1690:
concepts cluster more thickly, the words are more richly chambered, but there is a tendency, on the whole, to keep the range of concrete significance in the single word down to a moderate compass. A polysynthetic language, as its name implies, is more than ordinarily synthetic. The elaboration of the word is extreme. Concepts which we should never dream of treating in a subordinate fashion are symbolized by derivational affixes or “symbolic” changes in the radical element, while the more abstract notions, including the syntactic relations, may also be conveyed by the word. A polysynthetic language illustrates no principles that are not already exemplified in the more familiar synthetic languages. It is related to them very much as a synthetic language is related to our own analytic
English. The three terms are purely quantitative—and relative, that is, a language may be “analytic” from one standpoint, “synthetic” from another. I believe the terms are more useful in defining certain drifts than as absolute counters. It is often illuminating to point out that a language has been becoming more and more analytic in the course of its history or that it shows signs of having crystallized from a simple analytic base into a highly synthetic form.
1546:
of a radical word as in the most
European languages, but by interweaving together the most significant sounds or syllables of each simple word, so as to form a compound that will awaken in the mind at once all the ideas singly expressed by the words from which they are taken. 2. By an analogous combination of various parts of speech, particularly by means of the verb, so that its various forms and inflections will express not only the principal action, but the greatest possible number of the moral ideas and physical objects connected with it, and will combine itself to the greatest extent with those conceptions which are the subject of other parts of speech, and in other languages require to be expressed by separate and distinct words.... Their most remarkable external appearance is that of long polysyllabic words, which being compounded in the manner I have stated, express much at once.
1560:(1836), and it was long considered that all the indigenous languages of the Americas were of the same type. Humboldt considered language structure to be an expression of the psychological stage of evolution of a people, and since Native Americans were considered uncivilized, polysynthesis came to be seen as the lowest stage of grammatical evolution, characterized by a lack of rigorous rules and clear organization known in European languages. Duponceau himself had argued that the complex polysynthetic nature of American languages was a relic of a more civilized past, and that this suggested that the Indians of his time had degenerated from a previous advanced stage. Duponceau's colleague
1982:
603:
1678:
There is justification for the use of all of these terms, though not perhaps in quite the spirit in which they are commonly employed. In any case it is very difficult to assign all known languages to one or other of these groups, the more so as they are not mutually exclusive. A language may be both agglutinative and inflective, or inflective and polysynthetic, or even polysynthetic and isolating, as we shall see a little later on.
1673:, he argued that instead of using the morphological types as a strict classification scheme it made more sense to classify languages as relatively more or less synthetic or analytic, with the isolating and polysynthetic languages in each of the extremes of that spectrum. He also argued that languages were rarely purely of one morphological type, but used different morphological strategies in different parts of the grammar.
1777:, proposed an analysis of polysynthetic languages in which the morphemes that agree with the arguments of the verb are not just considered indexes of the arguments, but in fact constitute the primary expression of the arguments within the sentence. Because this theory posits that the pronominal agreement morphemes are the true syntactic arguments of the sentence, Jelinek's hypothesis was called the
679:, including derivational and inflectional morphemes. A language then is "synthetic" or "synthesizing" if it tends to have more than one morpheme per word, and a polysynthetic language is a language that has "many" morphemes per word. The concept was originally used only to describe those languages that can form long words that correspond to an entire sentence in English or other
1805:" program. He defines polysynthetic languages as languages that conform to the syntactic rule that he calls the "polysynthesis parameter", and that as a result show a special set of morphological and syntactic properties. The polysynthesis parameter states that all phrasal heads must be marked with either agreement morphemes of their direct argument or else
1944:
Because they possess a greater number of free morphemes, compositionally polysynthetic languages are much more prone than affixally polysynthetic ones to evolve into simpler languages with less complex words. On the other hand, they are generally easier to distinguish from non-polysynthetic languages
1700:
Sapir introduced a number of other distinctions according to which languages could be morphologically classified, and proposed combining them to form more complex classifications. He proposed classifying languages both by the degree of synthesis, classifying languages as either analytic, synthetic or
1521:
The manner in which words are compounded in that particular mode of speech, the great number and variety of ideas which it has the power of expressing in one single word; particularly by means of the verbs; all these stamp its character for abundance, strength, and comprehensiveness of expression, in
781:
as a means of syntactic cohesion. This means that many polysynthetic languages mark grammatical relations between verbs and their constituents by indexing the constituents on the verb with agreement morphemes, and the relation between noun phrases and their constituents by marking the head noun with
1657:
reacted to the prevailing view in
Americanist linguistics which considered the languages of the Americas to belong to a single basic polysynthetic type, arguing instead that American indigenous languages were highly diverse and encompassed all known morphological types. He also built on the work of
1545:
construction of language.... It is that in which the greatest number of ideas are comprised in the fewest words. This is done principally in two ways. 1. By a mode of compounding locutions which is not confined to joining two words together, as in the Greek, or varying the inflection or termination
690:
between elements verbs and their arguments so that the verb is marked for agreement with the grammatical subject and object. In this way a single word can encode information about all the elements in a transitive clause. In Indo-European languages the verb is usually only marked for agreement with
1677:
Hence has arisen the still popular classification of languages into an “isolating” group, an “agglutinative” group, and an “inflective” group. Sometimes the languages of the
American Indians are made to straggle along as an uncomfortable “polysynthetic” rear-guard to the agglutinative languages.
1689:
An analytic language is one that either does not combine concepts into single words at all (Chinese) or does so economically (English, French). In an analytic language the sentence is always of prime importance, the word is of minor interest. In a synthetic language (Latin, Arabic, Finnish) the
1627:
Their absence has not been demonstrated in any of which we have sufficient and authentic material on which to base a decision. The opinion of Du
Ponceau and Humboldt, therefore, that these processes belong to the ground-plan of American languages, and are their leading characteristics, must be
1861:
from a basic root, which can lead to very complex word forms without non-lexical suffixes. These bound morphemes often relate to body parts, other essential items of the culture of the language's speakers or features of the landscape where the language is spoken. Deictics and other spatial and
1736:
and polysynthetic languages, where the former term was applied to languages with a very small number of morphemes of which all other lexical units are composed. No language has been shown to fit the description of an oligosynthetic language and the concept is not in general use in linguistics.
1564:
contradicted this theory, arguing rather that synthesis was a sign of a lower cultural level, and that while the Greek and Latin languages were somewhat synthetic, Native
American languages were much more so – and consequently polysynthesis was the hallmark of the lowest level of intellectual
1865:
Affixally polysynthetic languages do not use noun incorporation or verb serialisation, since this violates the rule concerning the number of roots allowable per word. Many make a weak distinction between nouns and verbs, which allows using affixes to translate these parts of speech.
