5707:
5703:
5695:
5691:
5683:
5676:
5668:
5664:
5656:
5652:
5644:
5640:
5632:
5628:
5620:
5616:
5608:
5604:
5596:
5592:
5584:
5577:
5569:
5565:
5557:
5550:
5542:
5538:
5530:
5526:
5518:
5514:
5506:
5502:
5494:
5490:
5482:
5478:
5470:
5466:
5458:
5454:
5446:
5442:
5434:
5427:
5419:
5415:
5407:
5403:
5395:
5391:
5383:
5379:
5371:
5367:
5359:
5355:
5347:
5343:
5335:
5331:
5323:
5319:
5311:
5307:
5299:
5295:
5287:
5283:
5275:
5271:
5263:
5259:
5251:
5247:
5239:
5235:
5227:
5223:
5215:
5211:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5190:
5189:
5164:
5160:
5149:
5145:
5136:
5132:
5117:
5113:
5107:minor syllables
5104:
5100:
5091:
5087:
5078:
5074:
5065:
5061:
5033:Grammata Serica
5030:
5026:
4991:
4984:
4945:
4941:
4924:
4917:
4912:
4908:
4903:
4899:
4886:
4882:
4873:
4869:
4852:
4848:
4843:
4839:
4822:
4818:
4813:
4801:
4279:
4119:
4088:
3781:
3646:
3530:
3499:
3323:
3213:
3199:
3185:
3184:MC vocalic coda
3137:Nicholas Bodman
3028:
3009:, were in fact
2927:
2693:
2640:and fricatives
2553:
2488:) 'to ridicule'
2374:Waxiang dialect
2362:chapter 96 as ⟨
1991:edition of the
1981:
1837:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1688:
1680:
1657:) or 'closed' (
1585:
1514:
1509:
1504:
872:
847:
842:
837:
733:
727:Rime dictionary
723:
710:are treated as
488:
220:
165:
126:
120:
77:rime dictionary
38:
37:
36:
12:
11:
5:
10906:
10896:
10895:
10890:
10873:
10872:
10870:
10869:
10864:
10859:
10854:
10849:
10844:
10839:
10834:
10829:
10824:
10819:
10814:
10808:
10806:
10802:
10801:
10799:
10798:
10793:
10792:
10791:
10781:
10776:
10771:
10766:
10761:
10759:Serbo-Croatian
10756:
10751:
10746:
10741:
10736:
10731:
10730:
10729:
10724:
10716:
10711:
10706:
10701:
10696:
10691:
10686:
10681:
10676:
10671:
10666:
10661:
10656:
10651:
10646:
10641:
10636:
10631:
10626:
10621:
10615:
10613:
10609:
10608:
10606:
10605:
10600:
10595:
10594:
10593:
10585:
10580:
10575:
10570:
10565:
10560:
10555:
10550:
10545:
10540:
10535:
10530:
10525:
10520:
10515:
10510:
10505:
10504:
10503:
10498:
10493:
10488:
10480:
10475:
10470:
10465:
10464:
10463:
10458:
10453:
10445:
10444:
10443:
10438:
10430:
10425:
10424:
10423:
10418:
10410:
10405:
10399:
10397:
10393:
10392:
10390:
10389:
10384:
10379:
10378:
10377:
10372:
10367:
10362:
10357:
10352:
10347:
10342:
10337:
10327:
10326:
10325:
10320:
10312:
10307:
10302:
10297:
10292:
10291:
10290:
10285:
10280:
10275:
10270:
10265:
10257:
10252:
10247:
10242:
10237:
10232:
10227:
10226:
10225:
10220:
10215:
10210:
10205:
10200:
10192:
10187:
10182:
10177:
10172:
10166:
10164:
10160:
10159:
10157:
10156:
10155:
10154:
10149:
10144:
10139:
10134:
10129:
10119:
10114:
10108:
10105:
10104:
10093:
10092:
10085:
10078:
10070:
10061:
10060:
10050:
10047:
10046:
10043:
10042:
10040:
10039:
10034:
10029:
10024:
10022:Taiwanese kana
10019:
10018:
10017:
10012:
10002:
10001:
10000:
9995:
9993:Lessing-Othmer
9990:
9985:
9980:
9975:
9970:
9965:
9960:
9950:
9949:
9948:
9937:
9935:
9931:
9930:
9928:
9923:
9918:
9913:
9908:
9906:
9900:
9899:
9897:
9896:
9891:
9890:
9889:
9884:
9873:
9870:
9869:
9867:
9862:
9857:
9852:
9847:
9842:
9837:
9835:
9826:
9817:
9811:
9810:
9808:
9807:
9802:
9797:
9795:Written Dungan
9792:
9786:
9783:
9782:
9780:
9779:
9774:
9773:
9772:
9767:
9762:
9751:
9749:
9742:
9736:
9735:
9733:
9732:
9727:
9722:
9717:
9712:
9707:
9702:
9700:Middle Chinese
9697:
9692:
9686:
9684:
9678:
9677:
9675:
9674:
9669:
9667:Wubi (Wang Ma)
9664:
9659:
9658:
9657:
9652:
9647:
9637:
9632:
9627:
9626:
9625:
9615:
9612:
9606:
9604:
9598:
9597:
9595:
9594:
9587:
9579:
9577:
9573:
9572:
9570:
9569:
9564:
9559:
9554:
9549:
9543:
9541:
9535:
9534:
9532:
9531:
9526:
9521:
9516:
9511:
9506:
9501:
9500:
9499:
9488:
9486:
9482:
9481:
9479:
9478:
9473:
9468:
9463:
9462:
9461:
9460:
9459:
9454:
9444:
9439:
9434:
9429:
9418:
9416:
9408:
9407:
9400:
9398:
9395:
9394:
9392:
9391:
9386:
9384:Xiangnan Tuhua
9381:
9376:
9371:
9369:Shaozhou Tuhua
9366:
9361:
9356:
9350:
9348:
9344:
9343:
9341:
9340:
9339:
9338:
9333:
9328:
9320:
9319:
9318:
9313:
9304:
9302:
9296:
9295:
9292:
9291:
9289:
9288:
9283:
9278:
9273:
9268:
9263:
9257:
9255:
9251:
9250:
9248:
9247:
9242:
9236:
9234:
9228:
9227:
9225:
9224:
9219:
9214:
9209:
9204:
9199:
9198:
9197:
9192:
9181:
9179:
9170:
9164:
9163:
9161:
9160:
9159:
9158:
9153:
9148:
9138:
9137:
9136:
9126:
9121:
9116:
9110:
9108:
9102:
9101:
9098:
9097:
9095:
9094:
9093:
9092:
9087:
9082:
9072:
9071:
9070:
9060:
9055:
9050:
9045:
9044:
9043:
9038:
9027:
9025:
9021:
9020:
9017:
9016:
9014:
9013:
9008:
9002:
9000:
8996:
8995:
8993:
8992:
8986:
8984:
8978:
8977:
8975:
8974:
8969:
8963:
8961:
8955:
8954:
8952:
8951:
8946:
8941:
8936:
8931:
8926:
8921:
8916:
8911:
8906:
8900:
8898:
8889:
8883:
8882:
8879:
8878:
8876:
8875:
8874:
8873:
8868:
8858:
8852:
8850:
8846:
8845:
8843:
8842:
8837:
8831:
8829:
8823:
8822:
8820:
8819:
8814:
8809:
8804:
8799:
8793:
8791:
8782:
8773:
8767:
8766:
8764:
8763:
8762:
8761:
8751:
8746:
8745:
8744:
8739:
8734:
8724:
8723:
8722:
8711:
8709:
8703:
8702:
8700:
8699:
8694:
8689:
8684:
8683:
8682:
8671:
8669:
8663:
8662:
8660:
8659:
8647:
8635:
8623:
8611:
8598:
8596:
8590:
8589:
8586:
8585:
8583:
8582:
8576:
8574:
8568:
8567:
8565:
8564:
8559:
8554:
8548:
8546:
8540:
8539:
8537:
8536:
8530:
8528:
8522:
8521:
8519:
8518:
8513:
8508:
8502:
8500:
8496:
8495:
8493:
8492:
8487:
8481:
8479:
8473:
8472:
8470:
8469:
8464:
8459:
8454:
8449:
8444:
8438:
8433:
8428:
8423:
8417:
8415:
8406:
8400:
8399:
8397:
8396:
8391:
8385:
8383:
8377:
8376:
8373:
8372:
8370:
8369:
8364:
8359:
8353:
8351:
8347:
8346:
8344:
8343:
8338:
8332:
8330:
8324:
8323:
8321:
8320:
8319:
8318:
8308:
8303:
8298:
8293:
8292:
8291:
8290:
8289:
8282:Renshou–Fushun
8279:
8278:
8277:
8267:
8256:
8254:
8248:
8247:
8245:
8244:
8239:
8234:
8229:
8224:
8219:
8218:
8217:
8207:
8202:
8196:
8194:
8192:Central Plains
8188:
8187:
8185:
8184:
8179:
8174:
8168:
8166:
8160:
8159:
8157:
8156:
8151:
8145:
8143:
8137:
8136:
8134:
8133:
8128:
8122:
8120:
8114:
8113:
8111:
8110:
8105:
8100:
8095:
8089:
8087:
8078:
8069:
8063:
8062:
8055:
8052:
8051:
8044:
8043:
8036:
8029:
8021:
8015:
8014:
8009:
8007:小學堂上古音 - 中央研究院
8004:
7999:
7993:
7981:
7980:
7970:
7949:
7948:External links
7946:
7944:
7943:
7937:
7917:
7861:
7839:
7833:
7816:
7814:
7811:
7809:
7808:
7802:
7789:
7779:(2): 159–168,
7757:
7725:
7719:
7689:
7671:(4): 383–389,
7649:
7643:
7630:
7624:
7611:
7595:
7589:
7573:
7561:10.2307/603076
7555:(3): 365–382,
7544:
7515:
7495:
7472:
7460:10.2307/605083
7454:(3): 397–408,
7441:
7435:
7422:
7416:
7403:
7393:(2): 222–238,
7379:
7340:
7321:
7289:
7270:
7264:
7246:
7240:
7212:
7206:
7187:
7155:
7134:
7128:
7108:
7102:
7089:
7083:
7062:
7056:
7043:
7037:
7021:
7015:
6998:
6978:
6972:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6947:
6935:
6933:, p. 843.
