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characterized by a cluster of eight symptoms that appear in the child. These include a campaign of denigration and hatred against the targeted parent; weak, absurd, or frivolous rationalizations for this deprecation and hatred; lack of the usual ambivalence about the targeted parent; strong assertions that the decision to reject the parent is theirs alone (the "independent-thinker phenomenon"); reflexive support of the favored parent in the conflict; lack of guilt over the treatment of the alienated parent; use of borrowed scenarios and phrases from the alienating parent; and the denigration not just of the targeted parent but also to that parent's extended family and friends. Despite frequent citations of these factors in scientific literature, the value ascribed to these factors has not been explored with professionals in the field.
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research and appropriate treatment, as well as reduce misuse of a valid and reliable construct. In
December 2012, the American Psychiatric Association announced that PAS would not be included in the DSM-V revision. However, there are now diagnoses included in DSM-V that reflect the impact of parental behavior upon children, in particular parent-child relational problem and child affected by parental relationship distress. The key distinction is that the diagnoses listed in the DSM relate to the mental health of the diagnosed individual, as opposed to attempting to describe a disorder of the relationship between different people, whether parent-child or parent-parent.
464:, 15 N.Y.S.3d 834, 131 AD 3d 964 (2015), child support was suspended based upon a trial court's finding of a parent's alienating behaviors. The court found that the father was prevented from seeing his son by the child's mother through a "pattern of alienation", and child support was suspended on that basis. The decision was not based upon a psychological diagnosis, but was instead based upon a pattern of alienation actions and behaviors by the mother and her conduct during court proceedings.
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PAS lacks adequate scientific support to be considered a syndrome and that
Gardner has promoted PAS as a syndrome based on a vague clustering of behaviors. Despite concerns about the validity of testimony regarding PAS, it has been inappropriately viewed as reliable by family court judges. Proponents of PAS and others agree that using the designation of syndrome may be inappropriate as it implies more scientific legitimacy than it currently deserves.
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influence of a child by a parent, typically by the other parent who may be attempting to prevent an ongoing relationship between a child and other family members after family separation or divorce. Use of the term "syndrome" has not been accepted by either the medical or legal communities and
Gardner's research has been broadly criticized by legal and mental health scholars for lacking scientific validity and reliability.
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not alienated based on the evaluation of a court-appointed expert who, unlike
Gardner, had met with the family members. More recent cases, while accepting the concept of alienation, have noted the lack of recognition in the DSM-IV, and have generally avoided "syndrome" terminology, emphasizing that changes in custody are stressful for the child and should only occur in the most severe cases. A 2006 research report by the
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syndrome, concerned that it permitted abusers to claim that allegations of abuse by mother or child were reflective of brainwashing. Gardner himself emphasized that PAS only applied in situations where there was no actual abuse or neglect had not occurred, but by 1998, noted an increase in the awareness of PAS had led to an increase in its misapplication as an exculpatory legal maneuver.
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that those initially critical of PAS for being a caricature were not directly involved with families in custody disputes and that criticisms of this nature faded by the late 1980s because the disorder was widespread. However, no scientific study has yet demonstrated that the elements of PAS are unique to alleged parental alienation such that they are useful for diagnosis.
97:...a disorder that arises primarily in the context of child-custody disputes. Its primary manifestation is the child's campaign of denigration against the parent, a campaign that has no justification. The disorder results from the combination of indoctrinations by the alienating parent and the child's own contributions to the vilification of the alienated parent.
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equally likely to alienate or be indoctrinators and disagreed that recognition of PAS is sexist. Gardner later indicated he believed men were equally likely to be PAS indoctrinators. Studies of children and adults labelled with PAS have suggested that mothers were more likely than fathers to be the alienator.
243:(DSM-IV). Gardner and others lobbied for its inclusion in the DSM-V revision. In 2001, Gardner argued that when the DSM-IV was released, there was insufficient research to include PAS, but since then, there have been enough scientific articles and attention to PAS that it merited being taken seriously.