525:
At the same time, the question of whether to call a particular language polysynthetic is complicated by the fact that morpheme and word boundaries are not always clear cut, and languages may be highly synthetic in one area but less synthetic in other areas (e.g., verbs and nouns in
1592:, the first professor of anthropology in the US, followed Duponceau, Gallatin and Humboldt in seeing polysynthesis, which he distinguished from incorporation, as a defining feature of all the languages of the Americas. He defined polysynthesis in this way:
670:
is defined as a unit of meaning that can stand alone in a sentence, and which can be uttered in isolation. Words may be simple, consisting of a single unit of meaning, or they can be complex, formed by combining many small units of meaning, called
1832:
suggests that polysynthetic languages can be fundamentally divided into two typological categories, which differ in the way morphemes are organised to form words. She calls the two types for affixal and compositional polysynthesis respectively.
730:
Many polysynthetic languages combine these two strategies, and also have ways of inflecting verbs for concepts normally encoded by adverbs or adjectives in Indo-European languages. In this way highly complex words can be formed, for example the
1781:. If the hypothesis were correct, it would mean that free standing nouns in such languages did not constitute syntactical arguments, but simply adjoined specifiers or adjuncts. This in turn explained why many polysynthetic languages seem to be
2912:
Duponceau, Peter S. (1819). "Report of the corresponding secretary to the committee, of his progress in the investigation committed to him of the general character and forms of the languages of the
American Indians: Read, 12th Jan. 1819.".
557:. This characterization was shown to be wrong, since many indigenous American languages are not polysynthetic, but it is a fact that polysynthetic languages are not evenly distributed throughout the world, but more frequent in the
1642:. Brinton, who had never done fieldwork with any indigenous group continued to defend Humboldt and Duponceau's view of the exceptional nature of American languages against the claim of Hewitt, who was half
1608:, etc., but also words, forms of words, and significant phonetic elements which have no separate existence apart from such compounds. This latter peculiarity marks it off altogether from the processes of
675:. In a general non-theoretical sense polysynthetic languages are those languages that have a high degree of morphological synthesis, and which tend to form long complex words containing long strings of
1938:
to create extremely long words. Bound affixes, though less important in compositionally polysynthetic languages than in affixally polysynthetic languages, tend to be equally abundant in both types.
1638:
In the 1890s the question of whether polysynthesis could be considered a general characteristic of Native
American languages became a hotly contested issue as Brinton debated the question with
479:
have a low morpheme-to-word ratio, polysynthetic languages have a very high ratio. There is no generally agreed upon definition of polysynthesis. Generally polysynthetic languages have
1701:
polysynthetic, and by the technique used to achieve synthesis, classifying languages as agglutinative, fusional, or symbolic. Among the examples of polysynthetic languages he gave was
1941:
It is believed that all affixally polysynthetic languages evolved from compositionally polysynthetic ones via the conversion of morphemes that could stand on their own into affixes.
1778:
1572:
wrote in 1875. He considered polysynthesis to be a general characteristic of
American languages, but he did qualify the statement by mentioning that certain languages such as
589:
theory of grammar. Other linguists question the basic utility of the concept for typology since it covers many separate morphological types that have little else in common.
1491:
That the
American languages in general are rich in grammatical forms, and that in their complicated construction, the greatest order, method and regularity prevail
1809:
these arguments in that head. This definition of polysynthesis leaves out some languages that are commonly stated as examples of polysynthetic languages (such as
1785:, i.e. they have no strict rules for word order and seemingly violate many of the basic rules for syntactic structures posited within the generative framework.
325:
499:, also have it. Some authors apply the term polysynthetic to languages with high morpheme-to-word ratios, but others use it for languages that are highly
1829:
699:"I speak" where the -o ending marks agreement with the first person singular subject), but in many languages verbs also agree with the object (e.g. the
1821:. Baker's definition, probably because of its heavy dependence on generative theory, has not been accepted as a general definition of polysynthesis.
2916:
Transactions of the Historical & Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for promoting useful knowledge
3103:
2809:
Bickel, Balthasar; Nichols, Johanna (2011). "Chapter 22. Inflectional Synthesis of the Verb". In Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.).
2987:(2003). "On the significance of Eloise Jelinek's Pronominal Argument Hypothesis". In Carnie, Andrew; Harley, Heidi; Willie, MaryAnn (eds.).
1646:
and had studied the Iroquoian languages, that languages such as the Iroquois had grammatical rules and verbs just like European languages.
3098:. North American Indians: Humanistic Perspectives. James S. Thayer, ed. University of Oklahoma Papers in Anthropology 24(2): 221–242.
318:
1758:
theoretical framework that operates with the assumption that all the world's languages share a set of basic syntactic principles.
1999:
1596:
Polysynthesis is a method of word-building, applicable either to nominals or verbals, which not only employs juxtaposition, with
620:
246:
241:
236:
224:
219:
214:
81:
3138:
3095:
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1876:, with a fixed number of slots for different elements, which are fixed in their position and order relative to each other; or
142:
3008:Über die Verschiedenheit des menschichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwicklung des Menschengeschlechts
554:
2884:
American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America (Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, 4)
751:
with the meanings, reindeer-hunt-future-say-negation-again-third.person.singular.indicative, and except for the morpheme
311:
132:
1483:(a.k.a. Pierre Étienne Du Ponceau) in 1819 as a term to describe the structural characteristics of American languages:
95:
3225:
3173:
3113:
3085:
2966:
2933:
2895:
2782:
2615:
2021:
642:
553:, who considered polysynthesis, as characterized by sentence words and noun incorporation, a defining feature of all
1666:
dismissed morphological typology, stating specifically that the term polysynthetic had never been clearly defined.
1509:
That these forms appear to differ essentially from those of the ancient and modern languages of the old hemisphere.
573:; however, there are also examples in other areas. The concept became part of linguistic typology with the work of
107:
2245:
1152:
2003:
743:
which means "He had not yet said again that he was going to hunt reindeer." The word consists of the morphemes
624:
2072:
2040:
1782:
1750:
The sentence structure of polysynthetic languages has been taken as a challenge for linguists working within
527:
263:
3262:
1639:
362:(word parts that have independent meaning but may or may not be able to stand alone). They are very highly
137:
1862:
temporal relations are also very common among these bound morphemes in affixally polysynthetic languages.