6923:
6911:
6899:
6897:, p. 322.
6887:
6875:
6863:
6851:
6839:
6827:
6815:
6803:
6791:
6779:
6767:
6755:
6743:
6731:
6719:
6717:, p. 303.
6707:
6705:, p. 389.
6695:
6693:, p. 141.
6683:
6679:Li (1974–1975)
6658:
6646:
6634:
6622:
6610:
6598:
6586:
6582:Li (1974–1975)
6574:
6562:
6560:, p. 831.
6550:
6538:
6526:
6514:
6502:
6490:
6478:
6476:, p. 388.
6466:
6454:
6442:
6440:, p. 550.
6430:
6428:, p. 379.
6415:
6403:
6391:
6389:, p. 400.
6376:
6364:
6352:
6340:
6328:
6316:
6314:, p. 381.
6304:
6292:
6280:
6268:
6256:
6244:
6232:
6220:
6208:
6196:
6184:
6180:Li (1974–1975)
6172:
6170:, p. 222.
6160:
6148:
6146:, p. 208.
6136:
6124:
6122:, p. 193.
6112:
6100:
6098:, p. 189.
6088:
6076:
6064:
6052:
6040:
6028:
6026:, p. 197.
6016:
6004:
6002:, p. 201.
5992:
5980:
5968:
5956:
5944:
5932:
5928:Li (1974–1975)
5920:
5908:
5896:
5884:
5882:, p. 211.
5872:
5860:
5848:
5836:
5824:
5812:
5800:
5796:Li (1974–1975)
5788:
5773:
5761:
5759:, p. 180.
5749:
5745:Li (1974–1975)
5737:
5735:, p. 359.
5725:
5713:
5701:
5689:
5687:, p. 555.
5674:
5662:
5650:
5638:
5634:Branner (2006)
5626:
5614:
5602:
5598:Branner (2006)
5590:
5588:, p. 288.
5575:
5563:
5548:
5544:Branner (2000)
5536:
5524:
5512:
5500:
5488:
5476:
5464:
5452:
5440:
5425:
5413:
5401:
5389:
5377:
5365:
5353:
5341:
5329:
5317:
5305:
5293:
5291:, p. 203.
5281:
5279:, p. 122.
5269:
5257:
5245:
5243:, p. 237.
5241:Li (1974–1975)
5233:
5221:
5209:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5188:
5187:
5158:
5143:
5130:
5111:
5098:
5085:
5083:in such cases.
5072:
5059:
5055:William Baxter
5024:
4982:
4939:
4915:
4906:
4897:
4880:
4867:
4846:
4837:
4815:
4814:
4812:
4809:
4808:
4807:
4800:
4797:
4748:
4747:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4719:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4677:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4635:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4611:
4610:
4603:
4596:
4589:
4582:
4575:
4568:
4560:
4559:
4558:MC nasal coda
4556:
4553:
4522:into Chinese.
4437:
4436:
4435:'cut; engrave'
4412:
4278:
4275:
4272:
4271:
4264:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4246:
4238:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4208:
4196:
4189:
4176:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4163:
4156:
4148:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4130:
4106:
4099:
4075:
4068:
4055:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4037:
4025:
4018:
4006:
3999:
3986:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3968:
3956:
3949:
3937:
3930:
3917:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3899:
3887:
3880:
3868:
3861:
3848:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3830:
3818:
3811:
3799:
3792:
3767:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3749:
3742:
3735:
3727:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3709:
3702:
3695:
3688:
3675:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3657:
3633:
3626:
3614:
3607:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3574:
3567:
3559:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3541:
3517:
3510:
3486:
3479:
3466:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3448:
3436:
3429:
3417:
3410:
3397:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3379:
3371:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3353:
3341:
3334:
3309:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3291:
3283:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3265:
3253:
3246:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3210:
3196:
3181:
3180:
3177:
3027:
3024:
3023:
3022:
2996:
2989:
2961:
2954:minor syllable
2926:
2923:
2876:
2875:
2868:
2861:
2854:
2847:
2840:
2836:
2835:
2832:
2829:
2826:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2808:
2805:
2801:
2800:
2793:
2786:
2779:
2772:
2765:
2758:
2751:
2744:
2737:
2730:
2726:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2692:
2689:
2648:, he proposed
2552:
2549:
2537:
2536:
2490:
2489:
2461:
2433:
2346:
2345:
2314:) 'peel off',
2266:
2265:
2233:
2150:
2149:
2117:
2101:) 'carve' and
1980:
1977:
1890:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1750:
1746:
1745:
1739:
1687:
1684:
1679:
1676:
1638:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1487:
1419:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1384:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1363:
1361:
1349:
1337:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1311:
1310:
1298:
1296:
1284:
1272:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1228:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1200:
1188:
1176:
1170:
1169:
1167:
1155:
1143:
1131:
1119:
1107:
1095:
1083:
1075:
1074:
1072:
1060:
1048:
1036:
1024:
1012:
1000:
988:
980:
979:
967:
955:
943:
931:
919:
907:
895:
883:
876:
865:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
839:
832:
827:
822:
722:
716:
708:Middle Chinese
700:
699:
688:
646:
645:
640:
635:
629:
628:
623:
618:
610:
609:
602:
591:
567:
566:
561:
556:
554:
552:
547:
542:
537:
535:
529:
528:
523:
518:
516:
514:
509:
504:
499:
497:
492:
481:
480:
478:
476:
474:
472:
470:
468:
463:
461:
455:
454:
452:
450:
448:
446:
444:
442:
437:
435:
430:
424:
423:
421:
419:
414:
409:
407:
405:
400:
395:
389:
388:
386:
384:
379:
374:
372:
370:
365:
360:
355:
349:
348:
346:
344:
339:
334:
332:
327:
322:
317:
309:
308:
306:
304:
299:
294:
292:
287:
282:
277:
269:
268:
263:
258:
253:
248:
246:
241:
236:
231:
224:
213:
212:
207:
202:
195:
190:
183:
177:
176:
171:
166:
160:
155:
150:
142:William Baxter
119:
116:
68:Middle Chinese
19:
18:
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10905:
10894:
10891:
10889:
10886:
10885:
10883:
10868:
10865:
10863:
10860:
10858:
10855:
10853:
10850:
10848:
10845:
10843:
10840:
10838:
10835:
10833:
10830:
10828:
10825:
10823:
10820:
10818:
10815:
10813:
10810:
10809:
10807:
10803:
10797:
10794:
10790:
10787:
10786:
10785:
10782:
10780:
10777:
10775:
10772:
10770:
10767:
10765:
10762:
10760:
10757:
10755:
10752:
10750:
10747:
10745:
10742:
10740:
10737:
10735:
10732:
10728:
10725:
10723:
10720:
10719:
10717:
10715:
10712:
10710:
10707:
10705:
10702:
10700:
10697:
10695:
10692:
10690:
10687:
10685:
10682:
10680:
10677:
10675:
10672:
10670:
10667:
10665:
10662:
10660:
10657:
10655:
10652:
10650:
10647:
10645:
10642:
10640:
10637:
10635:
10632:
10630:
10627:
10625:
10622:
10620:
10617:
10616:
10614:
10610:
10604:
10603:Luxembourgish
10601:
10599:
10596:
10592:
10591:Maastrichtian
10589:
10588:
10586:
10584:
10581:
10579:
10576:
10574:
10571:
10569:
10566:
10564:
10561:
10559:
10556:
10554:
10551:
10549:
10546:
10544:
10541:
10539:
10536:
10534:
10531:
10529:
10526:
10524:
10521:
10519:
10516:
10514:
10511:
10509:
10506:
10502:
10499:
10497:
10494:
10492:
10489:
10487:
10484:
10483:
10481:
10479:
10476:
10474:
10471:
10469:
10466:
10462:
10459:
10457:
10454:
10452:
10449:
10448:
10446:
10442:
10439:
10437:
10434:
10433:
10431:
10429:
10426:
10422:
10419:
10417:
10414:
10413:
10411:
10409:
10406:
10404:
10401:
10400:
10398:
10394:
10388:
10385:
10383:
10380:
10376:
10373:
10371:
10368:
10366:
10363:
10361:
10358:
10356:
10353:
10351:
10348:
10346:
10343:
10341:
10338:
10336:
10333:
10332:
10331:
10328:
10324:
10321:
10319:
10316:
10315:
10313:
10311:
10308:
10306:
10303:
10301:
10298:
10296:
10293:
10289:
10286:
10284:
10281:
10279:
10276:
10274:
10271:
10269:
10266:
10264:
10261:
10260:
10258:
10256:
10253:
10251:
10248:
10246:
10243:
10241:
10238:
10236:
10233:
10231:
10228:
10224:
10221:
10219:
10216:
10214:
10211:
10209:
10206:
10204:
10201:
10199:
10196:
10195:
10193:
10191:
10188:
10186:
10183:
10181:
10178:
10176:
10173:
10171:
10168:
10167:
10165:
10161:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10145:
10143:
10140:
10138:
10135:
10133:
10130:
10128:
10125:
10124:
10123:
10120:
10118:
10117:Orthographies
10115:
10113:
10110:
10109:
10106:
10102:
10098:
10091:
10086:
10084:
10079:
10077:
10072:
10071:
10068:
10058:
10048:
10038:
10035:
10033:
10030:
10028:
10025:
10023:
10020:
10016:
10013:
10011:
10008:
10007:
10006:
10003:
9999:
9996:
9994:
9991:
9989:
9986:
9984:
9981:
9979:
9976:
9974:
9971:
9969:
9966:
9964:
9961:
9959:
9956:
9955:
9954:
9951:
9947:
9944:
9943:
9942:
9941:Cyrillization
9939:
9938:
9936:
9932:
9927:
9924:
9922:
9919:
9917:
9914:
9912:
9909:
9907:
9905:
9901:
9895:
9892:
9888:
9885:
9883:
9880:
9879:
9878:
9875:
9874:
9866:
9863:
9861:
9858:
9856:
9853:
9851:
9848:
9846:
9843:
9841:
9838:
9836:
9834:
9833:Script styles
9830:
9827:
9825:
9821:
9818:
9816:
9812:
9806:
9803:
9801:
9798:
9796:
9793:
9791:
9788:
9787:
9778:
9775:
9771:
9768:
9766:
9763:
9761:
9758:
9757:
9756:
9753:
9752:
9750:
9746:
9743:
9737:
9731:
9728:
9726:
9723:
9721:
9718:
9716:
9713:
9711:
9708:
9706:
9703:
9701:
9698:
9696:
9693:
9691:
9688:
9687:
9685:
9683:
9679:
9673:
9670:
9668:
9665:
9663:
9660:
9656:
9653:
9651:
9648:
9646:
9643:
9642:
9641:
9638:
9636:
9633:
9631:
9628:
9624:
9621:
9620:
9619:
9616:
9613:
9611:
9608:
9607:
9605:
9603:
9599:
9593:
9592:
9588:
9586:
9585:
9581:
9580:
9578:
9574:
9568:
9565:
9563:
9560:
9558:
9555:
9553:
9550:
9548:
9545:
9544:
9542:
9540:
9536:
9530:
9527:
9525:
9522:
9520:
9517:
9515:
9512:
9510:
9507:
9505:
9502:
9498:
9495:
9494:
9493:
9490:
9489:
9487:
9483:
9477:
9474:
9472:
9469:
9467:
9464:
9458:
9455:
9453:
9450:
9449:
9448:
9445:
9443:
9440:
9438:
9435:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9425:
9424:
9423:
9420:
9419:
9417:
9415:
9409:
9404:
9390:
9387:
9385:
9382:
9380:
9377:
9375:
9372:
9370:
9367:
9365:
9362:
9360:
9357:
9355:
9352:
9351:
9349:
9345:
9337:
9334:
9332:
9329:
9327:
9324:
9323:
9321:
9317:
9314:
9312:
9309:
9308:
9306:
9305:
9303:
9301:
9297:
9287:
9284:
9282:
9279:
9277:
9274:
9272:
9269:
9267:
9264:
9262:
9259:
9258:
9256:
9252:
9246:
9243:
9241:
9238:
9237:
9235:
9233:
9229:
9223:
9220:
9218:
9215:
9213:
9210:
9208:
9205:
9203:
9200:
9196:
9193:
9191:
9188:
9187:
9186:
9183:
9182:
9180:
9178:
9174:
9171:
9169:
9165:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9143:
9142:
9139:
9135:
9132:
9131:
9130:
9127:
9125:
9122:
9120:
9117:
9115:
9112:
9111:
9109:
9107:
9103:
9091:
9088:
9086:
9083:
9081:
9078:
9077:
9076:
9073:
9069:
9066:
9065:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9054:
9051:
9049:
9046:
9042:
9039:
9037:
9034:
9033:
9032:
9029:
9028:
9026:
9022:
9012:
9009:
9007:
9004:
9003:
9001:
8997:
8991:
8988:
8987:
8985:
8983:
8979:
8973:
8970:
8968:
8965:
8964:
8962:
8960:
8956:
8950:
8947:
8945:
8942:
8940:
8937:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8920:
8917:
8915:
8912:
8910:
8907:
8905:
8902:
8901:
8899:
8897:
8893:
8890:
8888:
8884:
8872:
8869:
8867:
8864:
8863:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8854:
8853:
8851:
8847:
8841:
8838:
8836:
8833:
8832:
8830:
8828:
8824:
8818:
8815:
8813:
8810:
8808:
8805:
8803:
8800:
8798:
8795:
8794:
8792:
8790:
8786:
8783:
8781:
8777:
8774:
8772:
8768:
8760:
8757:
8756:
8755:
8752:
8750:
8747:
8743:
8740:
8738:
8735:
8733:
8730:
8729:
8728:
8725:
8721:
8718:
8717:
8716:
8713:
8712:
8710:
8708:
8704:
8698:
8695:
8693:
8690:
8688:
8685:
8681:
8678:
8677:
8676:
8673:
8672:
8670:
8668:
8664:
8656:
8651:
8648:
8644:
8639:
8636:
8632:
8627:
8624:
8620:
8615:
8612:
8608:
8603:
8600:
8599:
8597:
8595:
8591:
8581:
8578:
8577:
8575:
8573:
8569:
8563:
8560:
8558:
8555:
8553:
8550:
8549:
8547:
8545:
8541:
8535:
8532:
8531:
8529:
8527:
8523:
8517:
8514:
8512:
8509:
8507:
8504:
8503:
8501:
8497:
8491:
8488:
8486:
8483:
8482:
8480:
8478:
8474:
8468:
8465:
8463:
8460:
8458:
8455:
8453:
8450:
8448:
8445:
8442:
8439:
8437:
8434:
8432:
8429:
8427:
8424:
8422:
8419:
8418:
8416:
8414:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8401:
8395:
8392:
8390:
8387:
8386:
8384:
8382:
8378:
8368:
8365:
8363:
8360:
8358:
8355:
8354:
8352:
8348:
8342:
8339:
8337:
8334:
8333:
8331:
8329:
8325:
8317:
8314:
8313:
8312:
8309:
8307:
8304:
8302:
8299:
8297:
8294:
8288:
8285:
8284:
8283:
8280:
8276:
8273:
8272:
8271:
8268:
8266:
8263:
8262:
8261:
8258:
8257:
8255:
8253:
8249:
8243:
8240:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8228:
8225:
8223:
8220:
8216:
8213:
8212:
8211:
8208:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8197:
8195:
8193:
8189:
8183:
8180:
8178:
8175:
8173:
8170:
8169:
8167:
8165:
8161:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8146:
8144:
8142:
8138:
8132:
8129:
8127:
8124:
8123:
8121:
8119:
8115:
8109:
8106:
8104:
8101:
8099:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8090:
8088:
8086:
8082:
8079:
8077:
8073:
8070:
8068:
8064:
8060:
8059:
8053:
8049:
8042:
8037:
8035:
8030:
8028:
8023:
8022:
8019:
8013:
8010:
8008:
8005:
8003:
8000:
7997:
7994:
7991:
7988:
7987:
7986:
7985:
7978:
7974:
7971:
7968:
7964:
7960:
7957:
7956:
7955:
7954:
7940:
7934:
7930:
7923:
7922:Shànggǔ Yīnxì
7918:
7915:
7898:
7894:
7890:
7886:
7882:
7878:
7874:
7867:
7862:
7854:
7850:
7849:
7844:
7840:
7836:
7830:
7826:
7822:
7818:
7817:
7805:
7799:
7795:
7790:
7786:
7782:
7778:
7774:
7770:
7768:
7762:
7758:
7755:
7751:
7747:
7744:Reprinted by
7741:
7734:
7730:
7726:
7722:
7716:
7712:
7704:
7700:
7699:
7694:
7690:
7686:
7682:
7678:
7674:
7670:
7666:
7659:
7657:
7650:
7646:
7640:
7636:
7631:
7627:
7621:
7617:
7612:
7608:
7601:
7596:
7592:
7590:1-55619-961-9
7586:
7582:
7578:
7574:
7570:
7566:
7562:
7558:
7554:
7550:
7545:
7541:
7537:
7533:
7529:
7525:
7521:
7516:
7512:
7508:
7501:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7481:
7477:
7473:
7469:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7449:
7448:
7442:
7438:
7432:
7428:
7423:
7419:
7413:
7409:
7404:
7400:
7396:
7392:
7388:
7384:
7383:Norman, Jerry
7380:
7376:
7372:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7356:
7349:
7345:
7341:
7337:
7330:
7326:
7322:
7318:
7314:
7310:
7306:
7302:
7298:
7294:
7293:Li, Fang-Kuei
7290:
7286:
7282:
7278:
7277:
7271:
7267:
7261:
7257:
7256:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7237:
7228:
7221:
7217:
7213:
7209:
7203:
7199:
7198:
7193:
7188:
7185:
7181:
7174:
7169:
7165:
7161:
7156:
7153:
7147:
7143:
7139:
7135:
7131:
7125:
7121:
7114:
7109:
7105:
7099:
7096:, Routledge,
7095:
7090:
7086:
7080:
7076:
7072:
7068:
7063:
7059:
7057:3-11-011103-9
7053:
7049:
7044:
7040:
7034:
7030:
7026:
7022:
7018:
7012:
7008:
7004:
6999:
6996:(1): 164–166.