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declined to give a position on PAS, but raised concerns over its lack of supporting data and how the term is used. The APA's 1996 Presidential Task Force on
Violence and the Family expressed concern that custody evaluators use PAS as a means of giving custody to fathers despite a history of violence,
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Gardner's original formulation, which labeled mothers almost exclusively as the alienating parent, was endorsed by fathers' rights groups, as it allowed fathers to explain the reluctance of their children to visit them and assign blame to their former wives. In contrast, women's groups criticized the
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drawing upon his clinical experiences in the early 1980s. The concept of one parent attempting to separate their child from the other parent as punishment or part of a divorce have been described since at least the 1940s, but
Gardner was the first to define a specific syndrome. In his 1985 paper, he
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test, but that finding was not reviewed on appeal so as to become precedential as the trial court " out the words 'parental alienation syndrome'" and focused instead on the "willingness and ability of each parent to facilitate and encourage a close and continuing relationship between the parents and
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described PAS as "empirically unsupported" and favored a different framework for dealing with issues of alienation that has more research support. Decisions about possible parental alienation are considered a legal decision, to be determined by the judge based on the facts of the case, rather than a
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Early
Canadian court cases accepted expert opinions about PAS, used the term "syndrome" and concurred with Gardner's theory that only one parent was fully responsible for it. Gardner testified in one case (Fortin v. Major, 1996) but the court did not accept his opinion, concluding that the child was
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In severe cases, in which children were found to display most or all of the eight symptoms and refused to visit the targeted parent, possibly threatening to run away or engage in self-harm if forced to visit the other parent, Gardner recommended that the child be removed from the alienating parent's
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test in two states, a 2006 analysis of court cases involving PAS and cited by
Gardner concluded that these decisions did not set legal precedent, that PAS is viewed negatively in most legal scholarship, and that Gardner's writings do not support the existence of PAS. Of sixty-four precedent-bearing
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suggesting most allegations of child sexual abuse are well founded and thus well-meaning efforts to protect a child from an abusive parent, exaggerates the damaging effects of parental alienation on children and proposes an unsupported and endangering remedy for PAS. Concern has been expressed that
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A survey of
American custody evaluators, published in 2007, found that half of the respondents disagreed with its inclusion, while a third thought it should be. A related formulation, named parental alienation disorder, has been proposed, suggesting that inclusion of PAS in the DSM-5 would promote
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In addition to modification of custody, Gardner recommended therapy for the child. Gardner's proposed intervention for moderate and severe PAS, which include court-ordered transfer to the alienated parent, fines, house arrest, and incarceration, have been critiqued for their punitive nature towards
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PAS, essentially dismissed as "junk science", is not generally accepted in the scientific community, as it is not an approved term or diagnosis in the field of psychiatry and no New York court has allowed the admission of testimony concerning PAS.... However, New York Courts have embraced parental
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At the time, Gardner listed fifty cases on his website that he claimed set precedents that made PAS admissible. Upon review it was determined that none of the cases set precedents for the admissibility of PAS. forty-six set no precedents or did not discuss admissibility and the remaining four were
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Gardner disagreed with criticism of PAS as overly simplistic, stating that while there are a wide variety of causes on why a child may become alienated from a parent, the primary etiological factor in cases of PAS is the brainwashing parent, and that otherwise, there is no PAS. Gardner also stated
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PAS has been cited in high-conflict divorce and child custody cases, particularly as a defense against accusations of domestic violence or sexual abuse. The status of the syndrome, and thus its admissibility in the testimony of experts, has been the subject of dispute, with challenges raised about
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Gardner described PAS as a preoccupation by the child with criticism and deprecation of a parent. Gardner stated that PAS occurs when, in the context of child custody disputes, one parent deliberately or unconsciously attempts to alienate a child from the other parent. According to
Gardner, PAS is
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Gardner and others divided PAS into mild, moderate and severe levels. The number and severity of the eight symptoms included in the syndrome were hypothesized to increase through the different levels. Recommendations for management differed according to the severity level of the child's symptoms.
