684:. The aide-mémoire that Lord Cherwell had given Menzies offered to provide information to Martin and Titterton on the possible radioactive hazards. Arrangements were made for them to see the full hazards report that the British team had prepared. They were not provided details about the bomb's design, but assurances were given that the Totem devices contained much less fissile material than the Hurricane device. Martin was particularly concerned that balloon flights had indicated that in October there were east and north east winds with speeds of up to 190 kilometres per hour (100 kn) between 9,100 and 12,200 metres (30,000 and 40,000 ft). Penney reassured Martin and Titterton that while the radioactive cloud might rise above 4,600 metres (15,000 ft), it would not reach 9,100 metres (30,000 ft). On this basis they reported to Menzies that no people would suffer ill-effects from the trials.
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12.6 TJ). It was exploded at 07:00 on 27 October local time (21:30 on 26 October UTC). Penney estimated the actual yield at 10 to 18 kilotonnes of TNT (42 to 75 TJ); later measurements showed it to be 8 kilotonnes of TNT (33 TJ). The Totem 2 cloud rose higher than that of Totem 1, to 8,500 metres (28,000 ft) because of condensation of moisture entrained in it, and whilst the wind direction below 3,700 metres (12,000 ft) was an acceptable 10 degrees, at 6,100 metres (20,000 ft) it was 270 degrees. However high winds dispersed the cloud so that it had dissipated to the point where it could not be tracked far. The
British scientists believed that sufficient data had been collected from Totem 1, so only two Lincolns and the USAF B-29s were used for Totem 2.
31:
839:
the test series concluded, the Emu Field site was abandoned. Daily RAAF flights flew personnel out. Penney departed on 2 November, and arrived back in the UK ten days later. Australian service personnel were flown back to their home states in time for
Christmas. All UK staff departed by 17 November, although some remained in Australia at Woomera and Salisbury. The last personnel departed on 29 November, although flights to the claypan to remove equipment continued. Some stores were returned to the UK, while others were stored at Woomera and Salisbury. All that remained were three
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751:. Two hours before the test it was left with the hatch closed, engine running and brakes off, and test dummies with film badges representing the crew. After the test, the film badges indicated that a crew would have received enough radiation to have become sick within a few hours and died within a few days. The damage to the tank was much less than expected; it had not caught fire and the engine was still running. It was later driven from the test site under its own power.
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732:(1.0 and 41.8 TJ), most probably in the 2 and 3 kilotonnes of TNT (8.4 and 12.6 TJ) range. In the event it was higher than forecast; Penney estimated it at 10 kilotonnes of TNT (42 TJ). The cloud rose to 4,600 metres (15,000 ft). The slight wind meant that the cloud maintained its form for 24 hours, and produced a tight fallout pattern in the immediate vicinity of the test site the like of which had not been seen before.
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reported to have been caught in the mist at
Wallatina and fallen ill. The 1985 Royal Commission concluded that "Aboriginal people experienced radioactive fallout from Totem 1 in the form of a black mist or cloud at or near Wallatina. This may have made some people temporarily ill. The Royal Commission does not have sufficient evidence to say whether or not it caused other illnesses or injuries."
489:, the head of the Department of Supply, was created to coordinate the Australian contribution. With defence money short and Britain paying for the tests, it was important that expenditure was correctly recorded and charged. The total cost of the trial was estimated at £799,700. Unlike Hurricane, it was decided that it would be best if a single service was responsible for the test series, and the
303:
705:. They were performed without formal Australian government approval, and without any advice being given to the Australian government by Australian or British scientists. The tests spread toxic beryllium and highly radioactive polonium around the test sites. Care was taken not to contaminate the main test site, and the areas were secured until the polonium decayed to safe levels.
617:
field on a dry lake bed. This required a much greater air transport effort from the RAF and RAAF than originally envisaged. The main scientific party arrived on 17 August and the device for the first test arrived on 26 September to be followed three days later by Penney. The
British government invited Martin, Butement and
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found to be clean. The aircraft were parked away from other planes. The hazards team found contamination on the leading edges and tailplanes, although it was within acceptable limits. Ground crews were permitted to work on the aircraft, although they were instructed not to eat or smoke while working on the aircraft.
692:
The first Totem test was preceded by three Kitten tests carried out at the Emu Field site on 26 and 30 September, and 6 October. These were conducted in an area known as K Site, 6.4 kilometres (4 mi) east of the airstrip and about 13 kilometres (8 mi) north west of the main test site. These
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The isolated location and poor roads meant that only 500 tonnes (500 long tons) of the 3,000 tonnes (3,000 long tons) of equipment needed for the test arrived by road, the bulk arriving via the airstrip, which was quickly constructed on the site about 17 kilometres (11 mi) north west of the test
261:£340,000 a year worth of electricity to run its blowers. The electricity produced was more expensive than that of a conventional coal-fired plant, but this was offset by the value of the plutonium produced, which was about £100 per gram (£3,100 per ounce). Construction of the first PIPPA commenced at
854:
In addition to conclusively answering the questions about plutonium-240 that was their primary purpose, the Totem tests taught the
British scientists a great deal about how to conduct trials, and how to measure fallout. For subsequent tests, monitoring stations would be established across Australia.