6995:
6991:
6984:
6979:
6975:
6969:
6965:
6961:
6957:
6956:
6944:
6943:Baxter (1992)
6939:
6932:
6931:Baxter (1992)
6927:
6920:
6919:Baxter (1992)
6915:
6908:
6907:Baxter (1992)
6903:
6896:
6895:Baxter (1992)
6891:
6884:
6879:
6872:
6867:
6860:
6855:
6848:
6847:Norman (1988)
6843:
6836:
6835:Baxter (1992)
6831:
6824:
6819:
6812:
6807:
6800:
6799:Baxter (1992)
6795:
6788:
6787:Baxter (1992)
6783:
6776:
6771:
6764:
6759:
6752:
6747:
6740:
6735:
6728:
6727:Baxter (1992)
6723:
6716:
6715:Baxter (1992)
6711:
6704:
6703:Baxter (1992)
6699:
6692:
6691:Baxter (1992)
6687:
6680:
6676:
6675:Baxter (1992)
6672:
6671:Norman (1988)
6668:
6662:
6655:
6654:Baxter (1992)
6650:
6643:
6642:Baxter (2006)
6638:
6631:
6630:Baxter (1992)
6626:
6620:, p. 47.
6619:
6618:Bodman (1980)
6614:
6607:
6602:
6595:
6590:
6583:
6578:
6571:
6570:Baxter (1992)
6566:
6559:
6558:Baxter (1992)
6554:
6547:
6546:Baxter (1992)
6542:
6536:, p. 42.
6535:
6534:Norman (1988)
6530:
6523:
6522:Baxter (1992)
6518:
6511:
6506:
6499:
6498:Norman (1994)
6494:
6488:, p. 43.
6487:
6482:
6475:
6470:
6463:
6458:
6451:
6446:
6439:
6438:Handel (2003)
6434:
6427:
6422:
6420:
6412:
6411:Ferlus (2001)
6407:
6401:, p. 95.
6400:
6395:
6388:
6387:Norman (1994)
6383:
6381:
6373:
6368:
6361:
6360:Norman (1994)
6356:
6349:
6348:Baxter (1992)
6344:
6337:
6332:
6325:
6324:Baxter (1992)
6320:
6313:
6312:Norman (1986)
6308:
6301:
6300:Baxter (1992)
6296:
6290:, p. 46.
6289:
6284:
6277:
6276:Norman (1988)
6272:
6265:
6264:Norman (1973)
6260:
6253:
6252:Sagart (2007)
6248:
6241:
6236:
6229:
6224:
6217:
6212:
6205:
6204:Baxter (1992)
6200:
6193:
6192:Baxter (1992)
6188:
6181:
6176:
6169:
6168:Baxter (1992)
6164:
6157:
6152:
6145:
6144:Baxter (1992)
6140:
6133:
6128:
6121:
6120:Baxter (1992)
6116:
6109:
6104:
6097:
6096:Baxter (1992)
6092:
6085:
6080:
6074:, p. 92.
6073:
6068:
6061:
6056:
6049:
6048:Baxter (1992)
6044:
6038:, p. 15.
6037:
6032:
6025:
6024:Baxter (1992)
6020:
6013:
6008:
6001:
6000:Baxter (1992)
5996:
5989:
5984:
5977:
5976:Baxter (1992)
5972:
5965:
5960:
5953:
5948:
5941:
5940:Baxter (1992)
5936:
5929:
5924:
5917:
5916:Baxter (1992)
5912:
5905:
5900:
5893:
5892:Baxter (1992)
5888:
5881:
5880:Baxter (1992)
5876:
5869:
5864:
5857:
5856:Baxter (1992)
5852:
5845:
5840:
5833:
5832:Baxter (1992)
5828:
5822:, p. ix.
5821:
5816:
5809:
5808:Baxter (1992)
5804:
5797:
5792:
5785:
5784:Norman (1988)
5780:
5778:
5770:
5765:
5758:
5757:Baxter (1992)
5753:
5746:
5741:
5734:
5729:
5722:
5717:
5711:, p. 44.
5710:
5709:Norman (1988)
5705:
5698:
5697:Baxter (1992)
5693:
5686:
5685:Handel (2003)
5681:
5679:
5671:
5670:Baxter (1992)
5666:
5659:
5658:Norman (1988)
5654:
5647:
5646:Baxter (1992)
5642:
5635:
5630:
5624:, p. 71.
5623:
5622:Baxter (1992)
5618:
5611:
5606:
5600:, p. 25.
5599:
5594:
5587:
5586:Baxter (1992)
5582:
5580:
5573:, p. 69.
5572:
5571:Baxter (1992)
5567:
5561:, p. 32.
5560:
5559:Norman (1988)
5555:
5553:
5546:, p. 51.
5545:
5540:
5533:
5532:Baxter (1992)
5528:
5521:
5520:Baxter (1992)
5516:
5509:
5508:Baxter (1992)
5504:
5498:, p. 58.
5497:
5496:Baxter (1992)
5492:
5485:
5484:Baxter (1992)
5480:
5474:, p. 49.
5473:
5472:Baxter (1992)
5468:
5461:
5460:Baxter (1992)
5456:
5450:, p. 45.
5449:
5448:Baxter (1992)
5444:
5437:
5432:
5430:
5422:
5421:Baxter (1992)
5417:
5410:
5409:Norman (1988)
5405:
5398:
5397:Norman (1988)
5393:
5386:
5385:Baxter (1992)
5381:
5374:
5373:Norman (1988)
5369:
5362:
5361:Baxter (1992)
5357:
5351:, p. 28.
5350:
5349:Norman (1988)
5345:
5338:
5337:Baxter (1992)
5333:
5326:
5325:Norman (1988)
5321:
5314:
5313:Baxter (1992)
5309:
5302:
5301:Baxter (1992)
5297:
5290:
5289:Baxter (1992)
5285:
5278:
5273:
5266:
5265:Baxter (1992)
5261:
5255:, p. 46.
5254:
5253:Norman (1988)
5249:
5242:
5237:
5230:
5225:
5218:
5213:
5207:, p. 58.
5206:
5205:Norman (1988)
5201:
5197:
5185:, p. 72.