2249:
1806:
803:
763:
122:
2201:
2094:
1891:
783:
231:
209:
166:
100:
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Fortescue, Michael. (1994). Morphology, polysynthetic. In R. E. Asher & J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.),
1802:
586:
273:
90:
2169:
1522:
such a manner, that those accidents must be considered as included in the general descriptive term
550:
2887:
2867:
2774:
1992:
1882:, with forms not restricted in complexity and length. The components are fixed in their relative
1597:
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613:
253:
171:
70:
3126:
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2261:
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1577:
1569:
807:
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Another way to achieve a high degree of synthesis is when languages can form compound words by
511:
484:
480:
339:
60:
29:
1886:
and are thus ordered according to the intended meaning. Usually in this case a few components
2766:
2119:
2062:
1845:
to express concepts that in less synthetic languages are expressed by separate words such as
1813:), but can be seen as the reason for certain common structural properties in others, such as
1794:
778:
578:
500:
299:
181:
176:
161:
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See Mattissen: "On the Ontology and Diachronisis of Polysynthesis"; in Wunderlich (editor):
2164:
2084:
1907:
1774:
1557:
1331:
152:
147:
127:
1841:
Affixally polysynthetic languages, as the name suggests, are those that use only non-root-
8:
2212:
2154:
2099:
1965:
1911:
1601:
1234:
22:
3214:
3041:
2944:
A comparative manual of affixes for the Inuit dialects of Greenland, Canada, and Alaska
2672:
2206:
2196:
2186:
2124:
2109:
1935:
1919:
1810:
1770:
1729:
1659:
1050:
is also considered to be polysynthetic, incorporating and agglutinating. The following
504:
492:
476:
355:
351:
50:
43:
3231:
3221:
3204:
3169:
3134:
3109:
3081:
3062:
3045:
2972:
2962:
2946:. Meddelelser om Grønland, Man & society (No. 4). Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag.
2929:
2891:
2844:
2788:
2778:
2728:
2721:
Fortescue, Michael; Fortescue, Michael D.; Mithun, Marianne; Evans, Nicholas (2017).
2611:
2282:
2191:
2104:
2089:
1915:
1903:
1718:
1059:
1055:
515:
496:
117:
55:
38:
366:
languages. Polysynthetic languages typically have long "sentence-words" such as the
3267:
3193:
Language typology and syntactic description: Grammatical categories and the lexicon
3147:
Sapir, Edward. (1911). Problem of noun incorporation in American Indian languages.
3033:
2995:
Hewitt, John N. B. (1893). Polysynthesis in the languages of the American Indians.
2751:
Pentland, David H. (2006). "Algonquian and Ritwan Languages", in Keith Brown, ed.,
2664:
2230:
2217:
2114:
1961:
1957:
1818:
1722:
1714:
1643:
1063:
811:
799:
700:
112:
2984:
2722:
2149:
2137:
2067:
1814:
1710:
1561:
1237:
531:
488:
268:
186:
3078:
Dependent-head synthesis in Nivkh: a contribution to a typology of polysynthesis
3017:(pp. 2–3). Fairbanks: Alaska Native Languages Center, University of Alaska.
1761:
1487:
Three principal results have forcibly struck my mind... They are the following:
683:, and the word is still most frequently used to refer to such "sentence words".
3021:
2802:
Science Encounters the Indian, 1820-1880: The Early Years of American Ethnology
2238:
2234:
2174:
2051:
1930:
In compositionally polysynthetic languages, there usually can be more than one
1842:
1766:
1733:
1702:
1573:
732:
367:
3256:
2976:
2879:
2257:
2133:
2129:
2057:
1953:
1949:
1931:
1706:
1609:
1155:
888:
787:
535:
258:
2792:
1797:
proposed a definition of polysynthesis as a syntactic macroparameter within
891:
of Japan, another polysynthetic, incorporating, and agglutinating language:
518:
depending on whether they encode one or multiple grammatical categories per
3235:
2045:
1869:
Affixally polysynthetic languages may have a word structure that is either
1798:
1751:
1654:
582:
574:
766:
of nouns, so that entire words can be incorporated into the verb word, as
581:
has suggested formally defining polysynthesis as a macro-parameter within
3163:
1824:
1613:
3201:
Grammatika čukotskogo jazyka: Fonetika i morfologija imennyx častej reči
2872:
Polysynthesis and incorporation as characteristics of American languages
1474:
3122:
de Reuse, Willem J. Central Siberian Yupik as a polysynthetic language.
3037:
2006: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
777:
Another common feature of polysynthetic languages is a tendency to use
627: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
570:
539:
363:
294:
200:
191:
2676:
1948:
Examples of compositionally polysynthetic languages include Classical
1041:'I keep swaying my heart afar and toward myself over various rumors'.)
719:
prefix marks agreement with the first person singular subject and the
1899:
1846:
1503:
1499:
562:
2989:
Formal Approaches to Function in Grammar: In honor of Eloise Jelinek
1981:
1455:
aliikku- sersu- i- llammas- sua- a- nerar- ta- ssa- galuar- paal- li
602:
577:, who used it as one of his basic typological categories. Recently,
2668:
676:
672:
558:
359:
1705:
which he considered to use the agglutinative-isolating technique,
1725:
he considered "mildly polysynthetic" and agglutinative-fusional.
1605:
1047:
759:"reindeer", none of the other morphemes can appear in isolation.
566:
472:"reindeer", none of the other morphemes can appear in isolation.
285:
2625:
2623:
1850:
462:"He had not yet said again that he was going to hunt reindeer."
2957:
Fortescue, Michael; Mithun, Marianne; Evans, Nicholas (2017).
2810:
1728:
Following Sapir's understanding of Polysynthesis, his student
1556:
The term was made popular in a posthumously published work by
814:
unlike the majority of incorporating polysynthetic languages:
727:
prefix marks agreement with a second person singular object).
686:
Often polysynthesis is achieved when languages have extensive
3129:(2006). "Canada: Language Situation". In Brown, Keith (ed.).
2720:
1762:
Non-configurationality and the pronominal argument hypothesis
1465:'However, they will say that he is a great entertainer, but…'
721:
713:
705:
543:
519:
2620:
786:
that may be considered to be polysynthetic because they use
1858:
1854:
1051:
667:
3220:. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge University Press.
3024:(1984). "Empty categories, case, and configurationality".
2448:
1788:
1032:
various rumors {} 1S APL REFL APL far REFL heart sway ITER
2484:
1323:
again- PAST- 3S.F>2S.M- open.door- reversive- for.PERF
1070:
2991:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. pp. 11–43.
2760:
Incorporation: A theory of grammatical function changing
2610:
Andronis, Mary; Chicago Linguistic Society #38; p. 386.
2592:
2580:
2568:
2556:
2472:
2318:
2316:
2314:
655:
The word "polysynthesis" is composed of the Greek roots
2839:(2006). "Australian Languages". In Brown, Keith (ed.).
2695:
2508:
2436:
2412:
1229:"They would carry the dead wallaby on their shoulders."