838:
The total cost of the
Operation Totem tests was £828,000, of which £694,000 was paid by the UK and £134,000 by Australia. The UK share went towards plant, equipment, building materials and air and land transport. The Australian share was mainly spent on pay and allowances for service personnel. With
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in August 1953, warning the station managers, and requesting that the warnings be passed on to local
Aboriginal people. Warning notices were posted around the perimeter of the test site, and aerial and ground searches, usually within 32 kilometres (20 mi) of the site, were made with increasing
805:
175 kilometres (109 mi) from the test site, and led to unacceptably high levels of radioactive contamination of these locations. There is controversy surrounding injuries received by
Aboriginal people from fallout, and in particular from this mist. Approximately 45 Yankuntjatjarra people were
735:
The five
Lincolns assigned to sampling the cloud made 15 traverses in three hours. The filters were found to have radioactivity in excess of the requirements of the radiochemistry team, and were left for twelve hours to cool down. The crews were checked for contamination and, after showering, were
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Two more Kitten tests were carried out on 14 and 17 October. The Totem 2 test, another tower test, was scheduled for 24 October, but once again the weather intervened, and it was postponed to 27 October. Penney forecast that the yield of Totem 2 would be between 2 and 3 kilotonnes of TNT (8.4 and
716:
A full-scale rehearsal was held on 1 October, and the countdown commenced on 7 October, but was immediately cancelled due to bad weather. Rain set in on 8 October. Hopes for 10 October soon faded, and the following day was a Sunday, and the
Australian government had indicated that it did not want
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would be used for the offices and laboratories, and test personnel would be accommodated in tents. Lucas was able to allay fears about the supply of water, which would not only be required for drinking, but also for decontamination of personnel and equipment, and the processing of the
640:, who inhabited the area. They lived through hunting and gathering activities, and moved over long distances between permanent and semi-permanent locations, generally in groups of about 25 or so, coming together for special occasions. The construction of the
653:
but was transferred to the Department of Supply in May 1949. As the range of the rockets increased, so too did the range of his patrols, from 576 kilometres (358 mi) in October 1949 to 3,486 kilometres (2,166 mi) in March and April 1952.
596:, where Penney's High Explosive Research team was based, that their plan for a temporary village of trailers had to be discarded. Lucas told them that the trailers would not be able to make it over the first sand hill. Instead, Australian
196:
to create a combined American, British, and Canadian project. The British government expected that the United States would continue to share nuclear technology, which it regarded as a joint discovery, after the war, but the
329:
was unable to provide the level of support it had for the Operation Hurricane test in the time available, so the Montebello Islands were ruled out. The search for an alternative site on the mainland in the vicinity of the
648:
had been appointed the Native Patrol Officer at Woomera on 4 November 1947, with responsibility for ensuring that Aboriginal people were not harmed by the LRWE's rocket testing programme. He was initially assigned to the
503:. Lucas was an architect who had been the Deputy Engineer in Chief of the Australian Army during the Second World War. When he was given the assignment on 6 January 1953, he was the Regional Director of the Commonwealth
249:
did not have the capacity to provide sufficient material for the British government's planned weapons programme, and consequently eight more reactors were planned. These were intended to produce both electricity and
480:
was formed in the UK to coordinate the tests. The UK government agreed to foot the bill for the tests. Penney was appointed the trial director, with Leonard Tyte as scientific director. Tyte was appointed to the
592:(ASIO), visited the UK in February 1953 to discuss the arrangements for Totem. There was a week of discussions, culminating in the Australians attending the second meeting of Totex. Lucas informed the people at
2252:
2215:
437:; the light sandy clay soil was easily traversed by motor vehicles. The drawbacks of the Emu Field site were also discussed. These included the fact that there was no all-weather road from Woomera.
855:
A few days after the conclusion of these tests, the British government formally requested a permanent testing site from the Australian government, which led to the agreement on the use of the
717:
tests to take place on Sundays, so the test was rescheduled for 12 October, then twice postponed to the next day. This time the weather held. VIPs and media representatives were flown in from
794:. Although other tanks were subjected to nuclear tests, 169041 is the only one known to have done so and then gone on to serve for another 23 years, including 15 months in a war zone.
378:, of his intention to visit the site before the Hurricane test. Butement warned Penney that it was very remote, and that Beadell and his companions might well have been the first non-
625:
who had worked on the Manhattan Project but was now living in Australia, to be observers. In addition, 45 Australians would participate as part of the test team, including some
350:
helicopter for the purpose. A site, originally given the codename X200 but later renamed Emu Field, was selected. It was an isolated dry, flat clay and sandstone expanse in the
661:, but they did inform him that the Dingo Claypan area, which was in Yankuntjatjarra territory, had no particular importance or significance. MacDougall paid personal visits to
1089:
The yield was much greater than the expected 2 to 3 kilotonnes of TNT (8.4 to 12.6 TJ), but still less than the estimated maximum of 10 kilotonnes of TNT (42 TJ).