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by the other parent. Proposed symptoms included extreme but unwarranted fear, and disrespect or hostility towards a parent. Gardner believed that a set of behaviors that he observed in some families involved in child custody litigation could be used to diagnose psychological manipulation or undue
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against the other parent (usually fathers) in order to prevent further contact between them. While Gardner initially described the mother as the alienator in 90% of PAS cases, he later stated both parents were equally likely to alienate. He also later stated that in his experience accusations of
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PAS has been criticized by for being sexist, being used by fathers to marginalize legitimate fears and concerns about abuse, and women's groups and others oppose the legitimacy of PAS as a danger to children. After his initial publications, Gardner revised his theory to make fathers and mothers
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In moderate cases, it was alleged that more parental programming occurred resulting in greater resistance to visits with the targeted parent. Gardner recommended that primary custody remain with the programming parent if the brainwashing was expected to be discontinued, but if not, that custody
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with children who are alienated more confusing and for labeling children with a mental diagnosis who may react angrily to their parents' separation or divorce. Gardner's analysis has been criticized for inappropriately assigning all responsibility of the child's behavior to one parent when the
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The theoretical foundation of PAS has been described as incomplete, simplistic and erroneous for ignoring the multiple factors (including the behaviors of the child, parents and other family members) that may contribute to parental alienation, family dysfunction and a breakdown in
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alienation as a concept. In recognizing that parental alienation can exist, some courts have loosely defined it as a custodial parent's active interference with or deliberate and unjustified frustration of the non-custodial parents' reasonable right of access to the child.
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A focus on parental behavior allows a court to base its decision "upon accepted psychological concepts and diagnoses... without mention of the controversial and potentially inflammatory concept of PAS"; New York has followed this approach, with a court explaining,
404:, and some courts have awarded sole custody to one parent based upon findings of PAS. In some cases a custody court's acceptance of allegations of parental alienation have resulted in children being placed in the custody of an abusive parent.
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the child" under the state's child custody best interest factors. In the second case, the appellate court did not discuss PAS. The third case specifically chose not to discuss the admissibility of PAS and the fourth made no decision on PAS.
2089:
Pepitona, M. Brianna; Alvis, Lindsey J.; Allen, Kenneth; Logid, Gregory (2012). "Is Parental Alienation Disorder a Valid Concept? Not According to Scientific Evidence. A Review of Parental Alienation, DSM-5 and ICD-11 by William Bernet".
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its acceptance by professionals in the field, whether it follows a scientific methodology that is testable, whether it has been tested and has a known error rate, and the extent to which the theory has been published and peer-reviewed.
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has been advanced based upon theories of the "alienated child" and the dynamics that may have contributed to the child's alienation from a parent. Like PAS, parental alienation is not recognized as a diagnosable mental condition.
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the alienating parent and alienated child, and for the risk of abuse of power and violation of their civil rights. With time, Gardner revised his views and expressed less support for the most aggressive management strategies.
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diagnosis made by a mental health professional. There is recognition that rejection of a parent is a complex issue, and that a distinction must be made between pathological alienation and reasonable estrangement.
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That approach treats parental alienation as a descriptive concept, allowing a court to consider parental behavior without the need to determine whether parental alienation is a valid psychological construct.
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a concern shared by other commentators. The United States National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges rejected PAS, recommending it not be used for the consideration of child-custody issues.
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In mild cases, it was alleged that there was some parental programming against the targeted parent, but little or no disruption of visitation, and Gardner did not recommend court-ordered visitation.
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He also stated that the indoctrination may be deliberate or unconscious on the part of the alienating parent. Gardner initially believed that parents (usually mothers) made false accusations of
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should be transferred to the targeted parent. In addition, therapy with the child to stop alienation and remediate the damaged relationship with the targeted parent was recommended.
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While a diagnosis of PAS is made based on the child's symptoms, Gardner stated that any change in custody should be based primarily on the symptom level of the alienating parent.
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into PAS's validity and reliability are required, supplementing a single small study in 2004 which suggested practitioners could come to a consensus based on written reports.
1872:
2300:
Lubit, Roy (29 June 2019). "Valid and invalid ways to assess the reason a child rejects a parent: The continued malignant role of "parental alienation syndrome"".
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239:
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538:
Clemente, Miguel; Padilla-Racero, Dolores (April 2015). "Are children susceptible to manipulation? The best interest of children and their testimony".
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actually set precedents. Both held that the theory of PAS was inadmissible. One of the cases, subsequently upheld on appeal, found that PAS failed the
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1273:
Bow, JN; Gould JW; Flens JR (2009). "Examining Parental Alienation in Child Custody Cases: A Survey of Mental Health and Legal Professionals".
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Walker, LEA; Brantley KL; Rigsbee JA (2004). "A Critical Analysis of Parental Alienation Syndrome and Its Admissibility in the Family Court".
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or legal scholars. PAS has been extensively criticized by members of the legal and mental health community, who state that PAS should not be
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1524:
Drozd, L (2009). "Rejection in cases of abuse or alienation in divorcing families". In Galatzer-Levy RM; Kraus L; Galatzer-Levy J (eds.).