753:
745:
737:
467:
380:
371:
3158:
Osborne, C.R., 1974. The Tiwi language. Canberra: AIAS
2400:
2364:
1898:
Examples of affixally polysynthetic languages include
1825:
Johanna Mattissen's affixal and compositional subtypes
16:
Highly inflected language with many morphemes per word
2683:
2460:
2424:
2328:
2311:
1934:
per word, which gives rise to noun incorporation and
1649:
1475:
Peter Stephen Du Ponceau on Native American languages
1029:
usa- opuspe {} a- e- yay- ko- tuyma- si- ram- suy- pa
3105:
Describing morphosyntax: a guide for field linguists
2956:
2908:(2nd ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
2655:
Spencer, Andrew (1995). "Incorporation in Chukchi".
2352:
1853:. They also use these bound morphemes to make other
1462:
one.good.at COP say.that REFL FUT sure.but 3P/3S but
3055:
Variations on polysynthesis: the Eskaleut languages
2961:. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
2520:
2388:
2376:
1334:, an exclusively suffixing polysynthetic language:
3213:
2773:. Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax. New York:
3010:. Berlin: Königliche Akadamie der Wissenschaften.
2544:
2496:
1628:regarded as still uncontroverted in any instance.
1338:
790:to achieve similar effects, and very long words.
3254:
3195:(Vol. 3). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3165:Language: An introduction to the study of speech
3108:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 238–241.
2532:
534:). Many polysynthetic languages display complex
2755:(2nd ed.), pp. 161–6. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
1498:, appear to exist in all those languages, from
1282:
1226:3P 3S.F dead.wallaby carry.on.shoulders PST.HAB
1091:
1441:
1340:Aliikkusersuillammassuaanerartassagaluarpaalli
1274:
1183:
1081:
949:
867:
829:
487:languages that are not polysynthetic, such as
446:
3053:Mahieu, Marc-Antoine; Tersis, Nicole (2009).
3015:A grammatical sketch of Siberian Yupik Eskimo
2808:
1147:"I shall make somebody give something to you"
693:
459:reindeer -hunt -FUT -say -NEG -again -3SG.IND
319:
3052:
2951:The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics
2924:Evans, Nicholas; Sasse, Hans-Jürgen (2002).
2648:
1568:This view was still prevalent when linguist
1537:I have explained elsewhere what I mean by a
1437:
1244:
1173:
818:
456:tuntu -ssur -qatar -ni -ksaite -ngqiggte -uq
2906:Language universals and linguistic typology
2706:sfn error: no target: CITEREFPentland2006 (
1713:both of which he considered agglutinative,
1580:had been claimed to be basically analytic.
1494:That these complicated forms, which I call
1479:The term "polysynthesis" was first used by
1038:
3131:Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics
2923:
2857:
2841:Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics
2490:
2418:
2334:
1740:
1162:
326:
312:
3182:
3168:. New York: Harcourt, Brace and company.
3075:
2911:
2753:Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics
2689:
2629:
2598:
2586:
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2430:
2370:
2022:Learn how and when to remove this message
1469:
1158:is also considered highly polysynthetic:
979:
959:
643:Learn how and when to remove this message
427:
3187:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2878:
2701:
2322:
1945:than affixally polysynthetic languages.
1745:
1286:
1023:
3242:
3125:
3020:
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2654:
2526:
2478:
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1789:Mark C. Baker's polysynthesis parameter
1278:
1217:
1187:
450:
3255:
3247:. New York: D. Appleton & Company.
3211:
3198:
3026:Natural Language and Linguistic Theory
2812:The World Atlas of Language Structures
2799:
2442:
2382:
2358:
1459:
1373:
747:tuntu-ssur-qatar-ni-ksaite-ngqiggte-uq
3161:
3133:(Second ed.). Elsevier Science.
3101:
2843:(Second ed.). Elsevier Science.
2835:
2828:Handbook of American Indian languages
2765:
2643:Advances in the theory of the lexicon
2550:
2514:
2502:
2394:
2346:
1144:1S 2S someone something give CAUS FUT
871:
2983:
2959:The Oxford handbook of polysynthesis
2815:. Munich: Max Planck Digital Library
2724:The Oxford Handbook of Polysynthesis
2538:
2004:adding citations to reliable sources
1975:
1890:actually fixed, such as the root in
1419:
1223:Pi- ti- wuliyondji- rrurlimpirr- ani
1135:
782:agreement morphemes. There are some
770:is incorporated in the English verb
625:adding citations to reliable sources
596:
555:indigenous languages of the Americas
408:
3057:. Typological studies in language,
1326:"she opened the door for him again"
13:
2919:. Vol. 1. pp. xvii–xlvi.
2281:In this example, the subject "he"
1721:which he considered fusional. The
1650:Edward Sapir's morphological types
1263:
1213:
14:
3279:
3243:Whitney, William Dwight (1908) .
3216:The Mesoamerican Indian Languages
2874:. American Philosophical Society.
2862:. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
1669:In Sapir's 1921 book also titled
1409:
1141:ni- mits- teː- tla- maki- ltiː- s
1125:
1054:shows how the verb is marked for
1035:'I wonder about various rumors.'
997:
969:
2180:
2078:
1980:
1925:
1583:
914:Usaopuspe aeyaykotuymasiramsuypa
601:
3245:The life and growth of language
3006:von Humboldt, Wilhelm. (1836).
2804:. University of Oklahoma Press.
2714:
2635:
2604:
1991:needs additional citations for
1971:
1732:proposed a distinction between
1314:
880:1S.SUBJ great head hurt 1S.PRES
833:
612:needs additional citations for
510:Polysynthetic languages can be
503:, or those that frequently use
2340:
2298:
2275:
2143:
1779:pronominal argument hypothesis
1391:
739:tuntussuqatarniksaitengqiggtuq
382:tuntussuqatarniksaitengqiggtuq
373:tuntussuqatarniksaitengqiggtuq
1:
3183:Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990).
3102:Payne, Thomas Edward (1997).
3080:. John Benjamins Publishers.
2858:Bloomfield, Leonard (1995) .
2292:
2073:Northwest Caucasian languages
2041:Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
1320:sa- honwa- nhoton- kw- a- hse
528:Southern Athabaskan languages
3013:Jacobson, Steven A. (1977).
2942:Fortescue, Michael. (1983).
1513:(Duponceau 1819: xxii–xxiii)
1164:Pitiwuliyondjirrurlimpirrani
906:
898:
663:meaning "placing together".
7:
3191:Shopen, Timothy. (1985).
3096:The genius of polysynthesis
3076:Mattissen, Johanna (2003).
2928:. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
2771:The Polysynthesis Parameter
2727:. Oxford University Press.
