597:
40:
751:—because the dominant legal interpretation of the McMahon Act has been that nuclear striking forces cannot be controlled by non-US commanders. This was the reason for the formation of Striking Fleet Atlantic as an independent entity, instead of being operationally subordinated to the UK Admiral serving as Commander-in-Chief, Eastern Atlantic, in October–November 1952. This was also the reason why the Sixth Fleet, in its NATO guise as Naval Striking and Support Force, South, was placed under American control rather than Allied Forces Mediterranean when the European commands were agreed at the same time.
589:, who sponsored the McMahon Bill in the House, vigorously defended the dissemination provisions of Section 10 against counterarguments. She dismissed objections that it would "give away the secret of the bomb", asserting that America's advantage in nuclear weapons could only be temporary, whereas the bill could perpetuate its lead in scientific research. An important addition, known as the Vandenberg Amendment, created a Military Liaison Committee to advise the commission on defense matters. Section 2 of the Act also created a General Advisory Committee, and a new
180:
2518:
536:
controversy as a question of military versus civilian control of atomic energy, although the May-Johnson Bill also provided for civilian control. The McMahon Bill attempted to address the controversial aspects of the May-Johnson Bill. The number of commissioners was reduced to five, and they would serve full-time. No exemption was provided for serving military officers. An amendment specified that they have staggered terms of five years.
432:
applications, industrial uses, research and medicine, the membership of which would be restricted to those with technical qualifications. Day-to-day running of the organization would be in the hands of an administrator and his deputy. The Royall–Marbury Bill was reviewed by the
Interim Committee at its July 19 meeting and revised in line with their suggestions. After the
582:", and regardless of how it was derived or obtained, was considered classified unless it was specifically declassified. This restriction on free speech, covering an entire subject matter, is still enforced. The "wall of secrecy" set up by the Act meant that atomic energy research and development had to be conducted under the supervision of the Atomic Energy Commission.
424:, to take up the job of drafting the legislation. The legislation was based on Bush and Conant's proposal, and the organization that it proposed was based on the existing structure of the Manhattan Project. Their draft bill would have created a nine-person commission consisting of five civilian and four military members. It granted the commission broad powers to
720:, the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, proposed in January 1958 that the President should be able to share nuclear information with allies that were making "substantial and material contributions to the national defense and security". In addition to its own nuclear weapons, Britain had hosted American
503:
had to keep the deputy fully informed further aroused suspicion that the administrator would be an Army officer and the deputy a Navy officer. The secrecy provisions also frightened many scientists; it contained severe penalties of up to ten years imprisonment and $ 10,000 in fines for security breaches. The
487:. The bill was known as the May-Johnson Bill for its sponsors. May immediately had the bill referred to the Military Affairs Committee, which held hearings on October 9. Bush, Conant and Groves all testified before the committee. But in the Senate Military Affairs Committee, the bill was held up by Senator
627:
on June 1, 1946. Considerable political maneuvering was required before it was passed by the House 265–79 on July 20. A compromise bill was then agreed to by both houses on July 26. Truman signed the compromise bill into law as the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 on August 1, 1946. When it went into effect
685:
Implementing the McMahon Act created a substantial rift between United States and
Britain. The new control of "restricted data" prevented the United States' allies from receiving any information, despite the fact that the British and Canadian governments, before contributing technology and manpower
502:
were particularly notable critics. The bill created a powerful administrator and deputy administrator, and specifically stated that they might be members of the armed forces. It was feared that they would dominate the part-time commissioners. The fact that the bill emphasized that the administrator
661:
program, and resulted in pressure on federal officials to develop a civilian nuclear power industry that could help justify the government's considerable expenditures on the nuclear weapons program. In 1953, the Atomic Energy
Commission presented a set of draft amendments to the Joint Committee on
510:
Legislators found themselves in an unusual and uncomfortable situation. Nuclear weapons were terrifying, and the nature of nuclear energy was not widely understood. Because it was so new, there were no policies or precedents to guide legislators, and traditional party alignments were absent. The
321:
program in 1954. In restricting the access to nuclear information to other countries, it created a rift between the United States and its allies, particularly
Britain and Canada, which had participated in the Manhattan Project. This resulted in cumbersome command and control arrangements, and in
431:
Royall and
Marbury envisaged nuclear energy being controlled by experts, with a minimum of political interference. The commissioners would be appointed for indefinite terms, and the President's power to remove them would be limited. They would be supported by four advisory boards, for military
535:
introduced an alternative bill on atomic energy, drafted by the Senate
Military Affairs Committee, which quickly became known as the McMahon Bill. This was initially a very liberal bill regarding the control of scientific research, and was broadly supported by scientists. McMahon framed the
714:, and the Senate had not seen the document. McMahon told Churchill in 1952 that "If we had seen this Agreement, there would have been no McMahon Act." The McMahon Act fueled resentment from British scientists and Churchill and led to Britain developing its own nuclear weapons.
