187:
513:, the flux is measured by summing all the light recorded from the object and subtracting the light due to the sky. The simplest technique, known as aperture photometry, consists of summing the pixel counts within an aperture centered on the object and subtracting the product of the nearby average sky count per pixel and the number of pixels within the aperture. This will result in the raw flux value of the target object. When doing photometry in a very crowded field, such as a
3123:
713:
638:
555:
416:
529:. Then, the measurement is calibrated in some way. Which calibrations are used will depend in part on what type of photometry is being done. Typically, observations are processed for relative or differential photometry. Relative photometry is the measurement of the apparent brightness of multiple objects relative to each other. Absolute photometry is the measurement of the apparent brightness of an object on a
3135:
493:) camera is essentially a grid of photometers, simultaneously measuring and recording the photons coming from all the sources in the field of view. Because each CCD image records the photometry of multiple objects at once, various forms of photometric extraction can be performed on the recorded data; typically relative, absolute, and differential. All three will require the extraction of the raw image
317:. Hence, a 6th magnitude star might be stated as 6.0V, 6.0B, 6.0v or 6.0p. Because starlight is measured over a different range of wavelengths across the electromagnetic spectrum and are affected by different instrumental photometric sensitivities to light, they are not necessarily equivalent in numerical value. For example, apparent magnitude in the UBV system for the solar-like star
699:
variations, particularly when the objects being compared are too far apart on the sky to be observed simultaneously. When doing the calibration from an image that contains both the target and comparison objects in close proximity, and using a photometric filter that matches the catalog magnitude of the comparison object most of the measurement variations decrease to null.
20:
774:
of the observational variables drop out and the differential magnitude is simply the difference between the instrument magnitude of the target object and the comparison object (∆Mag = C Mag – T Mag). This is very useful when plotting the change in magnitude over time of a target object, and is usually compiled into a
773:
Differential photometry is the simplest of the calibrations and most useful for time series observations. When using CCD photometry, both the target and comparison objects are observed at the same time, with the same filters, using the same instrument, and viewed through the same optical path. Most
698:
To perform relative photometry, one compares the instrument magnitude of the object to a known comparison object, and then corrects the measurements for spatial variations in the sensitivity of the instrument and the atmospheric extinction. This is often in addition to correcting for their temporal
615:
To perform absolute photometry one must correct for differences between the effective passband through which an object is observed and the passband used to define the standard photometric system. This is often in addition to all of the other corrections discussed above. Typically this correction is
798:
as seen in projection on the sky, and measurement of surface brightness is known as surface photometry. A common application would be measurement of a galaxy's surface brightness profile, meaning its surface brightness as a function of distance from the galaxy's center. For small solid angles, a
855:
There are a number of organizations, from professional to amateur, that gather and share photometric data and make it available on-line. Some sites gather the data primarily as a resource for other researchers (ex. AAVSO) and some solicit contributions of data for their own research (ex. CBA):
533:; these measurements can be compared with other absolute photometric measurements obtained with different telescopes or instruments. Differential photometry is the measurement of the difference in brightness of two objects. In most cases, differential photometry can be done with the highest
846:
are popular examples for aperture photometry. The former is geared towards reduction of large scale galaxy-survey data, and the latter has a graphical user interface (GUI) suitable for studying individual images. DAOPHOT is recognized as the best software for PSF-fitting photometry.
328:, the B–V = 6.16 – 5.46 = +0.70, suggesting a yellow coloured star that agrees with its G2IV spectral type. Knowing the B–V results determines the star's surface temperature, finding an effective surface temperature of 5768±8 K.
354:
adopted by astronomers, there are many expressions of magnitudes and their indices. Each of these newer photometric systems, excluding UBV, UBVRI or JHK systems, assigns an upper or lower case letter to the filter used. For example, magnitudes used by
620:. If the standard stars cannot be observed simultaneously with the target(s), this correction must be done under photometric conditions, when the sky is cloudless and the extinction is a simple function of the
278:
Modern photometric methods define magnitudes and colours of astronomical objects using electronic photometers viewed through standard coloured bandpass filters. This differs from other expressions of
331:
Another important application of colour indices is graphically plotting star's apparent magnitude against the B–V colour index. This forms the important relationships found between sets of stars in
170:
that measures the apparent magnitude in terms of magnitudes per square arcsecond. Knowing the area of the object and the average intensity of light across the astronomical object determines the
100:
The methods used to perform photometry depend on the wavelength region under study. At its most basic, photometry is conducted by gathering light and passing it through specialized photometric
2171:
Makrygianni, L.; Mullaney, J.; Dhillon, V.; et al. (2021). "Processing GOTO survey data with the Rubin
Observatory LSST Science Pipelines II: Forced Photometry and lightcurves".