609:
would be available, although a distillation plant would still be required. The UK team also explained that in addition to the two atomic tests, there would be a series of
2269:
2232:
257:
Although PIPPA produced less plutonium than a Windscale Pile, it also produced electricity which it could put back into the grid, whereas a Windscale Pile consumed
670:
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Because the Emu Field site was on the Australian mainland, the Australian government required much more information than they had for the Hurricane test about
531:
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in the early hours of the morning with the aircraft windows covered in canvas screens so they could not identify the exact location of the test site.
425:. His party included Pritchard, Butement, Martin, Ben Gates (the range controller), Ivor Bowen from the UK Ministry of Supply staff in Melbourne and
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in March 1953. For cost reasons PIPPA was to operate in such a way that there would be a higher proportion of plutonium-240 present with the
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was critical of these efforts, which it deemed inadequate to warn people spread over 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi).
440:
In December, Penney secured ministerial permission from the British government for two tests to take place in October 1953: one of the
950:
2415:
848:
523:
1033:
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588:(the LRWE Range Superintendent), Frank O'Grady (the Superintendent of Engineering at LRWE Salisbury), and a representative of the
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Kenneth Garden was appointed deputy director and supervisor of construction. The construction force was drawn from the Army, the
198:
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that Menzies had agreed in principle to Penney's reconnaissance of the Emu Field site. Penney flew in to the Dingo Claypan in a
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which registered how much radioactivity people had been exposed to. Lucas was able to inform them that adequate supplies of
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406:
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personnel who had been involved in Operation Hurricane. Ten of them would be part of the Radiation Hazards Group (RH5).
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658:
295:
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MacDougall found the Aboriginal people reluctant to reveal important details such as the location of water holes and
535:
504:
818:
814:
665:
343:
2006:
693:
tests, which the British called "Kittens", did not produce nuclear explosions, but used conventional explosives,
650:
405:, the Australian Defence Scientific Adviser, as Australian observers at the Hurricane test, the creation of the
1428:
863:, which was held in the Montebello Islands in May 1956. This was a pair of tests as part of the development of
2188:. The Official History of the UK Strategic Nuclear Deterrent. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge.
539:
316:
998:
441:
394:
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that could be present in a bomb. The plutonium used in the original Hurricane device was produced in the
145:
a year previously. The main purpose of the trial was to determine the acceptable limit on the amount of
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The yield was greater than expected and only a little below the maximum planned in safety assessments.
902:
856:
810:
791:
543:
516:
278:
202:
817:, was present at the first Totem test and subsequently became a pacifist and a founding member of the
452:, then sought permission from Menzies, who was in London at the time. Churchill's scientific adviser,
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1913:
681:
571:
209:
status, the British government restarted its own development effort, which was given the cover name "
1418:
779:
641:
355:
2132:
Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, Volume 2, Policy and Execution
759:
567:
210:
1487:
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The tank's light damage was repaired, and it was put back into service. Subsequently, nicknamed
1756:
798:
575:
500:
430:
401:, at a meeting on 4 September. Other matters discussed included the attendance of Butement and
379:
156:
called "Kittens". These did not produce nuclear explosions, but used conventional explosives,
2355:
1372:"4.2 Operation Totem (detonations on 15 October 1953 and 27 October 1953 at Emu Field, S.A.)"
744:
724:
The device was detonated from a tower at 07:00 on 14 October local time (21:30 on 13 October
626:
559:
351:
919:
864:
602:
585:
375:
331:
282:
274:
2105:
Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, Volume 1, Policy Making
8:
840:
610:
482:
270:
254:, and the design was known as PIPPA, for pressurised pile producing power and plutonium.
214:
153:
138:
106:
787:
764:
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in May 1953, and was replaced by Charles Adams. In Australia, a Totem Panel chaired by
367:
218:
142:
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After the Totem 1 test, a black mist rolled across the landscape at the Wallatina and
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transports based at Woomera for ground contamination surveys. The RAF provided a lone
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2091:
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2012:
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1442:
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896:
702:
645:
622:
449:
371:
233:
The main purpose of the trial was to determine the acceptable limit of the amount of
222:
193:
165:
2253:
The Report of the Royal Commission into British Nuclear Tests in Australia, Volume 2
2216:
The Report of the Royal Commission into British Nuclear Tests in Australia, Volume 1
1975:
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860:
618:
606:
486:
472:
The test series was given the codename Totem. A Totem Executive (Totex) chaired by
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177:
111:
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product than in the Windscale-produced material. Since plutonium-240 is prone to
246:
238:
134:
457:
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type but with a smaller fissile charge, and one of a new experimental type. The
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889:
740:
729:
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633:
414:
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was required to gauge the effect of an increased proportion of plutonium-240.
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to ensure that no one entered K Site. For their services, Lucas was made an
409:, and the supply of Australian uranium to the UK. Cockcroft reported to Sir
2095:
2002:
1917:. No. 36, 217. New South Wales, Australia. 19 January 1954. p. 16
694:
551:
547:
410:
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126:
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transport aircraft based at RAAF Richmond for radioactive cloud sampling.