573:
The more conservative elements in
Congress now moved to toughen the act. Section 10, which was formerly titled "Dissemination of Information", now became "Control of Information". This new section contained the novel doctrine later described as
645:
An important omission from the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 was any mention of non-governmental use of nuclear energy, since military applications overshadowed all others at the time. The restrictions of the act related to secrecy, the control of
763:
affirmed that the Act gives the federal government exclusive authority over safety at nuclear power plants. This allowed
Vermont Yankee to continue operating until it was voluntarily shut down by the owner for economic reasons in 2014.
705:
The Hyde Park
Agreement was lost in Roosevelt's papers after his death, and until the American copy of the document was found American officials were puzzled when the British mentioned it. The Quebec Agreement was an
288:, who chaired the United States Senate Special Committee on Atomic Energy, and whose hearings in late 1945 and early 1946 led to the fine tuning and passing of the Act. The Senate passed the Act unanimously through
1332:
355:
of the
Metallurgical Project in Chicago commissioned a report on post-war nuclear energy, and the Military Policy Committee, the Manhattan Project's governing body, commissioned a similar study by
669:
The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 proved insufficient in its objective of encouraging privately built and run nuclear reactors. A series of accidents with research reactors, including partial
2393:
2560:
2455:
1340:
1306:
543:
in Canada, and the subsequent arrest of 22 people. The members of Congress debating the bill feared that "atomic secrets" were being systematically stolen by Soviet
650:
materials, the ownership of patents and the operation of production facilities placed a number of legal roadblocks in the way of private nuclear power stations.
17:
724:
nuclear bombers since 1948. Congress amended the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 in June 1958, and America and Britain again began sharing nuclear research under the
613:
674:
2565:
1171:
468:
484:
441:
2570:
428:, operate facilities, conduct research, regulate all forms of nuclear energy, and administer its own security, administrative and audit regimes.
1557:
690:, had made agreements with the United States about the post-war sharing of nuclear technology. Those agreements had been formalized in the 1943
344:. Key scientists working on the project anticipated that their development would have wide-ranging implications. However the project director,
322:
Britain developing its own nuclear weapons. The Act was amended in 1958 to allow the United States to share information with its close allies.
303:
on August 1, 1946, it went into effect on January 1, 1947, and the Atomic Energy Commission assumed responsibility for nuclear energy from the
2555:
2408:
445:
2550:
673:, made private companies cautious, and reluctant to become involved with nuclear energy without protection from liability. This led to the
359:. Both reports called for a comprehensive, government-supported nuclear energy program, with military, scientific, and industrial aspects.
1973:
1835:
1175:
1786:
2585:
2300:
433:
725:
511:
scientists who had developed the new technology had never been vocal before, but suddenly were now. The victorious conclusion of
677:
of 1957, which capped private liability for nuclear accidents, while providing for adequate compensations for accident victims.
448:. The draft was sent to the President in August for circulation among, and comment from, affected government agencies. Only the
1489:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press.
629:
456:
293:
267:
452:
had objections, on the basis that it was still involved in trying to hammer out an international agreement on nuclear energy.
1425:
1689:
Ruebhausen, Oscar M; von Mehren, Robert B. (June 1953). "The Atomic Energy Act and the Private Production of Atomic Power".