5184:
5175:
5167:
5162:
5147:
5140:
5134:
5126:
5115:
5108:
5102:
5095:
5089:
5076:
5069:
5063:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5039:
5034:
5028:
5008:
4996:
4989:
4987:
4979:
4978:
4974:in the later
4972:
4967:
4962:
4956:
4950:
4943:
4925:The initials
4922:
4920:
4910:
4901:
4894:
4890:
4884:
4877:
4871:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4850:
4841:
4826:
4825:Baxter (1992)
4820:
4816:
4806:
4803:
4802:
4796:
4794:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4765:
4759:
4756:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4720:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4678:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4636:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4612:
4604:
4597:
4590:
4583:
4569:
4562:
4561:
4555:MC stop coda
4554:
4550:
4547:
4544:
4541:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4523:
4521:
4509:
4485:
4481:
4476:
4474:
4463:groups (Li's
4450:
4433:
4422:
4413:
4409:
4398:
4389:
4388:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4378:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4358:
4352:
4346:
4336:
4331:
4320:
4311:), 'rising' (
4309:
4299:
4295:
4290:
4288:
4284:
4265:
4259:
4254:
4251:
4247:
4244:
4239:
4233:
4228:
4225:
4219:
4213:
4209:
4206:
4194:
4187:
4177:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4157:
4154:
4149:
4143:
4138:
4135:
4131:
4128:
4116:
4107:
4104:
4100:
4097:
4085:
4073:
4066:
4050:
4045:
4042:
4038:
4035:
4026:
4023:
4019:
4016:
4007:
4004:
3997:
3988:
3987:
3981:
3976:
3973:
3969:
3966:
3957:
3954:
3950:
3947:
3938:
3935:
3928:
3919:
3918:
3912:
3907:
3904:
3900:
3897:
3888:
3885:
3881:
3878:
3869:
3866:
3859:
3850:
3849:
3843:
3838:
3835:
3831:
3828:
3819:
3816:
3812:
3809:
3800:
3797:
3790:
3778:
3769:
3768:
3762:
3757:
3754:
3750:
3747:
3743:
3740:
3736:
3733:
3729:
3728:
3722:
3717:
3714:
3710:
3707:
3703:
3700:
3696:
3693:
3689:
3686:
3670:
3665:
3662:
3658:
3655:
3643:
3631:
3627:
3624:
3612:
3608:
3605:
3593:
3587:
3582:
3579:
3575:
3572:
3568:
3565:
3560:
3554:
3549:
3546:
3542:
3539:
3527:
3515:
3511:
3508:
3496:
3484:
3477:
3467:
3461:
3456:
3453:
3449:
3446:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3427:
3418:
3415:
3408:
3399:
3398:
3392:
3387:
3384:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3372:
3366:
3361:
3358:
3354:
3351:
3339:
3335:
3332:
3320:
3310:
3304:
3299:
3296:
3292:
3289:
3285:
3284:
3278:
3273:
3270:
3266:
3263:
3251:
3247:
3244:
3232:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3212:MC nasal coda
3208:
3194:
3182:
3175:
3171:
3168:
3156:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3089:
3087:
3077:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3051:
3042:
3041:
3036:
3032:
3020:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2980:
2975:
2972:
2968:
2962:
2959:
2955:
2943:
2942:
2941:
2933:
2922:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2911:Yao languages
2908:
2904:
2898:
2892:
2873:
2866:
2859:
2852:
2848:
2845:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2815:
2812:
2809:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2787:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2759:
2756:
2752:
2749:
2745:
2742:
2738:
2735:
2731:
2729:Example word
2728:
2727:
2718:Voiced stops
2712:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2688:
2651:
2634:
2630:
2607:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2571:
2565:
2559:
2551:Back initials
2548:
2529:
2514:
2505:
2504:
2503:
2500:
2482:
2471:
2462:
2460:) 'foreshore'
2454:
2443:
2434:
2426:
2415:
2406:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2381:
2379:
2375:
2361:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2338:
2323:
2308:
2298:
2289:
2288:
2287:
2272:
2258:
2243:
2234:
2232:) 'law; rule'
2226:
2211:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2193:
2178:
2172:
2142:
2127:
2118:
2110:
2095:
2080:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2065:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2036:
2024:
2018:
1996:
1995:
1994:Shuowen Jiezi
1990:
1985:
1976:
1974:
1973:§ Vowels
1970:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1834:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1744:initial type
1743:
1737:
1733:
1727:
1717:
1712:
1709:
1703:
1693:
1683:
1675:
1672:
1666:
1655:
1645:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1582:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1492:initial type
1491:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1446:
1443:
1437:
1427:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1350:
1347:
1338:
1335:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1313:
1312:
1308:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1285:
1282:
1273:
1270:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1229:
1226:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1201:
1198:
1189:
1186:
1177:
1175:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1156:
1153:
1144:
1141:
1132:
1129:
1120:
1117:
1108:
1105:
1096:
1093:
1084:
1081:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1061:
1058:
1049:
1046:
1037:
1034:
1025:
1022:
1013:
1010:
1001:
998:
989:
986:
982:
981:
977:
968:
965:
956:
953:
944:
941:
932:
929:
920:
917:
908:
905:
896:
893:
884:
881:
877:
875:
870:
866:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
845:
840:
836:
833:
831:
828:
826:
823:
820:
817:
811:
809:
805:
801:
796:
794:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
768:
763:
758:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
739:
732:
728:
721:
715:
713:
709:
705:
689:
650:
649:
641:
636:
631:
630:
624:
619:
614:
613:
607:
603:
600:
592:
585:
584:
583:
581:
580:Baxter (1992)
576:
562:
557:
555:
553:
548:
543:
538:
536:
531:
530:
524:
519:
517:
515:
510:
505:
500:
498:
493:
491:
486:
482:
479:
477:
475:
473:
471:
469:
464:
462:
457:
456:
453:
451:
449:
447:
445:
443:
438:
436:
431:
429:
425:
422:
420:
415:
410:
408:
406:
401:
396:
391:
390:
387:
385:
380:
375:
373:
371:
366:
361:
356:
354:
350:
347:
345:
340:
335:
333:
328:
323:
318:
315:
311:
310:
307:
305:
300:
295:
293:
288:
283:
278:
275:
271:
270:
264:
259:
254:
249:
247:
242:
237:
232:
229:
225:
223:
218:
214:
208:
203:
200:
196:
191:
188:
184:
179:
178:
175:
170:
164:
159:
154:
148:
145:
143:
139:
134:
132:
125:
115:
113:
109:
105:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
75:
74:
69:
65:
61:
60:
55:
51:
47:
43:
34:
30:
28:
24:
16:
10857:West Frisian
10644:Massachusett
10282:
10142:Prepositions
10111:
9963:Hanyu Pinyin
9953:Romanization
9860:Semi-cursive
9705:Old Mandarin
9662:Stroke count
9589:
9582:
9504:Old National
9496:
9347:Unclassified
8252:Southwestern
8085:Northeastern
8067:Major groups
8056:
7983:
7982:
7952:
7951:
7928:
7921:
7904:, retrieved
7897:the original
7876:
7872:
7852:
7847:
7824:
7793:
7776:
7772:
7766:
7745:
7739:
7732:
7702:
7697:
7668:
7664:
7655:
7634:
7615:
7606:
7580:
7552:
7548:
7523:
7519:
7510:
7506:
7490:
7486:
7451:
7445:
7426:
7407:
7390:
7386:
7358:
7354:
7344:Mei, Tsu-lin
7335:
7329:Qièyùn yīnxì
7328:
7300:
7296:
7274:
7254:
7226:
7219:
7196:
7163:
7159:
7145:
7141:
7119:
7093:
7066:
7047:
7028:
7006:
6993:
6989:
6963:
6938:
6926:
6914:
6902:
6890:
6878:
6866:
6854:
6842:
6830:
6818:
6806:
6794:
6782:
6770:
6758:
6746:
6734:
6722:
6710:
6698:
6686:
6661:
6649:
6637:
6625:
6613:
6601:
6589:
6577:
6565:
6553:
6541:
6529:
6517:
6505:
6493:
6481:
6469:
6457:
6445:
6433:
6406:
6394:
6367:
6355:
6343:
6331:
6319:
6307:
6295:
6283:
6271:
6259:
6247:
6235:
6223:
6211:
6199:
6187:
6175:
6163:
6151:
6139:
6127:
6115:
6103:
6091:
6079:
6067:
6055:
6043:
6031:
6019:
6007:
5995:
5983:
5971:
5959:
5947:
5935:
5923:
5911:
5899:
5887:
5875:
5863:
5851:
5839:
5827:
5815:
5803:
5791:
5764:
5752:
5740:
5728:
5716:
5704:
5692:
5665:
5653:
5641:
5629:
5617:
5605:
5593:
5566:
5539:
5527:
5515:
5503:
5491:
5479:
5467:
5455:
5443:
5416:
5404:
5392:
5380:
5368:
5356:
5344:
5332:
5320:
5308:
5296:
5284:
5272:
5260:
5248:
5236:
5231:, p. x.
5224:
5212:
5200:
5181:, quoted in
5173:
5170:“四聲之辯，古人未有。”
5161:
5146:
5138:
5133:
5114:
5101:
5088:
5075:
5062:
5051:Li Fang-Kuei
5036:
5032:
5027:
4975:
4965:
4942:
4909:
4900:
4883:
4870:
4862:
4858:
4854:
4849:
4840:
4819:
4760:
4751:
4545:
4534:
4524:
4519:
4508:assimilation
4477:
4449:Li Fang-Kuei
4438:
4424:'cough' and
4385:
4381:Jiang Yougao
4377:Wang Niansun
4367:
4291:
4283:Ming dynasty
4280:
3198:MC stop coda
3173:
3157:
3140:
3090:
3070:
3063:sound change
3055:Ming dynasty
3048:
3046:
3038:
3006:
2928:
2919:
2915:prenasalized
2879:
2697:Min dialects
2694:
2675:in place of
2650:uvular stops
2631:
2597:'thick' and
2554:
2538:
2535:) 'raw silk'
2491:
2473:'cruel' and
2382:
2357:
2347:
2267:
2194:
2151:
2066:
2046:
2006:
1992:
1989:Song dynasty
1924:
1893:
1810:Division II
1741:
1735:
1715:
1713:
1689:
1681:
1643:
1641:
1558:Division II
1489:
1483:
1475:
1467:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1447:
1422:
807:
797:
787:
780:Song dynasty
776:rhyme tables
771:
765:
761:
759:
746:
736:
734:
719:
701:
671:, or a stop
577:
570:
138:Li Fang-Kuei
135:
127:
101:
71:
63:
57:
39:
21:
15:
10888:Old Chinese
10587:Limburgish
10468:Greenlandic
10345:New Zealand
10278:Northern Wu
10132:Determiners
10112:Phonologies
10097:Phonologies
10032:Xiao'erjing
9894:Punctuation
9887:Traditional
9840:Oracle bone
9824:Logographic
9720:Proto-Hakka
9695:Eastern Han
9690:Old Chinese
9552:Classifiers
9519:Northern Wu
9447:Singaporean
8653: [
8641: [
8629: [
8617: [
8605: [
7906:29 December
7873:Early China
7853:Old Chinese
7526:: 180–206,
7220:Shànggǔ Yīn
7216:He, Jiuying
6952:Works cited
6739:Wang (1985)
6486:Sagart 1999
6230:114a, 115a.
6014:324a,o,m,q.