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1873:"American Psychiatric Association Board of Trustees Approves DSM-5-Diagnostic manual passes major milestone before May 2013 publication"
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Simring Milchman, Madelyn (2 July 2019). "How far has parental alienation research progressed toward achieving scientific validity?".
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Silberg, Joyanna; Dallam, Stephanie (2 Jul 2019). "Abusers gaining custody in family courts: A case series of over turned decisions".
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O’Donohue, William; Benuto, Lorraine T.; Bennett, Natalie (2 July 2016). "Examining the validity of parental alienation syndrome".
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1379:"Rejoinder to Gardner's Commentary on Kelly and Johnston's 'The Alienated Child: A Reformulation of Parental Alienation Syndrome'"
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in 1985 to describe signs and symptoms he believed to be exhibited by children who have been alienated from one parent through
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Making Appropriate Parenting Arrangements in Family Violence Cases: Applying the Literature to Identify Promising Practices
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No professional association has recognized PAS as a relevant medical syndrome or mental disorder. PAS is not listed in the
34:
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child's behavior is oftentimes, but not always, the result of a dynamic in which both parents and the child play a role.
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Gardner, Richard A. (2006). "Introduction". In Gardner, Richard A.; Sauber, S. Richard; Lorandos, Demosthenes (eds.).
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Baker, AJL (2007). "Knowledge and Attitudes About the Parental Alienation Syndrome: A Survey of Custody Evaluators".
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Hoult, Jennifer (2006). "The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy".
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Caplan, PJ (2004). "What is it that's being called Parental Alienation Syndrome". In Caplan PJ; Cosgrove L (eds.).
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Caplan, PJ (2004). "What is it that's being called Parental Alienation Syndrome". In Caplan PJ; Cosgrove L (eds.).
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1451:(1998). "Recommendations for Dealing with Parents who Induce a Parental Alienation Syndrome in their Children".
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210:
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Hoult, JA (2006). "The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy".
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between a parent and a child. In this view, PAS confuses a child's developmental reaction to a divorce with
182:
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1487:"Commentary on Kelly and Johnston's The Alienated Child: A Reformulation of Parental Alienation Syndrome"
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The International Handbook of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Conceptual, Clinical And Legal Considerations
897:"Commentary on Kelly and Johnston's The Alienated Child: A Reformulation of Parental Alienation Syndrome"
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Although Gardner claimed that PAS was generally accepted by the scholarly community and had passed the
384:, the admissibility concerning the evaluation of PAS was rejected both in an expert review, and by the
271:, and though subsequent articles have been published in peer reviewed journals, most have consisted of
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418:, to evaluate if it has sufficient scientific basis and acceptance within the scientific community.
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Child Abuse and Family Law: Understanding the Issues Facing Human Service and Legal Professionals
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308:
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1994:
Bond, Richard (2008). "The Lingering Debate Over the Parental Alienation Syndrome Phenomenon".
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704:"Parental Alienation Syndrome and Parental Alienation: Getting It Wrong in Child Custody Cases"
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225:, but legal analysis of the actual cases indicates that as of 2006 this claim was incorrect.
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This article is about a purported pediatric mental disorder. For the proposed concept, see
8:
2365:
Sturge, C; Glaser D (2000). "Contact and domestic violence – the experts' court report".
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Ottman, A; Lee R (2008). "Fathers' rights movement". In Edleson JL; Renzetti, CM (eds.).
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1721:"American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Violence And The Family"
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Expose: The failure of family courts to protect children from abuse in custody disputes
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1353:"Alienated Children and Parental Separation: Legal Responses in Canada's Family Courts"
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Expose: The failure of family courts to protect children from abuse in custody disputes
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2127:"Parental Alienation Syndrome: What Professionals Need to Know Part 1 of 2 Update"
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Gardner's formulation of PAS is critiqued as lacking a scientific basis, and as a
2507:"In re Marriage of Bates, 212 Ill.2d 489, 289 Ill.Dec. 218, 819 NE 2d 714 (2004)"
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Child custody & domestic violence : a call for safety and accountability
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2157:"Bringing sense to Parental Alienation: A Look at the Disputes and the Evidence"
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International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems
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home into a transition home before moving into the home of the targeted parent.
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2269:"Parental Alienation Disorder: Why Label Children with a Mental Diagnosis?"