2575:
1612:
711:
1607:
370:
and Irvin Stewart produced a proposal for domestic legislation to control nuclear energy. Conant submitted this to the
1375:
760:
694:. In the case of the United Kingdom, these were developed further in the 1944 Hyde Park Agreement, which was signed by
578:" or "classified at birth". All information concerning the design, development and manufacture of nuclear weapons was "
1853:
1494:
1452:
744:
414:
2580:
590:
560:
520:
281:
125:
1828:
1802:
552:
98:
90:
1481:
494:
There was a storm of criticism from scientists, particularly those at the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago.
449:
437:
436:
lifted the veil of secrecy surrounding the Manhattan Project, Royall and Marbury were able to consult with the
382:
371:
297:
2540:
1259:
748:
345:
2460:
1179:
187:
signs the Atomic Energy Act into law on August 1, 1946. Behind the President, left to right, are Senators
2428:
1598:
1418:
The American Atom: A Documentary History of Nuclear Policies from the Discovery of Fission to the Present
515:
gave the armed forces enormous prestige, but there still remained the long-standing American distrust of
59:
351:, was reluctant to spend project funds on activities beyond those required to win the war. Nonetheless,
2521:
1821:
736:
74:
1252:
2403:
1794:
1774:
1574:
740:
663:
654:
314:
171:
1778:
2485:
2018:
1877:
743:
have never been allowed to be placed anywhere but directly under American commanding officers—the
2480:
2377:
1932:
1439:
1798:
596:
507:
headline accused the War Department of attempting to railroad the legislation through Congress.
2259:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1892:
1731:(2008). "The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907–2007".
421:
389:
239:
2545:
2500:
2325:
2068:
2013:
1807:
721:
586:
212:
313:
The Act was subsequently amended to promote private development of nuclear energy under the
39:
2310:
2305:
2164:
2038:
1740:
1728:
539:
While the bill was being debated, the news broke on February 16, 1946, of the defection of
488:
472:
348:
274:
1483:
Atoms for Peace and War, Volume III, 1953–1961 Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission
8:
2169:
2124:
2084:
1907:
731:
The stipulations contained in the Act caused significant controversy during debates over
707:
605:
1744:
2234:
2058:
2028:
1968:
1716:
1691:
1661:
1637:
1544:
1477:
1435:
699:
410:
393:
232:
192:
2449:
2438:
2345:
2204:
2199:
2149:
1998:
1993:
1983:
1844:
1756:
1708:
1670:
1629:
1566:
1536:
1500:
1490:
1458:
1448:
1421:
1404:
1381:
1371:
695:
687:
548:
378:
341:
307:
139:
2249:
179:
2470:
2269:
2254:
2219:
2194:
2048:
2003:
1748:
1700:
1621:
1528:
691:
617:
495:
476:
388:
in May 1945 to supervise, regulate and control nuclear energy until such a time as
374:
208:
196:
83:
1782:
1519:
Gott, Richard (April 1963). "The Evolution of the Independent British Deterrent".
2475:
2315:
2279:
2209:
2144:
2134:
2109:
2008:
1988:
1963:
658:
579:
563:
556:
516:
396:, an assistant to Stimson and a member of the committee, to prepare legislation.
385:
367:
318:
300:
184:
155:
2224:
1752:
2418:
2413:
2184:
2129:
2119:
2114:
2033:
1958:
1887:
1649:
1393:
Calder, Ritchie (17 October 1953). "Cost of Atomic Secrecy: Anglo-US Rivalry".
480:
425:
417:
356:
352:
330:
251:
243:
200:
632:
assumed responsibility for nuclear energy from the wartime Manhattan Project.
2534:
2433:
2295:
2264:
2244:
2189:
2179:
2089:
1978:
1953:
1897:
1760:
1712:
1674:
1633:
1540:
1462:
1408:
717:
670:
601:
567:
566:
and Groves were called to appear. Groves revealed that the British physicist
540:
532:
460:
392:
created a permanent body to do so. In June 1945, the Interim Committee asked
363:
277:
255:
228:
204:
121:
1570:
1504:
1416:
Canleton, Philip L.; Hewlett, Richard G.; Williams, Robert C., eds. (1991).