5721:Dong (2014)
5183:Wang (1985)
4876:labiodental
4793:Eastern Han
4531:Wenzhounese
4527:Mei Tsu-lin
4480:Haudricourt
4473:typological
2397:Dong Tonghe
2376:of western
2359:Book of Han
2148:) 'mad dog'
1920:Eastern Han
1838:(div. III)
1738:final type
1586:(div. III)
1486:final type
1380:Approximant
604:one of six
490:approximant
85:Min Chinese
46:Old Chinese
10882:Categories
10847:Vietnamese
10718:Ripuarian
10709:Portuguese
10619:Macedonian
10598:Lithuanian
10508:Hindustani
10335:Australian
10288:Historical
10235:Belarusian
10127:Adjectives
9983:Wade–Giles
9882:Simplified
9777:Vernacular
9770:in Vietnam
9623:Simplified
9610:Biaoxingma
9557:Honorifics
9492:Historical
9437:Philippine
9427:Sichuanese
9354:Badong Yao
9058:Shao–Jiang
8929:Philippine
8737:Xiangxiang
8732:Shuangfeng
8477:Taizhou Wu
8260:Sichuanese
7767:Yue-Ren-Ge
7513:: 206–265.
7507:Asia Major
7487:Asia Major
7361:: 86–110,
6883:Mei (1970)
5846:1083a,p,x.
5771:1007a,p,k.
5193:References
4484:Vietnamese
4373:Duan Yucai
4294:four tones
3179:OC vowels
3086:Duan Yucai
2921:clusters.
2417:'ink' and
2264:) 'indigo'
2116:) 'adjust'
2038:('loyal',
1959:labiovelar
1916:Qian Daxin
1882:*Tj-, *Kj-
1776:Laryngeal
1524:Laryngeal
731:Rime table
725:See also:
659:, a nasal
210:labialized
199:labialized
122:See also:
104:obstruents
89:Hmong–Mien
10837:Ukrainian
10744:Sardinian
10722:Colognian
10679:Old Saxon
10664:Norwegian
10629:Maldivian
10573:Latgalian
10518:Icelandic
10513:Hungarian
10501:Samaritan
10382:Esperanto
10268:Cantonese
10245:Bulgarian
10213:Levantine
10185:Afrikaans
9921:Taiwanese
9911:Cantonese
9755:Classical
9715:Proto-Min
9650:Microsoft
9509:Cantonese
9485:Phonology
9466:Cantonese
9457:Singdarin
9442:Malaysian
9432:Taiwanese
9336:Rongjiang
9326:Yongjiang
9322:Southern
9307:Northern
9281:Luo–Guang
9190:Hong Kong
9185:Guangzhou
9141:Taiwanese
9134:Changting
9068:Zhanjiang
8982:Zhongshan
8949:Malaysian
8944:Singapore
8909:Zhangzhou
8861:Zhongshan
8754:Yong–Quan
8650:Jing-Zhan
8580:Xuancheng
8557:Jiangshan
8436:Changzhou
8357:Junjiahua
8210:Guanzhong
8093:Changchun
8002:上古音系- 韻典網
7953:Tutorials
7893:162162850
7685:212688788
7493:: 58–144.
7478:(1962a),
5610:Li (1956)
3394:*-a-,*-o-
3306:*-ə-,*-u-
3221:yángshēng
2958:tenseness
2724:Laterals
2705:proto-Min
2633:Pan Wuyun
2492:Clusters
2432:) 'black'
2344:) 'speak'
2340:(< OC
2188:(but not
2026:('pour',
1767:sibilant
1765:Retroflex
1762:sibilant
1755:Retroflex
1692:Huang Kan
1515:sibilant
1513:Retroflex
1510:sibilant
1503:Retroflex
1252:voiceless
1247:Fricative
880:voiceless
874:affricate
862:Laryngeal
848:sibilant
846:Retroflex
843:sibilant
835:Retroflex
793:Sinoxenic
778:from the
755:diasystem
495:voiceless
485:Fricative
433:voiceless
358:voiceless
228:voiceless
222:affricate
174:Laryngeal
108:sonorants
42:phonology
10734:Romanian
10543:Japanese
10496:Tiberian
10491:Biblical
10478:Hawaiian
10473:Gujarati
10436:Standard
10428:Galician
10416:Parisian
10387:Estonian
10318:Standard
10263:Mandarin
10259:Chinese
10223:Tunisian
10218:Moroccan
10203:Egyptian
10175:Acehnese
10147:Pronouns
10122:Grammars
10005:Bopomofo
9934:Phonetic
9926:Two-cell
9855:Clerical
9765:in Japan
9760:Adoption
9748:Official
9739:Literary
9614:Boshiamy
9591:Xiehouyu
9547:Numerals
9524:Mandarin
9452:Standard
9412:Standard
9286:Qin–Lian
9276:Yong–Xun
9261:Gao–Yang
9207:Jiujiang
9195:Malaysia
9129:Tingzhou
9080:Wenchang
9041:Jianyang
9031:Northern
8990:Sanxiang
8904:Quanzhou
8887:Southern
8856:Manjiang
8720:Changsha
8680:Nanchang
8675:Chang–Du
8572:Xuanzhou
8562:Qingtian
8516:Wencheng
8462:Jiangyin
8457:Jinxiang
8447:Shaoxing
8441:Hangzhou
8421:Shanghai
8362:Qinjiang
8270:Minjiang
8242:Xinjiang
8200:Dongping
8164:Jiaoliao
8103:Shenyang
8076:Mandarin
8012:李方桂上古音韻表
7845:(1965),
7823:(1999),
7763:(1991),
7731:(1985),
7729:Wang, Li
7695:(1989),
7579:(1999),
7540:40726239
7399:23749795
7346:(1970),
7327:(1956),
7325:Li, Rong
7317:40726172
7252:(1923),
7231:《汉语知识丛书》
7218:(1991),
7148:: 69–82.
7005:(2014),
6962:(1992),
6134:1118a,d.
5139:Guangyun
4977:Guangyun
4889:alveolar
4799:See also
4795:period.
4411:'wicked'
4335:entering
4333:), and '
4298:Shen Yue
4285:scholar
3193:yīnshēng
3067:Gu Yanwu
3057:scholar
3035:Gu Yanwu
3011:unmarked
2993:prosodic
2903:Jianyang
2502:such as
2177:chóngniǔ
2171:chóngniǔ
1969:breaking
1770:Palatal
1518:Palatal
1463:chongniu
985:aspirate
751:classics
712:reflexes
274:aspirate
187:sibilant
33:Help:IPA
10862:Yiddish
10827:Turkish
10812:Tagalog
10796:Swedish
10784:Spanish
10769:Slovene
10739:Russian
10699:Persian
10669:Occitan
10649:Medumba
10639:Marathi
10583:Latvian
10563:Kurdish
10553:Konkani
10538:Italian
10523:Ingrian
10482:Hebrew
10456:Ancient
10441:Bernese
10432:German
10412:French
10408:Finnish
10403:Faroese
10330:English
10300:Cornish
10295:Chukchi
10273:Hokkien
10255:Catalan
10250:Burmese
10240:Bengali
10230:Avestan
10194:Arabic
10099:of the
9904:Braille
9865:Cursive
9815:Scripts
9682:History
9672:ZhengMa
9618:Cangjie
9584:Chengyu
9539:Grammar
9514:Hokkien
9471:Hokkien
9379:Waxiang
9359:Danzhou
9331:Guandao
9316:Younian
9311:Tongdao
9300:Pinghua
9240:Taishan
9156:Raoping
9124:Huizhou
9114:Meixian
9090:Banqiao
9063:Leizhou
9053:Pu–Xian
9048:Central
9036:Jian'ou
9011:Longyan
8959:Teochew
8896:Hokkien
8871:Nanlang
8827:Fu–Ning
8807:Changle
8789:Houguan
8780:Eastern
8727:Loushao
8715:Changyi
8697:Da–Tong
8692:Ying–Yi
8638:Yanzhou
8506:Wenzhou
8499:Oujiang
8490:Tiantai
8485:Taizhou
8394:Zhi–Yan
8341:Nantong
8336:Nanjing
8311:Gui–Liu
8301:Nanping
8296:Kunming
8222:Luoyang
8177:Qingdao
8149:Tianjin
8126:Beijing
8118:Beijing
7427:Chinese
7375:2718766
7285:1999753
6765:937s,v.
6753:272e,a.
6110:152d,m.
6086:904c,a.
5990:609a,k.
5966:502d,c.
5870:335a,5.
5178:《毛詩古音考》
5166:Chinese
5043:Wang Li
4964:in the
4537:end in
4535:Shijing
4368:Shijing
4287:Chen Di
3229:Baxter
3207:rùshēng
3174:Shijing
3141:Shijing
3071:Shijing
3059:Chen Di
3050:Shijing
3040:Shijing
2721:Nasals
2695:Modern
2579:Li Rong
2003:element
1781:Type A
1752:Dental
1749:Labial
1529:Type A
1500:Dental
1497:Labial
1458:Li Rong
852:Palatal
784:feature
428:Lateral
163:Palatal
83:and in
64:Shijing
25:in the
10842:Uyghur
10774:Somali
10764:Slovak
10704:Polish
10694:Pashto
10689:Ottawa
10674:Ojibwe
10659:Nepali
10654:Navajo
10568:Kyrgyz
10558:Korean
10486:Modern
10447:Greek
10421:Quebec
10375:Middle
10314:Dutch
10310:Danish
10208:Hejazi
10180:Adyghe
10170:Abkhaz
9973:Postal
9968:MPS II
9845:Bronze
9725:Ba–Shu
9645:Google
9640:Pinyin
9576:Idioms
9389:Yeheni
9271:Wu–Hua
9266:Goulou
9245:Xinhui
9222:Dapeng
9217:Weitou
9202:Xiguan
9177:Yuehai
9146:Sixian
9085:Haikou
9075:Hainan
9006:Zhenan
8972:Haklau
8967:Swatow
8939:Penang
8924:Taiwan
8919:Chawan
8866:Longdu
8835:Ningde
8812:Gutian
8802:Fuqing
8797:Fuzhou
8759:Qiyang
8742:Wugang
8687:Yi–Liu
8614:Xiu-Yi
8602:Ji-She
8552:Quzhou
8544:Chu–Qu
8534:Jinhua
8526:Wuzhou
8511:Rui'an
8452:Ningbo
8426:Suzhou
8316:Wuming
8287:Zigong
8275:Leshan
8237:Lanyin
8232:Dungan
8227:Xuzhou
8205:Gangou
8182:Weihai
8172:Dalian
8131:Taiwan
8098:Harbin
7935:
7891:
7855:]
7831:
7800:
7752:
7717:
7705:]
7683:
7641:
7622:
7587:
7569:603076
7567:
7538:
7468:605083
7466:
7433:
7414:
7397:
7373:
7315:
7283:
7262:
7238:
7204:
7126:
7100:
7081:
7054:
7035:
7013:
6970:
6158:94g,u.