362:
known as the Dingo Claypan provided a ready-made airstrip. In August, Sir
775:
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An important concern was the welfare of the local Aboriginal people, the
473:
370:, and the head of the British atomic weapon development effort, notified
335:
262:
206:
185:
2338:
334:
had already begun in June 1952. Surveys of the area were carried out by
859:
test site in August 1954. However it was not ready for the next trial,
597:
434:
326:
2008:
Britain, Australia and the Bomb: The Nuclear Tests and Their Aftermath
1755:. Royal Australian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. Archived from
778:. During a firefight in May 1969, 169041 (call sign 24C) was hit by a
393:, personally lodged a formal request for a feasibility study with the
2161:. Loftus, New South Wales: Australian Military History Publications.
2066:
Beyond Belief: The British Bomb Tests: Australia's Veterans Speak Out
698:
497:
251:
242:
161:
130:
2186:
Volume I: From the V-Bomber Era to the Arrival of Polaris, 1945–1964
867:. The first trial at Maralinga was held in September 1956, with the
366:, the Chief Superintendent Armament Research (CSAR) at the British
201:(McMahon Act) ended technical co-operation. Fearing a resurgence of
141:
test of the first British atomic bomb, which had taken place at the
30:
718:
662:
339:
346:(LRWE). Harry Pritchard, the Chief Superintendent there, loaned a
1657:
359:
1507:
1505:
1181:
1128:
708:
2258:(Report). Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
2221:(Report). Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
1941:
1865:
1771:
1697:
1571:
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in 1917 had disrupted their traditional patterns of movement.
152:
In addition to the two main tests, there was a series of five
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1534:
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1291:
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1285:
1283:
1281:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1140:
747:, was positioned approximately 320 metres (350 yd) from
508:
496:
The task of coordinating the construction phase was given to
2159:
The Royal Australian Engineers, 1945 to 1972: Paving the Way
1929:
1855:
1853:
1745:
1685:
1626:
1502:
1215:
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1198:
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1970:
1968:
1953:
1889:
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1709:
1673:
1607:
1583:
1544:
1529:
1517:
1386:
1278:
1249:
1237:
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A five-man Australian mission consisting of Lucas, Gates,
460:
on 13 December. Two days later the acting Prime Minister,
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1721:
1398:
1318:
1316:
1301:
1225:
1208:
1024:
1018:
941:
935:
258:
1427:. Vol. 18. Canberra: National Centre of Biography,
1266:
1193:
1164:
1104:
671:
Royal Commission into British nuclear tests in Australia
2039:
Test of Greatness: Britain's Struggle for the Atom Bomb
1965:
1352:
1340:
464:, signalled his approval for the tests from Australia.
2292:. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
1877:
1833:
1821:
1733:
1595:
1559:
1328:
1313:
701:
and natural uranium to investigate the performance of
164:
and natural uranium to investigate the performance of
2315:
1976:"Britain's Nuclear Weapons – British Nuclear Testing"
1072:
310 m (1,020 ft) + 31 m (102 ft)
728:). The yield was predicted to be between 0.25 and 10
532:
Royal Australian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers
1116:
989:300 m (980 ft) + 31 m (102 ft)
669:frequency as the test firings approached. The 1985
1661:. No. 30, 721. Victoria, Australia. p. 2
1152:
526:, and the Army's 7th Independent Field Squadron,
519:(RAAF), and the Departments of Supply and Works.
433:. The party inspected the area by helicopter and
2377:
2068:. Kent Town, South Australia: Wakefield Press.
213:". The first British atomic bomb was tested in
2290:A History of British Atomic Tests in Australia
1490:. Centre for Indigenous Family History Studies
522:The main units involved were detachments from
2129:
2102:
1187:
1134:
590:Australian Security Intelligence Organisation
228:
1416:
2250:
2210:
2063:
2001:
1959:
1947:
1935:
1871:
1859:
1805:. Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. Archived from
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1777:
1727:
1715:
1703:
1691:
1679:
1632:
1589:
1577:
1553:
1523:
1511:
1474:
1419:"Titterton, Sir Ernest William (1916–1990)"
1404:
1307:
1295:
1219:
1202:
1175:
1084:
1003:
354:480 kilometres (300 mi) north west of
1925:– via National Library of Australia.
1669:– via National Library of Australia.
1643:
1641:
845:Officer of the Order of the British Empire
29:
2130:Gowing, Margaret; Arnold, Lorna (1974b).
2103:Gowing, Margaret; Arnold, Lorna (1974a).
849:Member of the Order of the British Empire
524:No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron RAAF
2156:
2033:
1803:"Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND)"
1488:"Patrol Report W. MacDougall 18. 4.1953"
1358:
1346:
1231:
1146:
753:
707:
546:and Woomera. The RAAF also provided ten
374:, the Chief Scientist at the Australian
2287:
1895:
1883:
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1827:
1739:
1647:
1638:
1620:
1601:
1565:
1538:
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1272:
1260:
1243:
199:United States Atomic Energy Act of 1946
2378:
2082:
1110:
2183:
1158:
1122:
813:, who had previously reported on the
391:Atomic Weapons Research Establishment
57:Emu Field, South Australia, Australia
2391:British nuclear testing in Australia
1417:Newton, J. O.; Jenkin, John (2012).
880:United Kingdom's Totem series tests
446:Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
16:1953 atomic tests in South Australia
2088:Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945
2064:Cross, Roger; Hudson, Avon (2006).