1385:
1333:"Vermont nuclear power plant to close in 2014 – Energy prices spell the end"
2490:
2372:
2229:
2174:
2154:
2139:
2043:
1867:
544:
512:
334:
236:
188:
2320:
2274:
2239:
2214:
2159:
2063:
2053:
1937:
1653:
1101:
759:
A 2012 court decision concerning a state law attempting to shut down the
662:
Atomic Energy for consideration. After some debate, this resulted in the
609:
575:
499:
285:
129:
936:
2423:
2367:
2104:
2094:
2023:
1720:
1641:
1548:
1395:
624:
289:
102:
2465:
2331:
2099:
1902:
1789:
1199:
1197:
570:
had passed information about the Manhattan Project to Soviet agents.
1813:
1704:
1625:
1532:
1089:
2505:
2338:
1872:
1565:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History.
1274:
464:
263:
259:
1307:"Appeals Court Blocks Attempt by Vermont to Close a Nuclear Plant"
1194:
1077:
888:
2495:
2362:
1043:
1041:
980:
978:
849:
837:
786:
774:
647:
1881:
247:
1140:
1128:
1118:
1116:
1065:
1038:
1026:
1002:
990:
975:
912:
810:
798:
1014:
2443:
1912:
1595:
Securing Command of the Sea: NATO Naval Planning, 1948–1954
1172:"Fact Sheet on Nuclear Insurance and Disaster Relief Funds"
1113:
953:
951:
732:
600:
The first five Atomic Energy Commissioners. Left to right:
1286:
878:
876:
827:
825:
27:
US law on the control and management of nuclear technology
1221:
1053:
924:
900:
338:
304:
1447:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
1152:
948:
1415:
1233:
942:
873:
861:
822:
640:
50:
An Act For the development and control of atomic energy
1370:. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
963:
1688:
1107:
1095:
2561:
Nuclear weapons infrastructure of the United States
1209:
455:On October 3, 1945, the bill was introduced in the
1420:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
628:at midnight on January 1, 1947, the newly created
75:
2532:
1608:"A Law Is Passed: The Atomic Energy Act of 1946"
1434:
1331:Abel, David; Ailworth, Erin (August 28, 2013).
1203:
1083:
1071:
1047:
1032:
1008:
996:
984:
918:
894:
855:
843:
816:
804:
792:
780:
675:Price–Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act
623:The Senate passed the Act unanimously through
1829:
446:Office of Scientific Research and Development
1365:
1330:
1122:
1476:
1176:United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission
1146:
1134:
1836:
1822:
680:
434:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
250:. Most significantly, the Act ruled that
2566:United States federal energy legislation
1727:
1368:Governing the Atom: The Politics of Risk
1366:Byrne, John; Hoffman, Steven M. (1996).
1158:
595:
178:
1648:
1592:
1559:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb
1292:
1280:
1020:
18:United States Atomic Energy Act of 1946
14:
2571:United States Atomic Energy Commission
2533:
1605:
1392:
1227:
1059:
969:
930:
906:
399:
268:United States Atomic Energy Commission
1843:
1817:
1555:
957:
943:Canleton, Hewlett & Williams 1991
882:
867:
831:
2556:Nuclear history of the United States
1613:The University of Chicago Law Review
1518:
1305:Wald, Matthew L. (August 14, 2013).
1304:
1239:
1215:
735:'s military command structure. Both
641:Private production of nuclear energy
409:Harrison brought in two experienced
2551:Military disbanding and disarmament
726:1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement
404:
377:in September 1944, and then to the
24:
2301:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1808:Text of the submitted McMahon Bill
761:Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant
413:-educated War Department lawyers,
235:it had jointly developed with its
80:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
25:
2597:
1768:
745:Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic
593:to oversee the new organization.