5168::
4966:Qieyun
4893:dental
4256:*-ia-ʷ
4168:*-iə-ʷ
3043:rhymes
3026:Vowels
3019:Sagart
3007:Qieyun
3003:Norman
2967:huǎnqì
2907:Fujian
2701:Fujian
2531:(<
2516:(<
2484:(<
2456:(<
2428:(<
2325:(<
2310:(<
2304:) and
2300:(<
2260:(<
2245:(<
2228:(<
2213:(<
2180:using
2144:(<
2129:(<
2126:tsyejH
2112:(<
2097:(<
2082:(<
2032:) and
1888:*Qrj-
1879:*TSrj-
1836:Type B
1773:Velar
1760:Dental
1742:Qieyun
1736:Qieyun
1716:Qieyun
1644:Qieyun
1584:Type B
1521:Velar
1508:Dental
1490:Qieyun
1484:Qieyun
1476:Qieyun
1468:Qieyun
1454:Qieyun
1450:Qieyun
1316:voiced
1080:voiced
841:Dental
830:Dental
825:Labial
808:Qieyun
804:manner
788:Qieyun
772:fanqie
767:fanqie
762:Qieyun
747:Qieyun
738:Qieyun
720:Qieyun
606:vowels
533:voiced
459:voiced
393:voiced
314:voiced
158:Dental
153:Labial
73:Qieyun
10852:Welsh
10832:Ubykh
10817:Tamil
10779:Sotho
10749:Scots
10684:Oromo
10634:Māori
10624:Malay
10578:Latin
10548:Kiowa
10533:Irish
10528:Inuit
10461:Koine
10305:Czech
10152:Verbs
10137:Nouns
10037:Nüshu
9741:forms
9655:Sogou
9602:Input
9476:Hakka
9414:forms
9254:Other
9212:Shiqi
9151:Hailu
9119:Wuhua
9106:Hakka
9024:Other
8999:Other
8934:Pedan
8849:Other
8840:Fu'an
8817:Matsu
8749:Ji–Xu
8707:Xiang
8657:]
8645:]
8633:]
8626:Qi-De
8621:]
8609:]
8467:Shadi
8413:Taihu
8367:Gyami
8350:Other
8306:Wuhan
8215:Xi'an
8154:Jinan
7927:[
7900:(PDF)
7889:S2CID
7869:(PDF)
7857:(PDF)
7851:[
7738:[
7736:汉语语音史
7711:Nauka
7707:(PDF)
7701:[
7681:S2CID
7661:(PDF)
7603:(PDF)
7565:JSTOR
7536:JSTOR
7503:(PDF)
7483:(PDF)
7464:JSTOR
7395:JSTOR
7371:JSTOR
7351:(PDF)
7334:[
7313:JSTOR
7116:(PDF)
6986:(PDF)
5120:同聲必同部
4811:Notes
4738:*-kʷs
4421:khojH
4319:shǎng
4261:*-e-ʷ
4235:*-a-ʷ
4230:*-a-ʷ
4173:*-i-ʷ
4140:*-ə-ʷ
4134:-owng
4127:zhōng
4041:-uwng
3896:zhēng
3759:*-ua-
3667:*-ia-
3551:*-iə-
3363:*-ia-
3275:*-iə-
3076:yùnbù
2669:*qʷʰ-
2533:*snj-
2470:ngjak
2378:Hunan
2342:*l̥j-
2337:sywet
2307:thwat
2190:*-rj-
2182:*-rj-
2166:*Prj-
2162:*Krj-
2146:*krj-
2141:kjejH
2079:tsyuw
2035:zhōng
2023:chōng
2017:zhōng
1894:Here
1885:*Krj-
1876:*TSj-
1873:*Trj-
1868:*Prj-
1860:*Qj-
1831:*Qr-
1823:*TSr-
1757:stop
1722:and *
1505:stop
1174:Nasal
1057:tsyh-
1045:tsrh-
857:Velar
838:stop
800:place
704:tones
512:(*j̊)
502:(*r̥)
353:Nasal
205:plain
193:plain
181:plain
169:Velar
29:(IPA)
10867:Zuni
10822:Taos
9998:Yale
9988:EFEO
9850:Seal
9635:Dayi
9232:Siyi
8914:Amoy
8431:Wuxi
8328:Huai
8141:Jilu
7933:ISBN
7925:上古音系
7908:2013
7829:ISBN
7798:ISBN
7750:ISBN
7715:ISBN
7639:ISBN
7620:ISBN
7585:ISBN
7431:ISBN
7412:ISBN
7332:切韵音系
7281:OCLC
7260:ISBN
7236:ISBN
7202:ISBN
7160:Word
7124:ISBN
7098:ISBN
7079:ISBN
7052:ISBN
7033:ISBN
7011:ISBN
6968:ISBN
5150:The
5081:*-l-
5053:and
4971:dzr-
4958:and
4946:The
4931:and
4861:and
4831:for
4743:*-kʷ
4733:*-ws
4728:*-wʔ
4716:*-ŋs
4711:*-ŋʔ
4696:*-ks
4674:*-ns
4669:*-nʔ
4654:*-ts
4649:*-js
4644:*-jʔ
4632:*-ms
4627:*-mʔ
4516:*-ts
4512:*-ps
4504:*-ks
4500:*-ts
4469:*-ad
4467:and
4465:*-ar
4457:and
4432:khok
4397:lajH
4308:píng
4292:The
4224:-uwk
4218:-owk
4186:xiāo
4145:*-u-
4115:dōng
4103:-owk
4052:*-o-
4047:*-u-
4034:dōng
4022:-uwk
3983:*-a-
3978:*-a-
3972:-ang
3965:yáng
3914:*-ə-
3909:*-ə-
3903:-ong
3845:*-e-
3840:*-i-
3834:-eng
3827:gēng
3764:*-o-
3753:-wan
3746:-wat
3739:-waj
3724:*-a-
3719:*-a-
3672:*-e-
3642:yuán
3589:*-u-
3584:*-ə-
3556:*-ə-
3538:zhūn
3463:*-i-
3458:*-i-
3445:zhēn
3389:*-a-
3368:*-e-
3301:*-ə-
3280:*-i-
3165:*-j-
3163:and
3161:*-r-
3153:*-kʷ
3151:and
3115:and
3103:and
3015:*-r-
2979:jíqì
2950:*Cə-
2937:*-j-
2894:(or
2884:and
2834:*lh
2683:and
2681:*hʷ-
2677:*ʔʷ-
2673:*ɢʷ-
2671:and
2665:*qʷ-
2659:and
2657:*qʰ-
2644:and
2613:and
2606:huwX
2567:and
2528:sjoH
2518:*nj-
2494:*sn-
2486:*ŋ̊-
2481:xjak
2458:*n̥-
2453:than
2430:*m̥-
2399:and
2393:*ŋ̊-
2391:and
2389:*n̥-
2385:*m̥-
2365:烏弋山離
2327:*lj-
2322:ywet
2312:*l̥-
2297:dwat
2284:*l̥-
2282:and
2276:*-r-
2262:*ɡr-
2247:*kr-
2242:kaem
2230:*br-
2225:lwit
2215:*pr-
2197:*-r-
2186:*-j-
2158:*-r-
2154:*-j-
2131:*kj-
2084:*tj-
2062:*-r-
2058:*-r-
1953:and
1910:and
1857:*Kj-
1844:*Pj-
1828:*Kr-
1818:*Tr-
1813:*Pr-
1805:*Q-
1795:*TS-
1697:*-r-
1636:yes
1608:yes
1579:yes
1553:yes
1436:děng
1152:dzy-
1140:dzr-
1033:tsh-
1021:trh-
952:tsy-
940:tsr-
869:Stop
802:and
760:The
741:, a
729:and
685:*-kʷ
595:*-j-
588:*-r-
564:(*w)
559:(*ɦ)
550:(*j)
545:(*z)
382:*ŋ̊ʷ
302:*kʷʰ
290:*tsʰ
217:Stop
140:and
112:tone
95:and
10805:T–Z
10612:M–S
10396:F–L
10370:Old
10283:Old
10163:A–E
9730:Gan
9630:CKC
9497:Old
9374:She
9364:Mai
9168:Yue
8771:Min
8667:Gan
8594:Hui
8443:(?)