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Bala, Nicholas; Fidler, Barbara-Jo; Goldberg, Dan; Houston, Claire (2007).
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Adult children of parental alienation syndrome: breaking the ties that bind
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The admissibility of testimony alleging PAS has been challenged under the
2186:"Understanding and Collaboratively Treating Parental Alienation Syndrome"
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test as the appropriate professional community did not generally accept.
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163:
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641:"The parental alienation syndrome: What is it and what data support it?"
279:; in addition, the limited research into PAS has lacked evidence of its
2060:"The Parental Alienation Debate Belongs in the Courtroom, Not in DSM-5"
1892:"Lost Parents: When High Conflict Divorce Leads to Parental Alienation"
1081:(2002). "Denial of the Parental Alienation Syndrome Also Harms Women".
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or junk science. Proponents of PAS concur that large scale systematic
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problematic. In the first the trial court found that PAS passed the
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sexual abuse were not present in the vast majority of cases of PAS.
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Parental alienation syndrome is a term coined by child psychiatrist
2032:
1949:"Parental Alienation Syndrome: Proponents bear the burden of proof"
1875:. American Psychiatric Association. 1 December 2012. Archived from
737:"The parental alienation syndrome: a dangerous aura of reliability"
1198:
Jaffe, Peter G.; Lemon, Nancy K. D.; Poisson, Samantha E. (2002).
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While PAS is not accepted as scientifically valid, the concept of
1620:
Comeford, L (2009). "Fatherhood Movements". In O'Brien J (ed.).
2648:
864:"Current controversies regarding parental alienation syndrome"
1685:
Forensic Mental Health Assessment of Children and Adolescents
1526:
The Scientific Basis of Child Custody Decisions, 2nd Edition
816:
Bernet, W (2008). "Parental Alienation Disorder and DSM-V".
295:, and independent publication has led to claims that PAS is
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Myers on evidence in child, domestic, and elder abuse cases
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1848:"Mental health professionals getting update on definitions"
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to merit acceptance. The first publications about PAS were
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recommends against its use. PAS has been mentioned in some
2058:
Houchin, TM; Ranseen, J; Hash, PAK; Bartnicki, DJ (2012).
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Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
608:"Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS): Sixteen Years Later"
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cases reviewed at that time, only two decisions, both in
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in child custody hearings based on both science and law.
2561:"Father Not Obligated to Pay Child Support, Panel Finds"
2211:. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. p. 53.
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2088:
2438:
Brown, Andraé L. (November 2008). "Criminal Rewards".
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of PAS was rejected by an expert review panel and the
1562:"The Parental Alienation Syndrome: Is It Scientific?"
1147:"The Parental Alienation Syndrome: Is It Scientific?"
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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whose proponents have failed to meet the scientific
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2131:American Prosecutors Research Institute Newsletter
1568:. Our Children Our Children Charitable Foundation.
1153:. Our Children Our Children Charitable Foundation.
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572:"Recent Trends in Divorce and Custody Litigation"
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2035:The Art and Science of Child Custody Evaluations
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1654:"APA Statement on Parental Alienation Syndrome"
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396:On occasion, PAS has been cited as part of the
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2033:Martindale, David; Gould, Jonathan W. (2007).
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1174:Clinician's Guide to Child Custody Evaluations
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2267:Walker, Lenore E.; Shapiro, David L. (2010).
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462:Matter of Robert Coull v. Pamela Rottman
154:PAS has not been accepted by experts in
24:This is an accepted version of this page
1917:"Parental Alienation: Disorder or Not?"
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1177:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 73–82.
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317:false allegations of child sexual abuse
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1417:Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Violence
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818:The American Journal of Family Therapy
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2335:Jaffe, PG; Crooks CV; Bala N (2006).
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1998:(1). Journal of Child Custody: 37–54.
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1201:Child Custody & Domestic Violence
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1044:Child Custody & Domestic Violence
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287:. The lack of objective research and
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1846:Rotstein, Gary (February 15, 2010).
1821:PAS and the DSM-5: A Call for Action
1564:. In St. Charles E; Crook L (eds.).
1315:. Charles C. Thomas. pp. 5–11.
1149:. In St. Charles E; Crook L (eds.).
734:
250:
203:Court of Appeal of England and Wales
2559:Denney, Andrew (9 September 2015).