883:'I have a fierce headache.'
793:
784:dependent-marking languages
354:, i.e., languages in which
143:Ditransitive/Monotransitive
10:
3284:
3203:. Vol. 1. Leningrad:
2800:Bieder, Robert E. (1986).
2744:
2223:
2034:
1836:
1551:(Duponceau 1819: xxx–xxxi)
819:
691:the subject (e.g. Spanish
592:
3212:Suárez, Jorge A. (1983).
2926:Problems of polysynthesis
2904:Comrie, Bernard. (1989).
2306:Dictionary of Linguistics
2304:Mario Pei, Frank Gaynor,
1803:principles and parameters
877:t- meyŋ- levt- pəγt- rkən
810:of Russia which also has
587:principles and parameters
549:The term was invented by
3094:Mithun, Marianne. 1983.
2268:
2170:Tequistlatecan languages
1458:entertainment provide -
1330:An example from Western
551:Peter Stephen Du Ponceau
466:Except for the morpheme
3199:Skorik, P. Ja. (1961).
3149:American Anthropologist
2997:American Anthropologist
2888:Oxford University Press
2775:Oxford University Press
1741:Contemporary approaches
1590:Daniel Garrison Brinton
1481:Peter Stephen DuPonceau
1309:
1301:
1293:
1270:
1259:
1251:
1245:
1209:
1201:
1193:
1179:
1169:
1163:
1131:
1121:
1113:
1105:
1097:
1087:
1077:
1071:
1066:, and indirect object:
1019:
1011:
1003:
993:
985:
975:
965:
955:
945:
937:
929:
921:
903:
895:
863:
855:
847:
839:
825:
754:
746:
738:
711:"I love you" where the
681:Indo-European languages
468:
441:
433:
422:
414:
403:
395:
387:
381:
372:
344:polysynthetic languages
3185:The languages of Japan
3162:Sapir, Edward (1921).
2419:Evans & Sasse 2002
2335:Evans & Sasse 2002
2202:Tupi–Guaraní languages
2160:Mixe-Zoquean languages
2095:Eskimo–Aleut languages
1892:Eskimo–Aleut languages
1698:
1686:
1636:
1624:
1578:Tupi-Guarani languages
1570:William Dwight Whitney
1554:
1534:
1531:(Duponceau 1819:xxvii)
1518:
1470:History of the concept
1447:
1433:
1425:
1415:
1405:
1397:
1387:
1379:
1369:
1361:
1353:
1345:
1339:
911:ウサオプㇲペ アエヤィコツ゚ィマシラㇺスィパ
907:aeyaykotuymasiramsuypa
808:agglutinating language
722:
714:
706:
694:
481:polypersonal agreement
348:holophrastic languages
2826:Boas, Franz. (1911).
2758:Baker, Mark. (1988).
2120:Uto-Aztecan languages
1769:, having worked with
1746:Generative approaches
1687:
1675:
1662:who in his 1914 work
1625:
1594:
1535:
1519:
1485:
1046:The Mexican language
358:are composed of many
133:Nominative–absolutive
96:Nominative–accusative
2246:Australian languages
2085:Algonquian languages
2000:improve this article
1908:Athabaskan languages
1775:Athabascan languages
1621:Brinton, 1885:14,15)
1558:Wilhelm von Humboldt
1072:Nimitztētlamaquiltīz
820:Təmeyŋəlevtpəγtərkən
621:improve this article
3263:Linguistic typology
3178:. ASIN: B000NGWX8I.
2632:, pp. 281–290.
2457:, pp. 258–262.
2213:Amazonian languages
2155:Totonacan languages
2100:Iroquoian languages
2063:Jiarongic languages
1966:Amazonian languages
1912:Chimakuan languages
1783:non-configurational
1246:Sahonwanhotónkwahse
1153:Australian language
802:, a polysynthetic,
659:meaning "many" and
477:isolating languages
352:synthetic languages
340:linguistic typology
247:Object–verb–subject
242:Object–subject–verb
237:Subject–object–verb
225:Verb–object–subject
220:Verb–subject–object
215:Subject–verb–object
108:Ergative–absolutive
23:Linguistic typology
3061:. John Benjamins.
3038:10.1007/BF00233713
2517:, pp. 150–51.
2207:Arawakan languages
2197:Quechuan languages
2187:Chibchan languages
2165:Purépecha language
2125:Wakashan languages
2110:Salishan languages
1936:verb serialisation
1920:Wakashan languages
1730:Benjamin Lee Whorf
1660:Leonard Bloomfield
1235:Iroquoian language
1205:carry.on.shoulders
505:noun incorporation
3140:978-0-08-044854-1
3068:978-90-272-0667-1
2850:978-0-08-044854-1
2734:978-0-19-968320-8
2481:, pp. 14–15.
2445:, pp. 29–34.
2250:Macro-Gunwinyguan
2192:Aymaran languages
2105:Na-Dene languages
2090:Caddoan languages
2032:
2031:
2024:
1830:Johanna Mattissen
1042:
812:grammatical cases
666:In linguistics a
653:
652:
645:
542:systems in their
336:
335:
278:Place–manner–time
274:Time–manner–place
167:Dependent-marking
118:Symmetrical voice
101:Marked nominative
3275:
3248:
3239:
3219:
3208:
3188:
3179:
3144:
3119:
3091:
3072:
3049:
2992:
2985:Hale, Kenneth L.