174:
in terms of magnitudes per square arcsecond, while integrating the total light of the extended object can then calculate brightness in terms of its total magnitude, energy output or
517:, where the profiles of stars overlap significantly, one must use de-blending techniques, such as PSF fitting to determine the individual flux values of the overlapping sources.
270:
cameras that can simultaneously image multiple objects, although photoelectric photometers are still used in special situations, such as where fine time resolution is required.
147:, yielding considerable information about the physical process causing the brightness changes. Precision photoelectric photometers can measure starlight around 0.001 magnitude.
113:
324:
Magnitude differences between filters indicate colour differences and are related to temperature. Using B and V filters in the UBV system produces the B–V colour index. For
1709:
Mittag, M.; Schröder, K.-P.; Hempelmann, A.; González-Pérez, J.N.; Schmitt, J.H.M.M. (2016). "Chromospheric activity and evolutionary age of the Sun and four solar twins".
235:, and allows the establishment of particular properties about stars and other types of astronomical objects. Several important systems are regularly used, such as the
1819:
Jordi, C.; Gebran, M.; Carrasco, J.~M.; de
Bruijne, J.; Voss, H.; Fabricius, C.; Knude, J.; Vallenari, A.; Kohley, R.; More, A. (2010). "Gaia broad band photometry".
790:, it is often of interest to measure the spatial distribution of brightness within the galaxy rather than simply measuring the galaxy's total brightness. An object's
262:
was done with a photoelectric photometer, an instrument that measured the light intensity of a single object by directing its light onto a photosensitive cell like a
1763:
2047:
1995:
831:
of interest) in the location being observed. Forced photometry allows extracting a magnitude, or an upper limit for the magnitude, at a chosen sky location.
803:, and surface brightness is often expressed in magnitudes per square arcsecond. The diameter of galaxies are often defined by the size of the 25th magnitude
1295:
Johnson, H. L.; Morgan, W. W. (1953). "Fundamental stellar photometry for standards of spectral type on the revised system of the Yerkes spectral atlas".
139:
by comparing the brightness of the target object to stars with known fixed magnitudes. Using multiple bandpass filters with relative photometry is termed
3053:
285:
Magnitudes measured by photometers in some commonplace photometric systems (UBV, UBVRI or JHK) are expressed with a capital letter, such as "V" (m
3060:
891:
861:
293:). Other magnitudes estimated by the human eye are expressed using lower case letters, such as "v", "b" or "p", etc. E.g. Visual magnitudes as m
537:, while absolute photometry is the most difficult to do with high precision. Also, accurate photometry is usually more difficult when the
2394:
1423:
321:
is 5.46V, 6.16B or 6.39U, corresponding to magnitudes observed through each of the visual 'V', blue 'B' or ultraviolet 'U' filters.
2772:
734:
659:
576:
462:
2129:
2095:
1170:
1024:
997:
2135:
1615:
2361:
426:
There are many astronomical applications used with photometric systems. Photometric measurements can be combined with the
1771:
3165:
282:
observed by the human eye or obtained by photography: that usually appear in older astronomical texts and catalogues.
1523:
760:
685:
602:
1872:
1478:
742:
667:
584:
3175:
2891:
497:
of the target object, and a known comparison object. The observed signal from an object will typically cover many
438:
can be determined, or its distance if its luminosity is known. Other physical properties of an object, such as its
339:. Typically photometric measurements of multiple objects obtained through two filters will show, for example in an
2157:
2709:
376:
368:
244:
2387:
839:
A number of free computer programs are available for synthetic aperture photometry and PSF-fitting photometry.
738:
663:
580:
186:
1186:
2995:
3180:
2661:
1125:
Husárik, M. (2012). "Relative photometry of the possible main-belt comet (596) Scheila after an outburst".
827:. It is "forced" in the sense that a measurement can be taken even if there is no object visible (in the
336:
332:
3138:
3046:
2828:
2620:
2121:
617:
104:, and then capturing and recording the light energy with a photosensitive instrument. Standard sets of
933:"Synthetic stellar photometry - General considerations and new transformations for broad-band systems"
3067:
2884:
2849:
2842:
2689:
2380:
90:
616:
done by observing the object(s) of interest through multiple filters and also observing a number of
135:
that simultaneously measures the brightness of a target object and nearby stars in the starfield or
3170:
3090:
2856:
1640:
Keenan, R.C.; McNeil, P.C. (1989). "The
Perkins Catalog of Revised MK Types for the Cooler Stars".