2154:
1453:Journal of Divorce & Remarriage
340:PAS has been criticized for making
51:Purported childhood mental disorder
48:
1914:
1824:. Men's News Daily. Archived from
1725:American Psychological Association
1658:American Psychological Association
1622:Encyclopedia of Gender and Society
1083:American Journal of Family Therapy
940:American Journal of Family Therapy
558:
540:Children and Youth Services Review
335:
315:, vastly overstates the number of
191:American Psychological Association
113:
49:
2700:
2638:
1395:10.1111/j.174-1617.2004.tb01328.x
375:
2037:. New York: The Guilford Press.
1978:10.1111/j.1744-1617.2005.00002.x
1171:Ackerman, Ph.D, Marc J. (2002).
741:Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review
570:Gardner, Richard (Summer 1985).
552:10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.02.003
391:
235:American Psychiatric Association
187:American Psychiatric Association
2600:
2571:
2552:
2499:
2466:
2431:
2421:Children's Legal Rights Journal
2412:
2377:
2358:
2328:
2293:
2260:
2225:
2200:
2184:Waldron, KH; Joanis DE (1996).
2118:
2082:
2051:
1908:
1890:Slatton, Traci (May 26, 2015).
1865:
1713:
1683:Sparta, SN; Koocher GP (2006).
1441:
1377:Johnston, JR; Kelly JB (2004).
1109:
788:Children's Legal Rights Journal
2190:American Journal of Family Law
2125:Ragland, ER; Fields H (2003).
531:
369:Canadian Department of Justice
211:Canada's Department of Justice
181:. It is not recognized by the
13:
1:
2621:10.1080/15379418.2019.1614511
2398:10.1080/15379418.2019.1613204
2314:10.1080/15379418.2019.1590284
2246:10.1080/15379418.2016.1217758
2092:Journal of Child Sexual Abuse
1586:Bias in psychiatric diagnosis
975:Bias in psychiatric diagnosis
525:
400:determination process in the
2645:Parental alienation syndrome
2286:10.1080/15379418.2010.521041
2104:10.1080/10538712.2011.628272
356:
183:American Medical Association
141:
62:Parental alienation syndrome
7:
2583:, 2019 NY Slip Op 50948(U)"
2535:"Matter of Coull v Rottman"
1006:Brown, T; Renata A (2007).
660:10.1177/1077559598003002005
481:
455:
233:PAS is not included in the
10:
2705:
2473:Myers, John E. B. (2005).
1753:Cambridge University Press
1122:W. W. Norton & Company
1095:10.1080/019261802753577520
877:(3): 29–59. Archived from
519:Triangulation (psychology)
68:) is a term introduced by
53:
1485:Gardner, Richard (2004).
1287:10.1080/01926180801960658
952:10.1080/01926180600698368
895:Gardner, Richard (2004).
830:10.1080/01926180802405513
361:
2609:Journal of Child Custody
2452:10.1177/0886109908323999
2386:Journal of Child Custody
2302:Journal of Child Custody
2273:Journal of Child Custody
2234:Journal of Child Custody
2207:Jaffe, Peter G. (2003).
1785:Children: The Modern Law
1783:Bainham, Andrew (2005).
1590:Rowman & Littlefield
1506:10.1177/1531244504268711
1240:Journal of Child Custody
979:Rowman & Littlefield
916:10.1177/1531244504268711
422:Richard Gardner's claims
31:latest accepted revision
1852:Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
1689:Oxford University Press
2011:Cite journal requires
1727:. 1996. Archived from
475:
460:In one New York case,
229:Exclusion from the DSM
99:
2581:Matter of E.S. v S.S.
2346:Department of Justice
1747:Fortin, Jane (2003).
1530:John Wiley & Sons
1465:10.1300/J087v28n03_01
1252:10.1300/J190v01n02_03
470:
321:scientific literature
95:
2565:New York Law Journal
2477:. Gaithersburg, Md:
2164:Family Law Quarterly
2155:Warshak, Richard A.
1787:. Jordans. pp.
862:Warshak, RA (2001).
711:Family Law Quarterly
2137:(6). Archived from
1956:Family Court Review
1560:Dallam, SJ (1999).
1494:Family Court Review
1383:Family Court Review
1357:Queen's Law Journal
1145:Dallam, SJ (1999).
904:Family Court Review
639:Faller, KC (1998).