2980:
2939:
2920:
2901:
2875:
2863:
2854:
2823:
2821:
2820:
2805:
2796:
2739:
2738:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2699:
2693:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2652:
2646:
2639:
2633:
2627:
2618:
2608:
2602:
2596:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2560:
2554:
2548:
2542:
2536:
2530:
2524:
2518:
2512:
2506:
2500:
2494:
2488:
2482:
2476:
2470:
2464:
2458:
2452:
2446:
2440:
2434:
2428:
2422:
2416:
2410:
2404:
2398:
2392:
2386:
2380:
2374:
2368:
2362:
2356:
2350:
2344:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2309:
2302:
2286:
2283:has been dropped
2279:
2231:Papuan languages
2115:Siouan languages
2027:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2007:
1984:
1976:
1723:Siouan languages
1696:
1684:
1634:
1622:
1588:The ethnologist
1552:
1532:
1514:
1461:
1443:
1439:
1421:
1411:
1393:
1375:
1342:
1316:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1265:
1248:
1219:
1215:
1189:
1185:
1175:
1166:
1137:
1127:
1093:
1083:
1074:
1040:
1036:
1025:
999:
981:
971:
961:
951:
873:
869:
835:
831:
822:
821:
798:An example from
757:
749:
741:
725:
717:
709:
697:
648:
641:
637:
634:
628:
605:
597:
483:, although some
471:
452:
448:
429:
410:
384:
375:
328:
321:
314:
19:
18:
3283:
3282:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3228:
3176:
3141:
3116:
3088:
3069:
3022:Jelinek, Eloise
2969:
2936:
2898:
2851:
2818:
2816:
2785:
2747:
2742:
2735:
2719:
2715:
2705:
2700:
2696:
2688:
2684:
2653:
2649:
2640:
2636:
2628:
2621:
2609:
2605:
2597:
2593:
2585:
2581:
2573:
2569:
2561:
2557:
2549:
2545:
2537:
2533:
2525:
2521:
2513:
2509:
2501:
2497:
2491:Bloomfield 1995
2489:
2485:
2477:
2473:
2465:
2461:
2453:
2449:
2441:
2437:
2429:
2425:
2417:
2413:
2405:
2401:
2393:
2389:
2381:
2377:
2369:
2365:
2357:
2353:
2345:
2341:
2333:
2329:
2321:
2312:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2290:
2289:
2280:
2276:
2271:
2226:
2183:
2150:Mayan languages
2146:
2138:Hokan languages
2081:
2068:Munda languages
2037:
2028:
2017:
2011:
2008:
1997:
1985:
1974:
1928:
1843:bound morphemes
1839:
1827:
1791:
1764:
1748:
1743:
1697:
1694:
1685:
1682:
1652:
1635:
1633:Brinton 1885:41
1632:
1623:
1620:
1586:
1562:Albert Gallatin
1553:
1550:
1533:
1530:
1515:
1512:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1453:
1445:
1431:
1423:
1413:
1403:
1395:
1385:
1377:
1367:
1359:
1351:
1343:
1328:
1318:
1307:
1299:
1291:
1268:
1257:
1249:
1231:
1221:
1207:
1199:
1191:
1177:
1167:
1149:
1139:
1129:
1119:
1111:
1103:
1095:
1085:
1075:
1044:
1027:
1017:
1009:
1001:
991:
983:
973:
963:
953:
943:
935:
927:
918:
909:
904:アエヤィコツ゚ィマシラㇺスィパ
901:
887:From Classical
885:
875:
861:
853:
845:
837:
823:
796:
649:
638:
632:
629:
618:
606:
595:
532:Inuit languages
464:
454:
439:
431:
420:
412:
401:
393:
385:
332:
269:Free word order
187:Syntactic pivot
82:Morphosyntactic
17:
12:
11:
5:
3281:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3250:
3249:
3240:
3226:
3209:
3196:
3189:
3180:
3174:
3159:
3156:
3145:
3139:
3127:Rowicka, G. J.
3123:
3120:
3114:
3099:
3092:
3086:
3073:
3067:
3050:
3018:
3011:
3004:
2993:
2981:
2967:
2954:
2947:
2940:
2934:
2921:
2909:
2902:
2896:
2880:Campbell, Lyle
2876:
2868:Brinton, D. G.
2864:
2855:
2849:
2833:
2831:
2824:
2806:
2797:
2783:
2767:Baker, Mark C.
2763:
2756:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2733:
2713:
2704:, p. 163.
2694:
2690:Mattissen 2003
2682:
2669:10.2307/416217
2663:(3): 439–489.
2647:
2634:
2630:Mattissen 2003
2619:
2603:
2601:, p. 287.
2599:Mattissen 2003
2591:
2589:, p. 286.
2587:Mattissen 2003
2579:
2577:, p. 315.
2575:Mattissen 2003
2567:
2565:, p. 281.
2563:Mattissen 2003
2555:
2543:
2531:
2519:
2507:
2495:
2493:, p. 208.
2483:
2471:
2459:
2447:
2435:
2431:Duponceau 1819
2423:
2411:
2409:, p. 194.
2399:
2397:, p. 591.
2387:
2375:
2371:Shibatani 1990
2363:
2361:, p. 102.
2351:
2339:
2327:
2310:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2258:classical Tiwi
2242:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2175:Huave language
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2029:
1988:
1986:
1979:
1973:
1970:
1927:
1924:
1896:
1895:
1877:
1838:
1835:
1826:
1823:
1790:
1787:
1767:Eloise Jelinek
1763:
1760:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1734:oligosynthetic
1692:
1680:
1651:
1648:
1630:
1618:
1585:
1582:
1548:
1528:
1517:
1516:
1510:
1507:
1492:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1446:
1432:
1424:
1414:
1404:
1396:
1386:
1378:
1368:
1360:
1352:
1344:
1337:
1336:
1308:
1300:
1292:
1269:
1258:
1250:
1243:
1242:
1208:
1200:
1192:
1178:
1168:
1161:
1160:
1130:
1120:
1112:
1104:
1096:
1086:
1076:
1069:
1068:
1018:
1010:
1002:
992:
984:
974:
964:
954:
944:
936:
928:
920:
919:
902:
894:
893:
862:
854:
846:
838:
824:
817:
816:
795:
792:
651:
650:
609:
607:
600:
594:
591:
440:
432:
421:
413:
402:
394:
386:
379:
378:
334:
333:
331:
330:
323:
316:
308:
305:
304:
303:
302:
297:
289:
288:
282:
281:
280:
279:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
250:
249:
244:
239:
229:
228:
227:
222:
217:
204:
203:
197:
196:
195:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
172:Double-marking
169:
164:
159:
158:
157:
156:
155:
150:
140:
138:Direct-inverse
135:
130:
125:
123:Active–stative
120:
115:
113:Split ergative
110:
105:
104:
103:
85:
84:
78:
77:
76:
75:
74:
73:
71:Oligosynthetic
68:
63:
58:
48:
47:
46:
33:
32:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3280:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3246:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3227:0-521-22834-4
3223:
3218:
3217:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3197:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3177:
3175:0-246-11074-0
3171:
3167:
3166:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3121:
3117:
3115:9780521588058
3111:
3107:
3106:
3100:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3087:1-58811-476-7
3083:
3079:
3074:
3070:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3016:
3012:
3009:
3005:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2968:9780199683208
2964:
2960:
2955:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2935:3-05-003732-6
2931:
2927:
2922:
2918:
2915:
2910:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2897:0-19-509427-1
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2825:
2814:
2813:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2784:0-19-509308-9
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2761:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2749:
2736:
2730:
2726:
2725:
2717:
2709:
2703:
2702:Pentland 2006
2698:
2691:
2686:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2651:
2644:
2638:
2631:
2626:
2624:
2617:
2616:0-914203-63-0
2613:
2607:
2600:
2595:
2588:
2583:
2576:
2571:
2564:
2559:
2552:
2547:
2540:
2535:
2528:
2523:
2516:
2511:
2504:
2499:
2492:
2487:
2480:
2475:
2469:, p. 41.