485:Senate Military Affairs Committee
120:in the Senate as S. 1717 by
2586:History of the Manhattan Project
2517:
2516:
1108:Ruebhausen & von Mehren 1953
1096:Ruebhausen & von Mehren 1953
591:Joint Committee on Atomic Energy
521:civilian control of the military
469:House Military Affairs Committee
38:
1790:Statute Compilations collection
1324:
1298:
1245:
1164:
553:Federal Bureau of Investigation
526:
531:On December 20, 1945, Senator
148:on July 20, 1946 (265–79)
13:
1:
1438:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962).
1359:
1260:US Government Printing Office
749:Allied Forces Southern Europe
266:control, and established the
231:would control and manage the
2461:Oppenheimer security hearing
1283:, pp. 234–241, 246–247.
635:
7:
2576:79th United States Congress
1753:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.01.040
1599:University of New Brunswick
1204:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1084:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1072:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1048:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1033:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1009:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
997:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
985:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
919:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
895:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
856:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
844:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
817:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
805:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
793:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
781:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
754:
296:265–79. Signed into law by
60:79th United States Congress
10:
2602:
653:This was at odds with the
325:
258:management would be under
2514:
2404:Bismuth phosphate process
2399:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
2386:
2355:
2288:
2077:
1946:
1860:
1851:
1795:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
1775:Atomic Energy Act of 1954
1606:Miller, Byron S. (1948).
1593:Maloney, Sean M. (1991).
741:United States Sixth Fleet
710:that only applied to the
664:Atomic Energy Act of 1954
655:Eisenhower administration
315:Eisenhower administration
221:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
172:Atomic Energy Act of 1954
170:
165:
113:
108:
89:
70:
65:
54:
46:
37:
33:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
1480:; Holl, Jack M. (1989).
1441:The New World, 1939–1946
1123:Byrne & Hoffman 1996
767:
747:and Commander-in-Chief,
712:Roosevelt administration
630:Atomic Energy Commission
457:House of Representatives
294:House of Representatives
2581:1946 in the environment
2481:S-1 Executive Committee
2429:Einstein–Szilard letter
1556:Jones, Vincent (1985).
1147:Hewlett & Holl 1989
1135:Hewlett & Holl 1989
737:Striking Fleet Atlantic
681:International relations
519:, and the tradition of
1923:Salt Wells Pilot Plant
620:
547:. McMahon convened an
467:, the chairman of the
442:Judge Advocate General
422:William L. Marbury Jr.
333:were developed during
216:
138:on June 1, 1946 (
132:) on December 20, 1945
2501:X-10 Graphite Reactor
2456:Nobel Prize laureates
2326:509th Composite Group
1729:Sovacool, Benjamin K.
1521:International Affairs
1110:, pp. 1472–1476.
1023:, pp. 1401–1402.
722:Strategic Air Command
599:
587:Helen Gahagan Douglas
227:) determined how the
213:Richard B. Russell Jr
182:
2541:1946 in American law
2409:British contribution
2311:Operation Peppermint
2306:Operation Crossroads
2165:Maria Goeppert Mayer
1803:US Statutes at Large
489:Arthur H. Vandenberg
381:, a body created by
349:Leslie R. Groves Jr.
292:, and it passed the
273:It was sponsored by
2170:George Kistiakowsky
2125:Charles Critchfield
1745:2008EnPol..36.1802S
1478:Hewlett, Richard G.
1436:Hewlett, Richard G.
1295:, pp. 291–294.
1253:"Public Law 85-479"
1242:, pp. 246–247.
1230:, pp. 303–306.
1206:, pp. 457–458.
1149:, pp. 136–143.
1137:, pp. 113–115.
1086:, pp. 528–530.
1062:, pp. 811–812.
960:, pp. 576–578.
933:, pp. 799–803.
909:, pp. 803–805.
897:, pp. 428–429.
885:, pp. 574–576.
870:, pp. 574–575.
858:, pp. 408–416.
846:, pp. 408–415.
834:, pp. 568–569.
795:, pp. 325–326.
783:, pp. 324–325.
708:executive agreement
606:David E. Lilienthal
479:from Colorado, the
400:Creation of the Act
109:Legislative history
34:
2235:Henry DeWolf Smyth
2014:Robert Oppenheimer
1969:Priscilla Duffield
1692:Harvard Law Review
1662:Cardozo Law Review
700:Franklin Roosevelt
621:
614:William W. Waymack
561:Secretary of State
411:Harvard Law School
394:George L. Harrison
270:for this purpose.