504:Parental alienation
494:Family estrangement
329:parental alienation
84:Initial description
56:Parental alienation
21:Page version status
1947:Emery, RE (2005).
1879:on 5 October 2013.
1656:. Washington, DC:
1208:. pp. 52–54.
1116:Baker AJL (2007).
702:Bruch, CS (2001).
648:Child Maltreatment
514:Richard A. Gardner
301:controlled studies
273:anecdotal evidence
90:Richard A. Gardner
70:child psychiatrist
27:
2044:978-1-59385-488-1
1626:SAGE Publications
1421:SAGE Publications
1206:SAGE Publications
1131:978-0-393-70519-5
1048:SAGE Publications
1012:Allen & Unwin
735:Wood, CL (1994).
499:Gatekeeper parent
251:Scientific status
18:
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2240:(2–3): 113–125.
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2197:
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2014:
2009:
2007:
1999:
1991:
1982:
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1932:
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1915:Grohol, John M.
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1482:
1469:
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1445:
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1397:. Archived from
1374:
1365:
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555:
535:
416:Daubert standard
162:or the study of
2704:
2703:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2693:
2679:Fathers' rights
2674:Mothers' rights
2654:
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2641:
2636:
2605:
2601:
2591:
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2219:
2205:
2201:
2182:
2175:
2159:
2153:
2146:
2123:
2119:
2098:(12): 244–253.
2087:
2083:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2031:
2024:
2012:
2010:
2001:
2000:
1992:
1985:
1969:10.1.1.636.2641
1951:
1945:
1936:
1926:
1924:
1923:. Psych Central
1913:
1909:
1900:
1898:
1896:Huffington Post
1888:
1884:
1871:
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1774:
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1718:
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1707:
1681:
1672:
1663:
1661:
1652:
1651:
1647:
1640:
1624:. Vol. 1.
1618:
1611:
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1004:
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971:
967:
936:
923:
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893:
889:
881:
866:
860:
845:
814:
807:
784:
759:
750:
748:
733:
722:
717:(527): 527–552.
706:
700:
685:
643:
637:
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621:
619:
601:
590:
574:
568:
559:
536:
532:
528:
523:
509:Parentification
484:
458:
437:criminal courts
424:
394:
386:Court of Appeal
378:
364:
359:
338:
336:Clinical status
275:in the form of
261:burden of proof
253:
231:
144:
116:
114:Characteristics
86:
73:Richard Gardner
59:
52:
47:
46:
45:
44:
43:
42:
39:9 November 2023
26:
12:
11:
5:
2702:
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2676:
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2640:
2639:External links
2637:
2635:
2634:
2615:(2): 115–139.
2599:
2587:Google Scholar
2570:
2551:
2539:Google Scholar
2523:
2511:Google Scholar
2498:
2491:
2465:
2446:(4): 388–396.
2430:
2411:
2392:(2): 140–169.
2376:
2357:
2327:
2292:
2279:(4): 266–286.
2259:
2224:
2217:
2199:
2173:
2144:
2141:on 2009-04-25.
2117:
2081:
2070:(1): 127–131.
2050:
2043:
2022:
2013:|journal=
1983:
1934:
1907:
1882:
1864:
1838:
1818:(2002-10-06).
1804:
1797:
1772:
1765:
1734:
1731:on 2000-03-07.
1712:
1705:
1670:
1645:
1638:
1609:
1602:
1571:
1549:
1542:
1511:
1470:
1440:
1434:978-1412918008
1433:
1404:
1401:on 2013-01-05.
1389:(4): 622–628.
1366:
1328:
1322:978-0398076474
1321:
1300:
1281:(2): 127–145.
1265:
1221:
1214:
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1130:
1108:
1089:(3): 191–202.
1067:
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1024:
998:
991:
965:
921:
887:
884:on 2007-08-29.
843:
824:(5): 349–366.
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319:, ignores the
293:falsifiability
265:self-published
252:
249:
230:
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207:United Kingdom
160:child advocacy
143:
140:
115:
112:
93:defined PAS as
85:
82:
50:
28:
22:
19:
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9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2170:(2): 273–301.
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1828:on 2003-12-20
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1500:(4): 611–21.
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910:(4): 611–21.
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2590:. Retrieved
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2542:. Retrieved
2538:
2514:. Retrieved
2510:
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2420:
2414:
2389:
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2349:. Retrieved
2337:
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2308:(1): 42–66.
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