2468:
2463:
2456:
2451:
2444:
2439:
2432:
2427:
2420:
2415:
2408:
2403:
2396:
2391:
2385:, p. 61.
2384:
2379:
2373:, p. 72.
2372:
2367:
2360:
2355:
2348:
2343:
2336:
2331:
2325:, p. 39.
2324:
2323:Campbell 1997
2319:
2317:
2315:
2308:, 1954, p. 92
2307:
2301:
2297:
2284:
2278:
2274:
2263:
2262:Enindhilyagwa
2259:
2255:
2254:Murrinh-patha
2251:
2247:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2181:South America
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2147:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2079:North America
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2026:
2023:
2015:
2005:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1989:This section
1987:
1983:
1978:
1977:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1933:
1932:free morpheme
1926:Compositional
1923:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1880:scope ordered
1878:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1834:
1831:
1822:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1795:Mark C. Baker
1786:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1738:
1735:
1731:
1726:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1691:
1679:
1674:
1672:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1656:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1629:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1610:agglutination
1607:
1603:
1599:
1593:
1591:
1584:D. G. Brinton
1581:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1539:polysynthetic
1527:
1525:
1524:polysynthetic
1508:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1496:polysynthesis
1493:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1484:
1482:
1466:
1463:
1456:
1452:
1449:
1444:
1435:
1430:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1366:
1363:
1358:
1355:
1350:
1349:entertainment
1347:
1341:
1335:
1333:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1317:
1311:
1306:
1303:
1298:
1295:
1290:
1272:
1267:
1261:
1256:
1253:
1247:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1211:
1206:
1203:
1198:
1195:
1190:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1165:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1115:
1110:
1107:
1102:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1033:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1013:
1008:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
987:
982:
977:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
942:
939:
934:
931:
926:
923:
917:
915:
912:
908:
905:
900:
897:
892:
890:
884:
881:
878:
874:
865:
860:
857:
852:
849:
844:
841:
836:
827:
815:
813:
809:
805:
804:incorporating
801:
791:
789:
788:case stacking
785:
780:
775:
773:
769:
765:
764:incorporation
760:
758:
756:
750:
748:
742:
740:
734:
728:
726:
724:
718:
716:
710:
708:
702:
698:
696:
689:
684:
682:
678:
674:
669:
664:
662:
658:
647:
644:
636:
626:
622:
616:
615:
610:This section
608:
604:
599:
598:
590:
588:
584:
580:
579:Mark C. Baker
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
547:
545:
541:
537:
536:evidentiality
533:
529:
523:
521:
517:
513:
512:agglutinative
508:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
485:agglutinative
482:
478:
473:
470:
463:
460:
457:
453:
443:
438:
435:
430:
424:
419:
416:
411:
405:
400:
397:
392:
389:
383:
377:
374:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
350:, are highly
349:
345:
341:
329:
324:
322:
317:
315:
310:
309:
307:
306:
301:
298:
296:
293:
292:
291:
290:
287:
284:
283:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
264:OS word order
262:
260:
259:V2 word order
257:
255:
254:V1 word order
252:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
234:
233:
230:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
212:
211:
208:
207:
206:
205:
202:
199:
198:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
162:Zero-marking
160:
154:
151:
149:
146:
145:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
102:
99:
98:
97:
94:
93:
92:
89:
88:
87:
86:
83:
80:
79:
72:
69:
67:
66:Polysynthetic
64:
62:
61:Agglutinative
59:
57:
54:
53:
52:
49:
45:
42:
41:
40:
37:
36:
35:
34:
31:
30:Morphological
28:
27:
24:
21:
20:
3244:
3215:
3200:
3192:
3184:
3164:
3152:
3148:
3130:
3104:
3077:
3058:
3054:
3029:
3025:
3014:
3007:
3000:
2996:
2988:
2958:
2950:
2943:
2925:
2917:
2914:
2905:
2886:. New York:
2883:
2871:
2859:
2840:
2837:Blake, B. J.
2827:
2817:. Retrieved
2811:
2801:
2770:
2759:
2752:
2723:
2716:
2697:
2685:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2642:
2637:
2606:
2594:
2582:
2570:
2558:
2546:
2534:
2527:Jelinek 1984
2522:
2510:
2498:
2486:
2479:Brinton 1885
2474:
2467:Brinton 1885
2462:
2455:Whitney 1908
2450:
2438:
2426:
2421:, p. 3.
2414:
2407:Rowicka 2006
2402:
2390:
2378:
2366:
2354:
2342:
2330:
2305:
2300:
2277:
2018:
2009:
1998:Please help
1993:verification
1990:
1972:Distribution
1947:
1943:
1940:
1929:
1897:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1840:
1828:
1799:Noam Chomsky
1792:
1765:
1752:Noam Chomsky
1749:
1727:
1699:
1688:
1676:
1670:
1668:
1663:
1655:Edward Sapir
1653:
1637:
1626:
1595:
1587:
1567:
1555:
1542:
1538:
1536:
1523:
1520:
1495:
1486:
1478:
1464:
1457:
1454:
1450:
1436:
1428:
1418:
1408:
1400:
1390:
1382:
1372:
1364:
1356:
1348:
1329:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1312:
1304:
1296:
1273:
1262:
1254:
1232:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1212:
1204:
1202:rrurlimpirr-
1197:dead.wallaby
1196:
1182:
1172:
1150:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1134:
1124:
1116:
1108:
1100:
1090:
1080:
1045:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1022:
1014:
1006:
996:
988:
978:
968:
958:
948:
940:
932:
924:
916:
913:
910:
886:
882:
879:
876:
866:
858:
850:
842:
828:
797:
779:head marking
776:
771:
767:
761:
752:
744:
736:
729:
720:
712:
704:
692:
685:
665:
660:
656:
654:
639:
630:
619:Please help
614:verification
611:
583:Noam Chomsky
575:Edward Sapir
548:
524:
509:
501:head-marking
474:
465:
461:
458:
455:
444:
436:
425:
417:
406:
398:
390:
347:
343:
337:
232:OV languages
210:VO languages
182:Null-subject
177:Head-marking
65:
2443:Bieder 1986
2383:Suárez 1983
2359:Skorik 1961
2347:Payne (1997
2144:Mesoamerica
1964:, and most
1807:incorporate
1695:Sapir, 1921
1683:Sapir, 1921
1640:John Hewitt
1614:collocation
1565:evolution.
1383:one.good.at
1332:Greenlandic
1194:wuliyondji-
346:, formerly
295:Color terms
153:Indirective
148:Secundative
3257:Categories
3155:, 250–282.