2011:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
1653:"When the Desert Skies Caught Fire"
542:. Civilians came from the LRWEs at
407:Australian Atomic Energy Commission
137:in October 1953. They followed the
13:
2396:Australia–United Kingdom relations
1424:Australian Dictionary of Biography
782:(RPG) but remained battle-worthy.
320:Location of Emu Field in Australia
149:which could be present in a bomb.
125:was a pair of British atmospheric
14:
2427:
1374:. Department of Veterans' Affairs
536:Royal Australian Corps of Signals
302:
2416:October 1953 events in Australia
2361:
2349:
2337:
2325:
819:Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
815:Bikini Atoll nuclear experiments
344:Long Range Weapons Establishment
301:
294:
35:Obelisk at the Totem 1 test site
1901:
1795:
1480:
1410:
1364:
651:Department of Works and Housing
467:
2134:. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
1753:"The Unique History of 169041"
1429:Australian National University
1:
1994:
540:Royal Australian Survey Corps
273:, this increased the risk of
176:During the early part of the
171:
833:
7:
2251:McClelland, James (1985b).
1909:"Awards To Atomic Test Men"
841:Commonwealth Peace Officers
774:, it was later used in the
395:Prime Minister of Australia
10:
2432:
2406:1953 in the United Kingdom
874:
824:
792:Holtze, Northern Territory
745:Registration Number 169041
687:
558:for air sampling, and two
528:17th Construction Squadron
517:Royal Australian Air Force
229:Purpose and site selection
203:United States isolationism
1978:. Nuclear Weapons Archive
1914:The Sydney Morning Herald
1188:Gowing & Arnold 1974b
1135:Gowing & Arnold 1974a
1014:
931:
926:
923:
918:
915:
912:
909:
906:
901:
894:
887:
884:
682:radioactive contamination
572:Boeing B-29 Superfortress
205:, and Britain losing its
192:merged with the American
102:
97:
85:
77:
69:
61:
53:
45:
40:
28:
23:
2411:1950s in South Australia
2386:1953 in military history
2157:Greville, P. J. (2002).
1097:
780:rocket-propelled grenade
642:Trans-Australian Railway
566:for cloud sampling. The
382:people to see the area.
356:Woomera, South Australia
2288:Symonds, J. L. (1985).
2184:Jones, Jeffrey (2017).
2041:. London: John Murray.
1960:Arnold & Smith 2006
1948:Arnold & Smith 2006
1936:Arnold & Smith 2006
1860:Arnold & Smith 2006
1728:Arnold & Smith 2006
1692:Arnold & Smith 2006
1633:Arnold & Smith 2006
1578:Arnold & Smith 2006
1554:Arnold & Smith 2006
1512:Cross & Hudson 2006
1405:Arnold & Smith 2006
1308:Arnold & Smith 2006
1203:Arnold & Smith 2006
1176:Arnold & Smith 2006
568:United States Air Force
530:, with elements of the
211:High Explosive Research
2005:; Smith, Mark (2006).
1149:, pp. 24, 48, 57.
967:28.69849°S 132.37159°E
847:and Garden was made a
767:
713:
576:Douglas C-54 Skymaster
431:Defence Research Board
389:, the director of the
281:that would reduce the
98:Test series chronology
2107:. London: Macmillan.
2090:. London: Macmillan.
1081:Modified Blue Danube
865:thermonuclear weapons
757:
711:
627:Royal Australian Navy
352:Great Victoria Desert
1759:on 30 September 2018
1078:weapons development
1050:28.7122°S 132.3773°E
995:weapons development
972:-28.69849; 132.37159
586:Alfred George Pither
456:, handed Menzies an
376:Department of Supply
332:Woomera Rocket Range
317:class=notpageimage|
275:criticality accident
184:project, code-named
129:which took place at
1950:, pp. 106–110.
1898:, pp. 214–215.
1874:, pp. 215–216.
1780:, pp. 149–150.
1706:, pp. 146–147.
1651:(16 October 1953).
1623:, pp. 160–161.
1580:, pp. 215–216.
1541:, pp. 124–125.
1477:, pp. 151–154.
1395:, pp. 121–123.
1263:, pp. 117–118.
1246:, pp. 115–116.
1190:, pp. 292–294.
1137:, pp. 181–184.
1113:, pp. 108–111.
1045: /
962: /
907:Elevation + height
881:
809:British journalist
505:Department of Works
493:was so designated.
483:National Coal Board
271:spontaneous fission
225:on 3 October 1952.
215:Operation Hurricane
139:Operation Hurricane
107:Operation Hurricane
2368:Nuclear technology
1055:-28.7122; 132.3773
879:
788:Robertson Barracks
786:is now located at
768:
765:Robertson Barracks
714:
703:neutron initiators
429:from the Canadian
368:Ministry of Supply
219:Montebello Islands
166:neutron initiators
143:Montebello Islands
65:15–27 October 1953
2401:1953 in Australia
2299:978-0-644-04118-8
2265:978-0-644-04436-3
2228:978-0-644-04435-6
2212:McClelland, James
2195:978-1-138-67493-6
2168:978-1-876439-74-3
2141:978-0-333-16695-6
2114:978-0-333-15781-7
2075:978-1-86254-660-8
2048:978-0-7195-5225-0
2018:978-1-4039-2102-4
1938:, pp. 65–67.