885:
843:
800:
723:
648:
565:
224:
121:
1049:
Miles, R. (2007). "A light history of photometry: from
Hipparchus to the Hubble Space Telescope".
93:(or other light sources) of known intensity and colour, photometers can measure the brightness or
2951:
2737:
2596:
2575:
2534:
2498:
2466:
944:
727:
652:
569:
454:
101:
1332:"UBVRI photometric standard stars in the magnitude range 11.5-16.0 around the celestial equator"
2877:
2870:
2793:
2587:
1373:"The UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey ZY JHK photometric system: passbands and synthetic colours"
534:
526:
380:
298:
236:
2217:
1515:
1014:
3160:
2974:
2668:
2606:
2459:
2429:
2321:
1959:
502:
494:
490:
267:
1924:
1842:
1732:
1552:
1265:
442:
or chemical composition, may also be determined via broad or narrow-band spectrophotometry.
2966:
2898:
2716:
2654:
2445:
2422:
2415:
2229:
2190:
2056:
2004:
1968:
1920:
1838:
1728:
1684:
1649:
1585:
1548:
1394:
1343:
1304:
1273:
1261:
1220:
1134:
1094:
1058:
958:
117:
86:
112:) are defined to allow accurate comparison of observations. A more advanced technique is
19:
8:
3185:
3097:
3039:
2835:
2786:
2682:
2629:
2452:
1987:
538:
506:
70:
66:
2233:
2194:
2087:
Scientific
Astrophotography: How Amateurs Can Generate and Use Professional Imaging Data
2060:
2008:
1972:
1653:
1398:
1347:
1308:
1224:
1138:
1098:
1062:
962:
505:(PSF) of the system. This broadening is due to both the optics in the telescope and the
3126:
3025:
2730:
2700:
2647:
2582:
2530:
2505:
2245:
2180:
2020:
1936:
1910:
1854:
1828:
1744:
1718:
1665:
1564:
1384:
948:
791:
530:
525:
After determining the flux of an object in counts, the flux is normally converted into
427:
351:
279:
232:
171:
109:
94:
3032:
3018:
2817:
2802:
2779:
2723:
2491:
2249:
2125:
2091:
1669:
1568:
1519:
1508:
1407:
1372:
1277:
1166:
1020:
993:
356:
344:
2024:
1940:
1858:
1748:
2937:
2916:
2751:
2744:
2237:
2198:
2064:
2012:
1928:
1846:
1736:
1657:
1556:
1402:
1351:
1312:
1269:
1246:
1102:
966:
896:
514:
216:
1932:
1850:
1740:
1449:
85:
or a photoelectric photometer that converts light into an electric current by the
3083:
2758:
2675:
2613:
2568:
2512:
2115:
2085:
1764:"PHY217 Observational Techniques for Astronomers : P05: Absolute Photometry"
1160:
987:
906:
478:
263:
2263:
375:) filters. Some photometric systems also have certain advantages. For example,
2930:
2863:
2765:
466:
228:
82:
23:
2241:
1901:
Paunzen, E. (2015). "A new catalogue of Strömgren-Crawford uvbyβ photometry".
465:. Measurements of these variations can be used, for example, to determine the
371:
having lower case letters of 'u', 'v', 'b', 'y', and two narrow and wide 'β' (
3154:
2988:
1794:
1281:
828:
446:
372:
128:
39:
971:
932:
2944:
2923:
2541:
2111:
911:
510:
450:
340:
259:
2158:"PS1 Forced photometry of sources - PS1 Public Archive - STScI Outerspace"
1795:"Open Star Clusters : 8 of 10 : Evolution of Open Star Clusters"
1560:
3011:
2202:
1389:
795:
775:
474:
445:
Photometry is also used to study the light variations of objects such as
439:
212:
193:
190:
144:
58:
415:
347:
between the component stars or to determine the cluster's relative age.
49:
43:
2981:
2958:
2438:
901:
481:
of a minor planet or a star, or the total energy output of supernovae.
431:
204:
175:
78:
1708:
3076:
2403:
458:
325:
318:
74:
54:
31:
2285:
712:
637:
554:
203:
Astronomy was among the earliest applications of photometry. Modern
2185:
2069:
2042:
2016:
1915:
1723:
1661:
1356:
1331:
1316:
1107:
1082:
804:
435:
255:
240:
220:
208:
197:
105:
2043:"DAOPHOT: A Computer Program for Crowded-Field Stellar Photometry"
1833:
1768:
University of
Sheffield : Department of Physics and Astronomy
953:
1613:
1421:
1371:
Hewett, P.C.; Warren, S.J.; Leggett, S.K.; Hodgkin, S.T. (2006).