233:nuclear technology
217:
193:Eugene D. Millikin
32:
2528:
2527:
2450:Los Alamos Primer
2439:Interim Committee
2394:African Americans
2346:The Great Artiste
2205:Isidor Isaac Rabi
2200:Norman Ramsey Jr.
1999:Franklin Matthias
1938:Heavy water sites
1845:Manhattan Project
1580:on 7 October 2014
1427:978-0-8122-1354-6
945:, pp. 77–90.
696:Winston Churchill
688:Manhattan Project
549:executive session
415:Brigadier General
379:Interim Committee
342:Manhattan Project
308:Manhattan Project
177:
176:
158:on August 1, 1946
140:unanimous consent
136:Passed the Senate
97:ch. 724, 60
92:Statutes at Large
16:(Redirected from
2593:
2520:
2519:
2471:Quebec Agreement
2255:John von Neumann
2195:George B. Pegram
2004:Dorothy McKibbin
1838:
1831:
1824:
1815:
1814:
1810:(pp. 77–90)
1764:
1739:(5): 1802–1820.
1724:
1699:(8): 1450–1496.
1685:
1683:
1681:
1669:(4): 1401–1408.
1658:
1645:
1602:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1579:
1573:. Archived from
1564:
1552:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1488:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1446:
1431:
1412:
1389:
1353:
1352:
1350:
1348:
1343:on June 12, 2018
1339:. Archived from
1328:
1322:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1302:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1257:
1249:
1243:
1237:
1231:
1225:
1219:
1213:
1207:
1201:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1178:. Archived from
1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1120:
1111:
1105:
1099:
1093:
1087:
1081:
1075:
1069:
1063:
1057:
1051:
1045:
1036:
1030:
1024:
1018:
1012:
1006:
1000:
994:
988:
982:
973:
967:
961:
955:
946:
940:
934:
928:
922:
916:
910:
904:
898:
892:
886:
880:
871:
865:
859:
853:
847:
841:
835:
829:
820:
814:
808:
802:
796:
790:
784:
778:
692:Quebec Agreement
618:Lewis L. Strauss
477:Edwin C. Johnson
450:State Department
438:Attorney General
426:acquire property
405:May–Johnson Bill
375:Henry L. Stimson
372:Secretary of War
254:development and
209:Warren R. Austin
197:Edwin C. Johnson
166:Major amendments
146:Passed the House
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2210:James Rainwater
2145:Richard Feynman
2135:John R. Dunning
2110:Norris Bradbury
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2029:William Purnell
2009:Kenneth Nichols
1989:Ernest Lawrence
1964:James B. Conant
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659:Atoms for Peace
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585:Representative
580:restricted data
564:James F. Byrnes
557:J. Edgar Hoover
529:
517:standing armies
459:by Congressman
407:
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386:Harry S. Truman
368:James B. Conant
331:Nuclear weapons
328:
319:Atoms for Peace
301:Harry S. Truman
185:Harry S. Truman
161:
156:Harry S. Truman
152:Signed into law
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55:Enacted by
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418:Kenneth Royall
406:
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362:In July 1944,
357:Richard Tolman
353:Arthur Compton
327:
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262:, rather than
252:nuclear weapon
244:United Kingdom
201:Thomas C. Hart
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2546:Arms control
2506:Y-12 Project
2491:Smyth Report
2486:S-50 Project
2448:
2444:K-25 Project