1694:, pp. 57–59.
1635:, pp. 57–58.
1514:, pp. 23–25.
1438:978-0-522-84459-7
1275:, pp. 95–96.
1234:, pp. 39–43.
1095:
1094:
869:Operation Buffalo
730:kilotonnes of TNT
646:Walter MacDougall
623:nuclear physicist
611:subcritical tests
550:bombers based at
450:Winston Churchill
372:W. A. S. Butement
223:Western Australia
194:Manhattan Project
188:, which the 1943
154:subcritical tests
120:
119:
91:kilotonnes of TNT
2423:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2354:
2353:
2352:
2342:
2341:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2321:
2311:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2275:on 31 March 2019
2274:
2268:. Archived from
2257:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2238:on 31 March 2019
2237:
2231:. Archived from
2220:
2207:
2180:
2153:
2126:
2099:
2084:Gowing, Margaret
2079:
2060:
2030:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1972:
1963:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1927:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1905:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1872:McClelland 1985a
1869:
1863:
1857:
1848:
1842:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1799:
1793:
1790:McClelland 1985a
1787:
1781:
1778:McClelland 1985a
1775:
1769:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1749:
1743:
1737:
1731:
1725:
1719:
1716:McClelland 1985b
1713:
1707:
1704:McClelland 1985a
1701:
1695:
1689:
1683:
1680:McClelland 1985a
1677:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1645:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1618:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1590:McClelland 1985b
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1563:
1557:
1551:
1542:
1536:
1527:
1524:McClelland 1985a
1521:
1515:
1509:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1484:
1478:
1475:McClelland 1985a
1472:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1368:
1362:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1338:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1296:McClelland 1985a
1293:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1220:McClelland 1985a
1217:
1206:
1200:
1191:
1185:
1179:
1173:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1086:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1062:
1057:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1038:
1026:
1020:
1005:
986:
985:
983:
982:
981:
979:
974:
973:
968:
963:
960:
959:
958:
955:
943:
937:
882:
878:
861:Operation Mosaic
801:stations in the
619:Ernest Titterton
574:bombers and two
487:J. E. S. Stevens
348:Bristol Sycamore
305:
304:
298:
190:Quebec Agreement
180:, Britain had a
178:Second World War
112:Operation Mosaic
33:
21:
20:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2376:
2375:
2372:
2362:
2360:
2350:
2348:
2336:
2326:
2324:
2316:
2314:
2300:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2266:
2255:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2229:
2218:
2196:
2169:
2142:
2115:
2076:
2049:
2035:Cathcart, Brian
2019:
1997:
1992:
1991:
1981:
1979:
1974:
1973:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1920:
1918:
1907:
1906:
1902:
1894:
1890:
1882:
1878:
1870:
1866:
1858:
1851:
1843:
1834:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1810:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1788:
1784:
1776:
1772:
1762:
1760:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1738:
1734:
1726:
1722:
1714:
1710:
1702:
1698:
1690:
1686:
1678:
1674:
1664:
1662:
1646:
1639:
1631:
1627:
1619:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1545:
1537:
1530:
1522:
1518:
1510:
1503:
1493:
1491:
1486:
1485:
1481:
1473:
1469:
1459:
1457:
1439:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1399:
1391:
1387:
1377:
1375:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1357:
1353:
1345:
1341:
1333:
1329:
1321:
1314:
1306:
1302:
1294:
1279:
1271:
1267:
1259:
1250:
1242:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1218:
1209:
1201:
1194:
1186:
1182:
1174:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1125:, pp. 1–2.
1121:
1117:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1031:
1025:27 October 1953
1019:26 October 1953
977:
975:
971:
969:
965:
964:
961:
956:
953:
951:
949:
948:
942:15 October 1953
936:14 October 1953
877:
836:
827:
784:The Atomic Tank
772:The Atomic Tank
760:The Atomic Tank
690:
678:nuclear fallout
638:Yankuntjatjarra
570:(USAF) had two
564:Canberra bomber
513:Squadron Leader
491:Australian Army
478:Thomas Elmhirst
470:
423:Percival Prince
419:Royal Air Force
323:
322:
321:
319:
313:
312:
311:
310:
306:
287:Nuclear testing
247:Windscale Piles
239:nuclear reactor
231:
182:nuclear weapons
174:
135:South Australia
123:Operation Totem
116:
115:
109:
86:Max. yield
70:Number of tests
36:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2429:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2371:
2370:
2358:
2356:United Kingdom
2346:
2334:
2313:
2312:
2298:
2285:
2264:
2248:
2227:
2208:
2194:
2181:
2167:
2154:
2140:
2127:
2113:
2100:
2080:
2074:
2061:
2047:
2031:
2017:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1964:
1962:, p. 138.
1952:
1940:
1928:
1900:
1888:
1886:, p. 237.
1876:
1864:
1849:
1847:, p. 208.
1832:
1830:, p. 207.
1820:
1809:on 14 May 2011
1794:
1792:, p. 194.
1782:
1770:
1744:
1742:, p. 185.
1732:
1720:
1718:, p. 226.