621:
419:
3106:
1957:
Mighell, K.J. (1999). "Algorithms for CCD Stellar
Photometry".
880:
787:
470:
167:
163:
155:
2218:"Forced Photometry for Pan-STARRS1 Objects Based on WISE Data"
1083:"Differential photometry of HDE 310376, a rapid variable star"
1818:
498:
159:
2372:
1127:
Contributions of the
Astronomical Observatory Skalnaté Pleso
120:
and observes both the amount of radiation and its detailed
62:
2170:
1539:
Cayrel de
Strobel, G. (1996). "Stars resembling the Sun".
1370:
399:) without the effects of reddening, as the indices m
2548:
2339:
16:
Determination of light intensities of astronomical bodies
1510:
Norton's 2000.0 : Star Atlas and
Reference Handbook
1206:
1204:
2303:
2048:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
1996:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
1985:
1087:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
989:
A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis
2340:"CBA @ cbastro.org - Center for Backyard Astrophysics"
1211:
Palei, A.B. (August 1968). "Integrating Photometers".
383:. Strömgren allows calculation of parameters from the
2173:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia
1201:
359:
are 'G' (with the blue and red photometric filters, G
930:
379:
can be used to measure the effects of reddening and
2366:
CSIRO : Australian Telescope National Facility
1620:
CSIRO : Australian Telescope National Facility
1428:
CSIRO : Australian Telescope National Facility
1507:
2083:
1538:
1377:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1288:
937:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
860:American Association of Variable Star Observers (
335:, which for stars is the observed version of the
3152:
1472:
1470:
273:
81:, often made using electronic devices such as a
2110:
1592:. Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg
1051:Journal of the British Astronomical Association
985:
892:Bidirectional reflectance distribution function
2036:
2034:
1952:
1950:
1896:
1894:
1873:"Expected Nominal Mission Science Performance"
1761:
1755:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1162:Observing Variable Stars, Novae and Supernovae
143:. A plot of magnitude against time produces a
127:Photometry is also used in the observation of
2388:
1501:
1499:
1476:
1467:
1294:
1120:
1118:
1639:
1609:
1607:
1532:
1080:
1012:
931:Casagrande, Luca; VandenBerg, Don A (2014).
819:, measurements are conducted at a specified
154:can also be used with extended objects like
2031:
1947:
1891:
1642:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
1254:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
1231:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
741:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
666:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
583:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2395:
2381:
1702:
1676:
1633:
1614:CSIRO Astronomy and Space Science (2002).
1496:
1422:CSIRO Astronomy and Space Science (2015).
1364:
1158:
1115:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1006:
702:
2184:
2117:Galaxies in the Universe: An Introduction
2090:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2068:
1979:
1914:
1832:
1812:
1792:
1786:
1722:
1604:
1580:
1578:
1406:
1388:
1355:
1323:
1106:
970:
952:
799:useful unit of solid angle is the square
761:Learn how and when to remove this message
686:Learn how and when to remove this message
603:Learn how and when to remove this message
1447:
1415:
1179:
1145:
1033:
414:
266:. These have largely been replaced with
227:. Any adopted set of filters with known
185:
18:
2215:
2040:
1956:
1900:
1865:
1329:
1244:
1159:North, G.; James, N. (21 August 2014).
1124:
1069:
870:Center for Backyard Astrophysics (CBA).
786:For spatially extended objects such as
3153:
1682:
1575:
1505:
1441:
1274:10.1146/annurev.astro.41.082801.100251
627:
544:
2376:
2084:Gerald R. Hubbell (9 November 2012).
1210:
1081:Kern, J.~R.; Bookmyer, B.~B. (1986).
1048:
781:
350:Due to the large number of different
254:Historically, photometry in the near-
3134:
1187:"Overview: Photoelectric photometer"
810:
739:adding citations to reliable sources
706:
664:adding citations to reliable sources
631:
581:adding citations to reliable sources
548:
53:("measure"), is a technique used in
2138:from the original on March 24, 2021
924:
509:. When obtaining photometry from a
73:. This light is measured through a
13:
14:
3197:
2354:
1986:Laher, R.R.; et al. (2012).
1541:Astronomy and Astrophysics Review
1016:Optical Astronomical Spectroscopy
484:
131:, by various techniques such as,
3133:
3122:
3121:
2892:Southern African Large Telescope
2286:"Aperture Photometry Tool: Home"
1454:British Astronomical Association
1408:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09969.x
1245:Bessell, M.S. (September 2005).