2398:
2373:Pumpkin bomb
2344:
2337:
2330:
2260:John Wheeler
2230:Louis Slotin
2225:Emilio Segrè
2175:George Koval
2155:James Franck
2140:Enrico Fermi
2085:Luis Alvarez
2044:Paul Tibbets
2019:Deak Parsons
1799:60 Stat. 755
1797:as enacted (
1777:as amended (
1736:
1732:
1696:
1690:
1678:. Retrieved
1666:
1660:
1617:
1611:
1594:
1582:. Retrieved
1575:the original
1558:
1524:
1520:
1508:. Retrieved
1482:
1466:. Retrieved
1440:
1417:
1400:
1394:
1367:
1345:. Retrieved
1341:the original
1337:Boston Globe
1336:
1326:
1314:. Retrieved
1310:
1300:
1293:Maloney 1991
1288:
1281:Maloney 1991
1276:
1266:December 12,
1264:. Retrieved
1247:
1235:
1223:
1211:
1186:December 12,
1184:. Retrieved
1180:the original
1166:
1154:
1142:
1130:
1103:
1091:
1079:
1067:
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1028:
1021:Morland 2004
1016:
1004:
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704:
684:
668:
652:
644:
622:
584:
572:
545:atomic spies
538:
530:
527:McMahon Bill
513:World War II
509:
504:
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454:
430:
408:
361:
335:World War II
329:
312:
272:
237:World War II
224:
220:
218:
189:Tom Connally
151:
145:
135:
117:
29:
2321:Silverplate
2275:Leona Woods
2240:Leo Szilard
2215:Bruno Rossi
2160:Klaus Fuchs
2064:Ed Westcott
2054:Harold Urey
1228:Calder 1953
1060:Miller 1948
970:Miller 1948
931:Miller 1948
907:Miller 1948
610:Sumner Pike
576:born secret
505:Chicago Sun
500:Harold Urey
496:Leó Szilárd
475:by Senator
286:Connecticut
225:McMahon Act
2535:Categories
2424:Demon core
2368:Little Boy
2289:Operations
2105:Niels Bohr
2095:Hans Bethe
2078:Scientists
2024:Boris Pash
1903:Los Alamos
1396:The Nation
1360:References
958:Jones 1985
883:Jones 1985
868:Jones 1985
832:Jones 1985
625:voice vote
290:voice vote
183:President
118:Introduced
71:Public law
47:Long title
2466:Plutonium
2332:Enola Gay
2150:Val Fitch
2100:Aage Bohr
2049:Bud Uanna
1918:Oak Ridge
1801:) in the
1785:) in the
1761:1873-6777
1713:0017-811X
1675:0270-5192
1634:0041-9494
1597:(Ph.D.).
1584:25 August
1541:1468-2346
1468:March 26,
1463:637004643
1409:0027-8378
1240:Gott 1963
1216:Gott 1963
636:Amendment
555:Director
551:at which
383:President
298:President
66:Citations
2522:Category
2378:Thin Man
2339:Bockscar
1933:Wendover
1913:New York
1908:Montreal
1898:Inyokern
1873:Berkeley
1854:Timeline
1680:March 4,
1652:(2004).
1571:10913875
1505:82275622
1386:34321338
1347:June 11,
1316:June 11,
755:Case law
739:and the
465:Kentucky
444:and the
390:Congress
282:Democrat
264:military
260:civilian
2496:Uranium
2363:Fat Man
2356:Weapons
1928:Trinity
1893:Hanford
1878:Chicago
1783:details
1741:Bibcode
1721:1336868
1642:1597968
1549:2611300
686:to the
648:fissile
483:of the
339:wartime
337:by the
326:Origins
305:wartime
275:Senator
76:Pub. L.
1888:Dayton
1882:Site A
1759:
1719:
1711:
1673:
1640:
1632:
1569:
1547:
1539:
1510:31 May
1503:
1493:
1461:
1451:
1424:
1407:
1384:
1374:
473:Senate
440:, the
248:Canada
242:, the
240:allies
101:
84:79–585
82:
1861:Sites
1717:JSTOR
1657:(PDF)
1638:JSTOR
1578:(PDF)
1563:(PDF)
1545:JSTOR
1487:(PDF)
1445:(PDF)
1256:(PDF)
768:Notes
463:from
284:from
99:Stat.
1868:Ames
1757:ISSN
1709:ISSN
1682:2012
1671:ISSN
1630:ISSN
1586:2013
1567:OCLC
1537:ISSN
1512:2017
1501:OCLC
1491:ISBN
1470:2013
1459:OCLC
1449:ISBN
1422:ISBN
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