8381:Jin
8108:Taz
7881:doi
7781:doi
7673:doi
7557:doi
7553:112
7528:doi
7456:doi
7452:114
7363:doi
7305:doi
7223:上古音
7182:by
7168:doi
7146:242
7071:doi
6763:GSR
6751:GSR
6228:GSR
6156:GSR
6132:GSR
6108:GSR
6084:GSR
6012:GSR
5988:GSR
5964:GSR
5868:GSR
5844:GSR
5769:GSR
4949:zr-
4891:or
4863:-h-
4859:-y-
4855:-r-
4789:*-n
4785:*-r
4723:*-w
4706:*-ŋ
4701:*-k
4691:*-s
4686:*-ʔ
4681:*-∅
4664:*-n
4659:*-t
4639:*-j
4622:*-m
4617:*-p
4514:to
4510:of
4502:or
4496:*-s
4492:*-h
4488:*-s
4445:*-ɡ
4443:or
4441:*-d
4408:lat
4360:or
4337:' (
4250:-ek
4243:-ew
4212:-ak
4205:yào
4193:-aw
4160:-ek
4153:-ew
4084:jué
4072:-aw
4065:yōu
4003:-uw
3996:hóu
3953:-ak
3946:duó
3884:-ok
3877:zhí
3865:-oj
3858:zhī
3815:-ek
3796:-ej
3789:jiā
3777:zhī
3732:-wa
3713:-an
3706:-at
3699:-aj
3661:-en
3654:hán
3630:-et
3623:yuè
3611:-ej
3578:-on
3571:-ot
3564:-oj
3545:-en
3526:wén
3514:-et
3507:shù
3483:-ej
3476:wēi
3452:-en
3433:-et
3426:zhì
3414:-ej
3407:zhī
3383:-am
3376:-ap
3357:-em
3350:tán
3338:-ep
3295:-om
3288:-op
3269:-em
3262:qīn
3250:-ep
3226:Li
3149:*-m
3145:*-p
3123:or
3117:*ua
3113:*ia
3109:*iə
2952:(a
2946:*d-
2932:-j-
2886:*l̥
2882:*n̥
2828:*nh
2822:*dh
2819:*-d
2813:*th
2810:*-t
2685:*w-
2661:*ɢ-
2653:*q-
2646:*ɦ-
2642:*h-
2638:*ʔ-
2627:*ɦ-
2623:*w-
2619:*ɡ-
2615:*ɦ-
2611:*ɡ-
2589:Min
2575:*ɡ-
2513:nyo
2442:nan
2425:xok
2414:mok
2352:or
2302:*l-
2280:*l-
2257:lam
2210:pit
2114:*d-
2109:dew
2099:*t-
2094:tew
1975:).
1964:-w-
1946:-at
1943:or
1940:-an
1934:-aj
1928:-w-
1904:*TS
1802:*K-
1790:*T-
1787:*P-
1724:-j-
1720:-r-
1708:-w-
1702:-j-
1671:-w-
1654:kāi
1633:yes
1630:yes
1627:yes
1624:yes
1621:yes
1616:yes
1605:yes
1592:yes
1576:yes
1571:yes
1566:yes
1561:yes
1550:yes
1543:yes
1538:yes
1535:yes
1442:-j-
1367:匣/云
1358:zy-
1346:zr-
1293:sy-
1281:sr-
1237:ng-
1225:ny-
1209:nr-
1128:dz-
1116:dr-
1069:kh-
1009:th-
997:ph-
928:ts-
916:tr-
757:).
696:*-s
694:or
692:*-ʔ
683:or
681:*-k
677:*-t
673:*-p
669:*-ŋ
667:or
665:*-n
661:*-m
657:*-w
655:or
653:*-j
573:*s-
526:*hʷ
440:*l̥
417:*ŋʷ
377:*ŋ̊
368:*n̥
363:*m̥
342:*ɡʷ
330:*dz
297:*kʰ
285:*tʰ
280:*pʰ
266:*ʔʷ
256:*kʷ
244:*ts
93:Tai
44:of
10884::
8655:zh
8643:zh
8631:zh
8619:zh
8607:zh
8404:Wu
7961:,
7887:,
7875:,
7871:,
7777:20
7775:,
7771:,
7713:,
7679:,
7669:13
7667:,
7605:,
7563:,
7551:,
7534:,
7524:33
7522:,
7509:,
7505:,
7489:,
7485:,
7462:,
7450:,
7389:,
7369:,
7359:30
7357:,
7353:,
7311:,
7301:31
7299:,
7225:,
7164:10
7162:,
7144:,
7077:,
6994:34
6992:,
6988:,
6418:^
6379:^
5776:^
5677:^
5578:^
5551:^
5428:^
5049:,
5045:,
5007:y-
4995:h-
4985:^
4918:^
4857:,
4833:*ɨ
4829:*ə
4780:-n
4773:,
4770:-n
4764:-j
4755:-k
4543:.
4540:-k
4520:-s
4363:-k
4357:-t
4354:,
4351:-p
4345:rù
4330:qù
4289:.
4268:-ʷ
4221:,
4215:,
4096:wò
4015:wū
3934:-u
3927:yú
3808:xī
3692:-a
3685:gē
3604:jì
3495:wù
3331:hé
3319:yè
3243:qì
3216:陽聲
3202:入聲
3188:陰聲
3147:,
3131:,
3125:*a
3121:*ə
3111:,
3105:*a
3101:*ə
3099:,
3097:*u
3095:,
3093:*i
3081:韻部
2991:a
2917:.
2897:sy
2891:th
2851:th
2831:*l
2825:*n
2816:*d
2807:*t
2707::
2687:.
2679:,
2667:,
2655:,
2629:.
2584:h-
2570:h-
2564:g-
2558:g-
2545:*l
2541:*s
2499:s-
2387:,
2380:.
2271:l-
2064:.
1937:,
1912:*Q
1908:*K
1906:,
1902:,
1900:*T
1898:,
1896:*P
1665:hé
1456:,
1411:y-
1393:l-
1372:h-
1334:z-
1307:x-
1269:s-
1197:n-
1185:m-
1164:g-
1104:d-
1092:b-
976:ʔ-
964:k-
904:t-
892:p-
871:or
679:,
675:,
663:,
643:*o
638:*a
633:*e
626:*u
621:*ə
616:*i
540:*r
521:*h
507:*s
487:or
466:*l
412:*ŋ
403:*n
398:*m
337:*ɡ
325:*d
320:*b
261:*ʔ
251:*k
239:*t
234:*p
219:or
133:.
99:.
91:,
10089:e
10082:t
10075:v
8040:e
8033:t
8026:v
7998:.
7941:.
7916:.
7910:.
7883::
7877:5
7837:.
7806:.
7787:.
7783::
7756:.
7723:.
7687:.
7675::
7658:"
7647:.
7628:.
7609:.
7593:.
7571:.
7559::
7542:.
7530::
7511:9
7491:9
7470:.
7458::
7439:.
7420:.
7401:.
7391:1
7377:.
7365::
7319:.
7307::
7287:.
7268:.
7244:.
7210:.
7186:)
7178:(
7176:.
7170::
7150:(
7132:.
7106:.
7087:.
7073::
7060:.
7041:.
7019:.
6976:.
6885:.
6813:.
6644:.
6500:.
6254:.
5153:祭
5128:.
5109:.
5070:.
5057:.
5022:.
5019:喻
5013:以
5010:(
5001:云
4998:(
4961:漦
4955:俟
4934:船
4928:禪
4607:去
4600:上
4593:平
4586:入
4579:去
4572:上
4565:平
4460:祭
4454:歌
4427:刻
4416:欬
4403:剌
4392:賴
4340:入
4325:去
4314:上
4303:平
4200:藥
4181:宵
4122:中
4118:/
4110:冬
4091:沃
4087:/
4079:覺
4060:幽
4029:東
4010:屋
3991:侯
3960:陽
3941:鐸
3922:魚
3891:蒸
3872:職
3853:之
3822:耕
3803:錫
3784:佳
3780:/
3772:支
3680:歌
3649:寒
3645:/
3637:元
3618:月
3599:祭
3533:諄
3529:/
3521:文
3502:術
3498:/
3490:物
3471:微
3440:真
3421:質
3402:脂
3345:談
3326:盍
3322:/
3314:葉
3257:侵
3238:緝
2986:氣
2983:急
2974:氣
2971:緩
2872:l
2865:n
2858:d
2844:t
2797:老
2790:來
2783:年
2776:南
2769:頭
2762:長
2755:直
2748:炭
2741:轉
2734:單
2600:後
2594:厚
2523:絮
2508:如
2476:謔
2465:虐
2448:灘
2437:難
2420:黑
2409:墨
2332:說
2317:悅
2292:脫
2252:藍
2237:監
2220:律
2205:筆
2136:猘
2121:制
2104:調
2089:彫
2074:周
2041:忠
2029:沖
2014:(
2011:中
2000:言
1660:合
1649:開
1431:等
1406:以
1388:來
1353:船
1341:俟
1329:邪
1302:曉
1288:書
1276:生
1264:心
1232:疑
1220:日
1204:娘
1192:泥
1180:明
1159:群
1147:禪
1135:崇
1123:從
1111:澄
1099:定
1087:並
1064:溪
1052:昌
1040:初
1028:清
1016:徹
1004:透
992:滂
971:影
959:見
947:章
935:莊
923:精
911:知
899:端
887:幫
698:.
687:,
608::
601:,
590:,
62:(
35:.
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