986:Brian D. Warner (20 June 2016).
850:
711:
636:
553:
239:(or the extended UBVRI system),
2332:
2322:"Exoplanet - Amateur Detection"
2314:
2296:
2278:
2256:
2209:
2164:
2150:
2114:; Gallagher, J. S. III (2000).
2104:
2077:
1514:. Longmore Scientific. p.
1477:MacRobert, A. (1 August 2006).
1013:C.R. Kitchin (1 January 1995).
520:
410:
1799:Southern Astronomical Delights
1479:"The Stellar Magnitude System"
1247:"Standard Photometric Systems"
1165:. Cambridge University Press.
979:
1:
2402:
1330:Landolt, A.U. (1 July 1992).
917:
463:transiting extrasolar planets
274:Magnitudes and colour indices
229:light transmission properties
1711:Astronomy & Astrophysics
1019:. CRC Press. pp. 212–.
823:rather than for a specified
369:Strömgren photometric system
7:
1933:10.1051/0004-6361/201526413
1877:GAIA :European Space Agency
1851:10.1051/0004-6361/201015441
1793:James, A. (19 April 2017).
1741:10.1051/0004-6361/201527542
874:
834:
794:is its brightness per unit
531:standard photometric system
337:Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
309:or photovisual magnitudes m
10:
3202:
2290:www.aperturephotometry.org
2122:Cambridge University Press
1988:"Aperture Photometry Tool"
1903:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1821:Astronomy and Astrophysics
618:photometric standard stars
541:of the object is fainter.
181:
89:. When calibrated against
3166:Electromagnetic radiation
3116:
2908:
2885:Large Binocular Telescope
2850:Extremely Large Telescope
2843:Extremely large telescope
2816:
2699:
2639:
2560:
2522:
2483:
2476:
2410:
2242:10.1134/S1063773722030021
1685:"Astronomical Magnitudes"
1424:"Photoelectric Astronomy"
1297:The Astrophysical Journal
1189:. Oxford University Press
391:filters (colour index of
333:colour–magnitude diagrams
280:apparent visual magnitude
258:through short-wavelength
207:use specialised standard
2857:Gran Telescopio Canarias
1336:The Astronomical Journal
886:Aperture Photometry Tool
844:Aperture Photometry Tool
225:electromagnetic spectrum
116:that is measured with a
102:optical bandpass filters
3176:Observational astronomy
2952:Astrology and astronomy
2662:Gravitational radiation
2216:Burenin, R. A. (2022).
1925:2015A&A...580A..23P
1843:2010A&A...523A..48J
1762:Littlefair, S. (2015).
1733:2016A&A...591A..89M
1553:1996A&ARv...7..243C
1266:2005ARA&A..43..293B
945:Oxford University Press
703:Differential photometry
381:interstellar extinction
299:photographic magnitudes
178:per unit surface area.
133:differential photometry
57:that is concerned with
2871:Hubble Space Telescope
2041:Stetson, P.B. (1987).
527:instrumental magnitude
455:active galactic nuclei
423:
200:
97:of celestial objects.
27:
2975:Astroparticle physics
2710:Australian Aboriginal
1960:ASP Conference Series
1616:"The Colour of Stars"
1561:10.1007/s001590050006
1506:Norton, A.P. (1989).
972:10.1093/mnras/stu1476
503:point spread function
491:charge-coupled device
475:eclipsing binary star
473:of the members of an
418:
196:in several different
189:
122:spectral distribution
22:
2967:Astronomers Monument
2899:Very Large Telescope
2446:Astronomical symbols
2203:10.1017/pasa.2021.19
1774:on 13 September 2019
807:in the blue B-band.