1708:
1696:
1684:
1682:, p. 140.
1672:
1649:Cameron, James
1637:
1625:
1606:
1604:, p. 158.
1594:
1592:, p. 524.
1582:
1570:
1568:, p. 157.
1558:
1556:, p. 217.
1543:
1528:
1526:, p. 153.
1516:
1501:
1479:
1467:
1437:
1409:
1397:
1385:
1363:
1361:, p. 469.
1351:
1349:, p. 467.
1339:
1337:, p. 150.
1327:
1325:, p. 120.
1312:
1300:
1298:, p. 139.
1277:
1265:
1248:
1236:
1224:
1222:, p. 137.
1207:
1192:
1180:
1163:
1151:
1139:
1127:
1115:
1102:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1090:
1087:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1030:Emu Field, SA
1028:
1022:
1016:
1012:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1001:
996:
993:
990:
987:
947:Emu Field, SA
945:
939:
933:
929:
928:
925:
922:
917:
914:
911:
908:
905:
900:
893:
886:
876:
873:
835:
832:
826:
823:
741:Centurion tank
689:
686:
634:Pitjantjatjara
469:
466:
415:Foreign Office
399:Robert Menzies
387:John Cockcroft
364:William Penney
315:
314:
308:
307:
300:
299:
293:
292:
291:
230:
227:
173:
170:
118:
117:
110:
104:
103:
100:
99:
95:
94:
87:
83:
82:
79:
75:
74:
71:
67:
66:
63:
59:
58:
55:
51:
50:
49:United Kingdom
47:
43:
42:
38:
37:
34:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2428:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2381:
2374:
2369:
2359:
2357:
2347:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2333:
2323:
2322:
2319:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2291:
2286:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2254:
2249:
2234:
2230:
2224:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2010:
2009:
2004:
2003:Arnold, Lorna
2000:
1999:
1977:
1971:
1969:
1961:
1956:
1949:
1944:
1937:
1932:
1916:
1915:
1910:
1904:
1897:
1892:
1885:
1880:
1873:
1868:
1862:, p. 59.
1861:
1856:
1854:
1846:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1829:
1824:
1808:
1804:
1798:
1791:
1786:
1779:
1774:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1741:
1736:
1730:, p. 61.
1729:
1724:
1717:
1712:
1705:
1700:
1693:
1688:
1681:
1676:
1660:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1644:
1642:
1634:
1629:
1622:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1603:
1598:
1591:
1586:
1579:
1574:
1567:
1562:
1555:
1550:
1548:
1540:
1535:
1533:
1525:
1520:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1489:
1483:
1476:
1471:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1425:
1420:
1413:
1407:, p. 54.
1406:
1401:
1394:
1389:
1373:
1367:
1360:
1359:Greville 2002
1355:
1348:
1347:Greville 2002
1343:
1336:
1331:
1324:
1319:
1317:
1310:, p. 52.
1309:
1304:
1297:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1282:
1274:
1269:
1262:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1245:
1240:
1233:
1232:Cathcart 1995
1228:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1205:, p. 50.
1204:
1199:
1197:
1189:
1184:
1178:, p. 49.
1177:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1161:, p. 25.
1160:
1155:
1148:
1147:Cathcart 1995
1143:
1136:
1131:
1124:
1119:
1112:
1107:
1103:
1091:
1088:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1067:
1029:
1023:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1002:
1000:
997:
994:
991:
988:
984:
946:
940:
934:
930:
921:
904:
898:
891:
883:
872:
870:
866:
862:
858:
852:
850:
846:
842:
831:
822:
820:
816:
812:
811:James Cameron
807:
804:
803:Granite Downs
800:
799:Welbourn Hill
795:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
766:
762:
761:
756:
752:
750:
746:
742:
737:
733:
731:
727:
722:
720:
710:
706:
704:
700:
696:
685:
683:
679:
674:
672:
667:
664:
660:
655:
652:
647:
643:
639:
635:
630:
628:
624:
620:
614:
612:
608:
604:
599:
595:
594:Fort Halstead
591:
587:
584:
583:Group Captain
579:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
556:RAAF Richmond
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
520:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
501:Leonard Lucas
499:
494:
492:
488:
484:
479:
475:
465:
463:
462:Arthur Fadden
459:
455:
454:Lord Cherwell
451:
447:
443:
438:
436:
432:
428:
427:Omond Solandt
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
403:Leslie Martin
400:
396:
392:
388:
383:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
328:
318:
297:
290:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
267:plutonium-239
264:
260:
255:
253:
248:
244:
240:
236:
235:plutonium-240
226:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
150:
148:
147:plutonium-240
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
127:nuclear tests
124:
114: →
113:
108:
105:←
101:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
39:
32:
27:
22:
19:
2373:
2289:
2277:. Retrieved
2270:the original
2240:. Retrieved
2233:the original
2185:
2158:
2131:
2104:
2087:
2065:
2038:
2007:
1980:. Retrieved
1955:
1943:
1931:
1919:. Retrieved
1912:
1903:
1896:Symonds 1985
1891:
1884:Symonds 1985
1879:
1867:
1845:Symonds 1985
1828:Symonds 1985
1823:
1811:. Retrieved
1807:the original
1797:
1785:
1773:
1763:30 September
1761:. Retrieved
1757:the original
1747:
1740:Symonds 1985
1735:
1723:
1711:
1699:
1687:
1675:
1663:. Retrieved
1656:
1628:
1621:Symonds 1985
1602:Symonds 1985
1597:
1585:
1573:
1566:Symonds 1985
1561:
1539:Symonds 1985
1519:
1492:. Retrieved
1482:
1470:
1458:. Retrieved
1422:
1412:
1400:
1393:Symonds 1985
1388:
1376:. Retrieved
1366:
1354:
1342:
1335:Symonds 1985
1330:
1323:Symonds 1985
1303:
1273:Symonds 1985
1268:
1261:Symonds 1985
1244:Symonds 1985
1239:
1227:
1183:
1154:
1142:
1130:
1118:
1106:
895:Local time (
853:
837:
828:
808:
796:
783:
771:
769:
758:
738:
734:
723:
715:
712:Totem 1 test
695:polonium-210
691:
675:
659:sacred sites
656:
631:
621:, a British
615:
580:
552:RAAF Woomera
548:Avro Lincoln
521:
495:
471:
468:Preparations
458:aide-mémoire
439:
411:Roger Makins
384:
358:. A natural
324:
256:
232:
175:
158:polonium-210
151:
122:
121:
93:(42 TJ)
18:
1111:Gowing 1964
1053: /
1040:132°22′38″E
999:Blue Danube
970: /
957:132°22′18″E
927:References
888:Date time (
776:Vietnam War
749:ground zero
603:film badges
598:Nissen huts
474:Air Marshal
442:Blue Danube
336:Len Beadell
263:Calder Hall
207:great power
186:Tube Alloys
41:Information
2380:Categories
2204:1005663721
1995:References
1159:Jones 2017
1123:Jones 2017
1059: (
1037:28°42′44″S
976: (
954:28°41′55″S
607:bore water
435:Land Rover
380:Aboriginal
327:Royal Navy
245:, but the
172:Background
2332:Australia
2214:(1985a).
2177:223163429
2150:946341039
2123:611555258
1921:2 October
1813:24 August
1665:2 October
1494:3 October
1460:28 August
1447:1833-7538
1378:2 October
910:Delivery
857:Maralinga
834:Aftermath
699:beryllium
544:Salisbury
498:Brigadier
309:Emu Field
252:plutonium
243:Windscale
162:beryllium
131:Emu Field
78:Test type
54:Test site
2344:Politics
2308:18084438
2279:8 August
2242:8 August
2086:(1964).
2057:31241690
2037:(1995).
2027:70673342
1982:4 August
1455:70677943
1015:Totem 2
932:Totem 1
913:Purpose
903:Location
871:series.
719:Adelaide
666:stations
663:pastoral
538:and the
340:surveyor
2318:Portals
2096:3195209
1658:The Age
916:Device
875:Summary
825:Totem 2
763:at the
688:Totem 1
413:at the
360:claypan
342:at the
217:at the
46:Country
2306:
2296:
2262:
2225:
2202:
2192:
2175:
2165:
2148:
2138:
2121:
2111:
2094:
2072:
2055:
2045:
2025:
2015:
1453:
1445:
1435:
1075:tower
1027:07:00
1021:21:30
992:tower
944:07:00
938:21:30
924:Notes
560:Dakota
421:(RAF)
338:, the
279:fizzle
277:and a
62:Period
2273:(PDF)
2256:(PDF)
2236:(PDF)
2219:(PDF)
1098:Notes
1004:10 kt
920:Yield
885:Name
509:Perth
283:yield
81:tower
24:Totem
2304:OCLC
2294:ISBN
2281:2018
2260:ISBN
2244:2018
2223:ISBN
2200:OCLC
2190:ISBN
2173:OCLC
2163:ISBN
2146:OCLC
2136:ISBN
2119:OCLC
2109:ISBN
2092:OCLC
2070:ISBN
2053:OCLC
2043:ISBN
2023:OCLC
2013:ISBN
1984:2018
1923:2018
1815:2022
1765:2018
1667:2018
1496:2018
1462:2016
1451:OCLC
1443:ISSN
1433:ISBN
1380:2018
1085:8 kt
897:ACST
680:and
636:and
554:and
476:Sir
385:Sir
325:The
890:UTC
790:in
726:UTC
507:in
259:GBP
241:at
221:in
133:in
89:10
2382::
2302:.
2198:.
2171:.
2144:.
2117:.
2051:.
2021:.
1967:^
1911:.
1852:^
1835:^
1655:.
1640:^
1609:^
1546:^
1531:^
1504:^
1449:.
1441:.
1431:.
1421:.
1315:^
1280:^
1251:^
1210:^
1195:^
1166:^
1061:T2
978:T1
899:)
892:)
851:.
821:.
743:,
739:A
697:,
613:.
534:,
511:.
448:,
397:,
285:.
168:.
160:,
2320::
2310:.
2283:.
2246:.
2206:.
2179:.
2152:.
2125:.
2098:.
2078:.
2059:.
2029:.
1986:.
1817:.
1767:.
1498:.
1464:.
1382:.
1063:)
980:)
73:2
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