3003:, 381–407.
2819:2013-01-14
2551:Baker 1996
2515:Sapir 1921
2503:Sapir 1921
2395:Blake 2006
2293:References
2218:Mapudungun
2136:and other
2054:(possible)
2048:(possible)
2012:April 2013
1918:) and the
1847:adjectives
1756:generative
1598:aphaeresis
1305:reversive-
1297:open.door-
571:New Guinea
540:mirativity
201:Word order
192:Theta role
128:Tripartite
3046:170296224
3032:: 39–76.
2977:967828955
2830:(Part 1).
2539:Hale 2003
2244:northern
1900:Inuktitut
1874:templatic
1811:Inuktitut
1644:Tuscarora
1543:syntactic
1504:Cape Horn
1500:Greenland
1460:SEMITRANS
1374:SEMITRANS
1109:something
899:Usaopuspe
707:nakupenda
701:Kiswahili
688:agreement
677:morphemes
673:morphemes
661:synthesis
633:July 2019
563:Australia
493:Hungarian
434:-ngqiggte
364:inflected
360:morphemes
91:Alignment
51:Synthetic
44:Isolating
2882:(1997).
2870:(1885).
2860:Language
2793:31045692
2769:(1996).
2657:Language
2645:, p. 337
1916:Quileute
1904:Cherokee
1793:In 1996
1771:Salishan
1719:Algonkin
1693:—
1681:—
1671:Language
1664:Language
1631:—
1619:—
1576:and the
1549:—
1529:—
1511:—
1429:sure.but
1401:say.that
1370:llammas-
1346:aliikku-
1233:And the
794:Examples
559:Americas
516:fusional
497:Georgian
475:Whereas
391:reindeer
300:Numerals
56:Fusional
39:Analytic
3268:Grammar
3236:8034800
2745:Sources
2349::28–29)
2224:Oceania
2035:Eurasia
1962:Tonkawa
1958:Chukchi
1851:adverbs
1837:Affixal
1819:Nahuatl
1715:Chinook
1606:apocope
1602:syncope
1426:galuar-
1357:provide
1271:nhoton-
1101:someone
1060:patient
1056:subject
1048:Nahuatl
925:various
800:Chukchi
772:babysit
593:Meaning
567:Siberia
538:and/or
423:-ksaite
286:Lexicon
3234:
3224:
3172:
3137:
3112:
3084:
3065:
3044:
2975:
2965:
2932:
2894:
2847:
2791:
2781:
2731:
2677:416217
2675:
2614:
2248:(e.g.
2233:(e.g.
1910:, the
1815:Mohawk
1711:Nootka
1398:nerar-
1354:sersu-
1260:honwa-
1255:again-
1238:Mohawk
1064:object
986:tuyma-
941:
938:
933:rumors
930:opuspe
896:ウサオプㇲペ
806:, and
569:, and
489:Basque
437:-again
404:-qatar
3205:Nauka
3042:S2CID
2673:JSTOR
2269:Notes
2239:Yimas
2235:Awtuw
2229:many
2211:Many
2052:Nivkh
1884:scope
1859:verbs
1855:nouns
1703:Haida
1574:Otomi
1434:paal-
1122:ltiː-
1114:maki-
1088:mits-
1007:heart
856:pəγt-
848:levt-
843:great
840:meyŋ-
755:tuntu
735:word
733:Yupik
703:word
695:hablo
544:verbs
520:affix
469:tuntu
399:-hunt
396:-ssur
388:tuntu
370:word
368:Yupik
356:words
3232:OCLC
3222:ISBN
3170:ISBN
3135:ISBN
3110:ISBN
3082:ISBN
3063:ISBN
2973:OCLC
2963:ISBN
2930:ISBN
2892:ISBN
2845:ISBN
2789:OCLC
2779:ISBN
2729:ISBN
2708:help
2612:ISBN
2134:Yahi
2130:Yana
2058:Ainu
1954:Sora
1950:Ainu
1857:and
1849:and
1817:and
1801:'s "
1773:and
1717:and
1709:and
1707:Yana
1612:and
1416:ssa-
1410:REFL
1380:sua-
1315:PERF
1313:for.
1281:>
1264:PAST
1156:Tiwi
1151:The
1126:CAUS
1117:give
1106:tla-
1098:teː-
1052:verb
1039:lit.
1024:ITER
1015:sway
1012:suy-
1004:ram-
998:REFL
970:REFL
966:yay-
922:usa-
889:Ainu
872:PRES
864:rkən
859:hurt
851:head
834:SUBJ
768:baby
668:word
657:poly
495:and
418:-say
3034:doi
2665:doi
2046:Ket
2002:by
1888:are
1754:'s
1541:or
1502:to
1451:but
1420:FUT
1406:ta-
1392:COP
1310:hse
1294:kw-
1252:sa-
1218:HAB
1214:PST
1210:ani
1180:ti-
1170:Pi-
1136:FUT
1078:ni-
994:si-
989:far
980:APL
976:ko-
960:APL
723:ku-
623:by
585:'s
530:or
514:or
451:IND
447:3SG
442:-uq
428:NEG
415:-ni
409:FUT
338:In
3259::
3230:.
3153:13
3151:,
3059:86
3040:.
3028:.
2999:,
2971:.
2890:.
2787:.
2777:.
2671:.
2661:71
2659:.
2622:^
2313:^
2260:,
2256:,
2252:,
2237:,
1968:.
1960:,
1956:,
1952:,
1922:.
1906:,
1902:,
1604:,
1600:,
1448:li
1442:3S
1438:3P
1388:a-
1362:i-
1302:a-
1283:2S
1275:3S
1240::
1184:3S
1174:3P
1092:2S
1082:1S
1062:,
1058:,
1020:pa
956:e-
950:1S
946:a-
868:1S
830:1S
826:t-
774:.
715:n-
565:,
561:,
546:.
522:.
507:.
491:,
376:.
342:,
3238:.
3207:.
3143:.
3118:.
3090:.
3071:.
3048:.
3036::
3030:2
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2979:.
2953:.
2938:.
2900:.
2853:.
2822:.
2795:.
2762:.
2737:.
2710:)
2692:.
2679:.
2667::
2553:.
2541:.
2529:.
2505:.
2433:.
2337:.
2285:.
2264:)
2241:)
2132:/
2025:)
2019:(
2014:)
2010:(
1996:.
1914:(
1894:.
1616:.
1526:.
1506:.
1440:/
1365:-
1289:-
1287:M
1285:.
1279:F
1277:.
1266:-
1216:.
1188:F
1186:.
1132:s
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832:.
646:)
640:(
635:)
631:(
617:.
449:.
445:-
426:-
407:-
327:e
320:t
313:v
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