735:improve this section
660:improve this section
577:improve this section
434:of an object if its
377:Strömgren photometry
264:photomultiplier tube
87:photoelectric effect
71:astronomical objects
3181:Photometric systems
3040:List of astronomers
2453:Astronomical object
2326:astronomyonline.org
2234:2022AstL...48..153B
2195:2021PASA...38...25M
2061:1987PASP...99..191S
2009:2012PASP..124..737L
1973:1999ASPC..172..317M
1654:1989ApJS...71..245K
1399:2006MNRAS.367..454H
1348:1992AJ....104..340L
1309:1953ApJ...117..313J
1225:1968SvA....12..164P
1139:2012CoSka..42...15H
1099:1986PASP...98.1336K
1063:2007JBAA..117..172M
963:2014MNRAS.444..392C
867:Astronomyonline.org
628:Relative photometry
545:Absolute photometry
539:apparent brightness
507:astronomical seeing
352:photometric systems
223:wavelengths of the
211:filters across the
141:absolute photometry
137:relative photometry
3026:Physical cosmology
2362:"Photometry Links"
2272:www.astromatic.net
792:surface brightness
782:Surface photometry
428:inverse-square law
424:
343:, the comparative
233:photometric system
201:
172:surface brightness
152:surface photometry
110:photometric system
95:apparent magnitude
67:intensity of light
28:
3148:
3147:
3033:Quantum cosmology
3019:Planetary geology
2812:
2811:
2523:Celestial subject
2268:– Astromatic.net"
2222:Astronomy Letters
2131:978-0-521-59740-1
2097:978-1-4614-5173-0
1483:Sky and Telescope
1172:978-1-107-63612-5
1026:978-1-4200-5069-1
999:978-3-319-32750-1
817:forced photometry
811:Forced photometry
771:
770:
763:
696:
695:
688:
613:
612:
605:
501:according to the
430:to determine the
345:stellar evolution
150:The technique of
118:spectrophotometer
114:spectrophotometry
3193:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3129:
3125:
3124:
3109:
3100:
3093:
3086:
3079:
3070:
3063:
3056:
3054:Medieval Islamic
3049:
3042:
3035:
3028:
3021:
3014:
3007:
2998:
2991:
2984:
2977:
2970:
2961:
2954:
2947:
2940:
2938:Astroinformatics
2933:
2926:
2919:
2917:Archaeoastronomy
2901:
2894:
2887:
2880:
2878:Keck Observatory
2873:
2866:
2859:
2852:
2845:
2838:
2831:
2805:
2796:
2789:
2782:
2775:
2773:Medieval Islamic
2768:
2761:
2754:
2747:
2740:
2733:
2726:
2719:
2712:
2692:
2685:
2678:
2671:
2664:
2657:
2650:
2632:
2623:
2616:
2609:
2602:
2600:
2592:
2590:
2578:
2571:
2551:
2544:
2537:
2515:
2508:
2501:
2494:
2481:
2480:
2469:
2462:
2455:
2448:
2441:
2432:
2425:
2418:
2397:
2390:
2383:
2374:
2373:
2369:
2348:
2347:
2336:
2330:
2329:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2267:
2260:
2254:
2253:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2188:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2072:
2038:
2029:
2028:
2003:(917): 737–763.
1992:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1954:
1945:
1944:
1918:
1898:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1836:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1770:. Archived from
1759:
1753:
1752:
1726:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1689:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1611:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1582:
1573:
1572:
1536:
1530:
1529:
1513:
1503:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1474:
1465:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1450:"CCD Photometry"
1445:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1392:
1390:astro-ph/0601592
1368:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1292:
1286:
1285:
1251:
1242:
1229:
1228:
1213:Soviet Astronomy
1208:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1183:
1177:
1176:
1156:
1143:
1142:
1122:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1078:
1067:
1066:
1046:
1031:
1030:
1010:
1004:
1003:
983:
977:
976:
974:
956:
928:
897:Hapke parameters
766:
759:
755:
752:
746:
715:
707:
691:
684:
680:
677:
671:
640:
632:
608:
601:
597:
594:
588:
557:
549:
515:globular cluster
26:space photometer
3201:
3200:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3191:
3190:
3171:Light pollution
3151:
3150:
3149:
3144:
3132:
3120:
3112:
3105:
3096:
3089:
3084:X-ray telescope
3082:
3075:
3066:
3059:
3052:
3045:
3038:
3031:
3024:
3017:
3010:
3003:
2994:
2987:
2980:
2973:
2964:
2957:
2950:
2943:
2936:
2929:
2922:
2915:
2904:
2897:
2890:
2883:
2876:
2869:
2862:
2855:
2848:
2841:
2834:
2827:
2819:
2808:
2801:
2792:
2785:
2778:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2729:
2722:
2715:
2708:
2695:
2690:Multi-messenger
2688:
2681:
2674:
2667:
2660:
2653:
2646:
2635:
2628:
2619:
2612:
2605:
2598:
2595:
2586:
2581:
2574:
2567:
2556:
2547:
2540:
2529:
2518:
2513:Space telescope
2511:
2504:
2497:
2490:
2472:
2465:
2458:
2451:
2444:
2437:
2428:
2421:
2414:
2406:
2401:
2360:
2357:
2352:
2351:
2344:www.cbastro.org
2338:
2337:
2333:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2284:
2283:
2279:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2257:
2214:
2210:
2169:
2165:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2141:
2139:
2132:
2109:
2105:
2098:
2082:
2078:
2039:
2032:
1990:
1984:
1980:
1955:
1948:
1899:
1892:
1882:
1880:
1879:. 16 March 2019
1871:
1870:
1866:
1817:
1813:
1803:
1801:
1791:
1787:
1777:
1775:
1760:
1756:
1707:
1703:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1677:
1638:
1634:
1624:
1622:
1612:
1605:
1595:
1593:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1504:
1497:
1487:
1485:
1475:
1468:
1458:
1456:
1446:
1442:
1432:
1430:
1420:
1416:
1369:
1365:
1328:
1324:
1293:
1289:
1249:
1243:
1232:
1209:
1202:
1192:
1190:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1173:
1157:
1146:
1123:
1116:
1079:
1070:
1047:
1034:
1027:
1011:
1007:
1000:
984:
980:
929:
925:
920:
907:Redshift survey
877:
853:
842:SExtractor and
837:
813:
784:
767:
756:
750:
747:
732:
716:
705:
692:
681:
675:
672:
657:
641:
630:
609:
598:
592:
589:
574:
558:
547:
523:
487:
479:rotation period
461:, or to detect
413:
406:
402:
366:
362:
316:
312:
308:
304:
296:
292:
288:
276:
184:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3199:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3146:
3145:
3143:
3142:
3130:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3110:
3103:
3102:
3101:
3094:
3087:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3064:
3057:
3050:
3036:
3029:
3022:
3015:
3008:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2985:
2978:
2971:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2941:
2934:
2931:Astrochemistry
2927:
2920:
2912:
2910:
2906:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2895:
2888:
2881:
2874:
2867:
2864:Hale Telescope
2860:
2853:
2846:
2839:
2832:
2824:
2822:
2814:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2806:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2783:
2776:
2769:
2762:
2755:
2748:
2741:
2734:
2727:
2720:
2713:
2705:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2665:
2658:
2651:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2633:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2610:
2603:
2597:Visible-light
2593:
2579:
2572:
2564:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2538:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2519:
2517:
2516:
2509:
2502:
2495:
2487:
2485:
2478:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2463:
2456:
2449:
2442:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2419:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2400:
2399:
2392:
2385:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2356:
2355:External links
2353:
2350:
2349:
2331:
2313:
2295:
2277:
2255:
2228:(3): 153–162.
2208:
2163:
2149:
2130:
2103:
2096:
2076:
2070:10.1086/131977
2030:
2017:10.1086/666883
1978:
1946:
1890:
1864:
1811:
1785:
1754:
1701:
1675:
1662:10.1086/191373
1632:
1603:
1574:
1547:(3): 243–288.
1531:
1524:
1495:
1466:
1440:
1414:
1383:(2): 454–468.
1363:
1357:10.1086/116242
1322:
1317:10.1086/145697
1303:(3): 313–352.
1287:
1260:(1): 293–336.
1230:
1200:
1178:
1171:
1144:
1114:
1108:10.1086/131940
1068:
1032:
1025:
1005:
998:
978:
922:
921:
919:
916:
915:
914:
909:
904:
899:
894:
889:
883:
876:
873:
872:
871:
868:
865:
852:
849:
836:
833:
812:
809:
783:
780:
769:
768:
719:
717:
710:
704:
701:
694:
693:
644:
642:
635:
629:
626:
611:
610:
561:
559:
552:
546:
543:
522:
519:
486:
485:CCD photometry
483:
467:orbital period
447:variable stars
412:
409:
404:
400:
364:
360:
314:
310:
306:
302:
294:
290:
286:
275:
272:
183:
180:
129:variable stars
91:standard stars
83:CCD photometer
47:("light") and
24:Kepler Mission
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3198:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3140:
3131:
3128:
3119:
3118:
3115:
3108:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3092:
3088:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3074:
3069:
3065:
3062:
3058:
3055:
3051:
3048:
3044:
3043:
3041:
3037:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3006:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2989:Constellation
2986:
2983:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2963:
2960:
2956:
2953:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2935:
2932:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2896:
2893:
2889:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2875:
2872:
2868:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2854:
2851:
2847:
2844:
2840:
2837:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2815:
2804:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2753:
2749:
2746:
2742:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2721:
2718:
2714:
2711:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2691:
2687:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2666:
2663:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2649:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2640:Other methods
2638:
2631:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2601:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2577:
2576:Submillimetre
2573:
2570:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2550:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2539:
2536:
2535:Extragalactic
2532:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2510:
2507:
2503:
2500:
2499:Observational
2496:
2493:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2482:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2464:
2461:
2457:
2454:
2450:
2447:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2417:
2413:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2393:
2391:
2386:
2384:
2379:
2378:
2375:
2368:. 2019-05-08.
2367:
2363:
2359:
2358:
2345:
2341:
2335:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2309:
2308:www.aavso.org
2305:
2299:
2291:
2287:
2281:
2273:
2269:
2259:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2212:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2159:
2153:
2137:
2133:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2118:
2113:
2112:Sparke, L. S.
2107:
2099:
2093:
2089:
2088:
2080:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2037:
2035:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1997:
1989:
1982:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1961:
1953:
1951:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1897:
1895:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1705:
1686:
1679:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1621:
1617:
1610:
1608:
1591:
1587:
1581:
1579:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1535:
1527:
1525:0-582-03163-X
1521:
1517:
1512:
1511:
1502:
1500:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1471:
1455:
1451:
1448:Walker, E.W.
1444:
1429:
1425:
1418:
1409:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1367:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1207:
1205:
1188:
1182:
1174:
1168:
1164:
1163:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1119:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1093:: 1336–1341.
1092:
1088:
1084:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1028:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1009:
1001:
995:
991:
990:
982:
973:
968:
964:
960:
955:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
927:
923:
913:
910:
908:
905:
903:
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
887:
884:
882:
879:
878:
869:
866:
863:
859:
858:
857:
851:Organizations
848:
845:
840:
832:
830:
829:spectral band
826:
822:
818:
808:
806:
802:
797:
793:
789:
779:
777:
765:
762:
754:
744:
740:
736:
730:
729:
725:
720:This section
718:
714:
709:
708:
700:
690:
687:
679:
669:
665:
661:
655:
654:
650:
645:This section
643:
639:
634:
633:
625:
623:
619:
607:
604:
596:
586:
582:
578:
572:
571:
567:
562:This section
560:
556:
551:
550:
542:
540:
536:
532:
528:
518:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
482:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
451:minor planets
448:
443:
441:
437:
433:
429:
421:
417:
408:
398:
395: −
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
373:Hydrogen-beta
370:
358:
353:
348:
346:
342:
338:
334:
329:
327:
322:
320:
300:
283:
281:
271:
269:
265:
261:
257:
252:
250:
248:
242:
241:near infrared
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
199:
195:
192:
188:
179:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
148:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
125:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
98:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
51:
46:
45:
41:
37:
33:
25:
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2924:Astrobiology
2588:Far-infrared
2542:Local system
2477:Astronomy by
2467:... in space
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3012:Planetarium
2669:High-energy
2655:Cosmic rays
2607:Ultraviolet
2304:"aavso.org"
2264:"SExtractor
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1967:: 317–328.
1690:. p. 2
1683:Luciuk, M.
1648:: 245–266.
1342:: 340–371.
1057:: 178–186.
947:: 392–419.
796:solid angle
776:light curve
440:temperature
403:and c
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243:JHK or the
213:ultraviolet
205:photometers
194:light curve
191:Eta Carinae
145:light curve
3186:Radiometry
3155:Categories
3005:Photometry
2982:Binoculars
2959:Astrometry
2820:telescopes
2717:Babylonian
2561:EM methods
2439:Astronomer
2186:2105.05128
1916:1506.04568
1724:1607.01279
918:References
902:Radiometry
888:- Software
459:supernovae
432:luminosity
422:photometer
245:Strömgren
237:UBV system
176:luminosity
108:(called a
79:photometer
36:photometry
3077:Telescope
2683:Spherical
2630:Gamma-ray
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2250:253022975
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1670:123149047
1569:189937884
1282:0066-4146
954:1407.6095
801:arcsecond
722:does not
647:does not
564:does not
535:precision
495:magnitude
367:) or the
326:51 Pegasi
319:51 Pegasi
198:passbands
106:passbands
75:telescope
59:measuring
55:astronomy
32:astronomy
3127:Category
2836:Category
2731:Egyptian
2648:Neutrino
2583:Infrared
2531:Galactic
2506:Sidewalk
2460:Glossary
2430:Timeline
2142:July 25,
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1941:73623700
1859:34033669
1749:54765864
1586:"51 Peg"
875:See also
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805:isophote
788:galaxies
751:May 2019
676:May 2019
593:May 2019
469:and the
436:distance
297:, while
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221:infrared
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2909:Related
2818:Optical
2803:Tibetan
2787:Serbian
2780:Persian
2724:Chinese
2701:Culture
2621:History
2492:Amateur
2423:History
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