1915:
this purpose, case can be used to mark one of the arguments. If one argument is case marked, this already suffices for the purpose of disambiguation. Thus, from the distinguishing perspective, there is no need to case mark both arguments. Neither would it be necessary to case mark the one and only argument of a one-place (intransitive) predicate. Indeed, it has been argued that in many nominative–accusative case systems only the y is case marked (with accusative case) while the x remains morphologically unmarked.
1612:
86:
36:
1938:
distinguishability seems to operate a principle of economy. It is more efficient to have as few cases as possible without compromising intelligibility. In this way the dual pressures of efficiency and economy have produced a system which patterns two kinds of arguments together a third separately. Both accusative and ergative systems use this kind of grouping to make meaning clearer.
679:
Nominative–accusative alignment can manifest itself in visible ways, called coding properties. Often, these visible properties are morphological and the distinction will appear as a difference in the actual morphological form and spelling of the word, or as case particles (pieces of morphology) which
1914:
When a two-place predicate R(x,y) is used to describe an event involving two participants, usually an agent and a patient, it is of utmost importance to avoid ambiguity as to which noun phrase corresponds to the first argument x (the agent) and which to the second argument y (the patient). For
1928:
One theory that has been posited to account for the occurrence of accusative systems is that of functional pressure. When applied to languages, this theory operates around the various needs and pressures on a speech community. It has been suggested that languages have evolved to suit the needs of
1619:
Languages exhibiting accusative alignment are the most widespread of all of the alignment types. These languages can be found on every continent, in comparison to languages with ergative alignment that are restricted to certain areas of the world, namely the
Caucasus, parts of North American and
1481:
Nominative–accusative alignment can also be distinguished through behavioral properties, in the way a nominative or accusative argument will behave when placed in particular syntactic constructions. This has to do with the impact of alignment on the level of the whole sentence rather than the
1482:
individual word. Morphosyntactic alignment determines which arguments can be omitted in a coordinate structure during the process of conjunction reduction (deleting arguments from the ends of joined clauses). In nominative–accusative, only arguments S and A can be omitted and not argument O.
716:. It is highly common for only accusative arguments to exhibit overt case marking while nominative arguments exhibit null (or absent) case markings. In Modern English, case marking is only found with first and (non-neuter) third person pronouns, which have distinct subject and object forms.
1919:
It is rare for case to serve only the distinguishing function, which overlaps greatly with the ‘identify’ function. Other ways of disambiguating the arguments of a transitive predicate (subject agreement, word order restriction, context, intonation, etc.) may explain this cross-linguistic
1937:
alignment systems accomplish this differentiation by coding S, A and O all differently. However, this is not structurally economical, and tripartite systems are comparatively rare, but to have all arguments marked the same makes the arguments too ambiguous. Alongside the principle of
1134:
Not all arguments are equally likely to exhibit overt case marking. In languages with nominative–accusative alignment, it is common to divide direct objects into two classes (with respect to overt case marking), a phenomenon called ‘differential object marking’ by
Bossong (1985).
1227:
In the following example from French, all subjects, both S and A, appear before the verb while O appears after the verb. Arguments occurring before the verb are coded as nominative, while arguments occurring directly after the verb are coded as accusative.
1143:
Some languages code very little through morphology and are more dependent on syntax to encode meaning and grammatical relationships. If a language relies less on overt case marking, alignment may be coded through word order, as in this example from
1929:
their users.These communities will develop some functional system to meet the needs that they have. So, it has been proposed that the accusative system arose from a functional pressure to avoid ambiguity and make communication a simpler process.
1620:
Mesoamerica, the
Tibetan plateau, and Australia. The map shows the distribution of languages with the various alignment types, and the following list gives a short sampling of accusative languages and their distribution across the globe:
1889:
perspective. Case marking is said to fulfill two functions, or constraints: an identifying function and a distinguishing function. The identifying function is exemplified when case morphology encodes (identifies) specific
1932:
It is useful for languages to have a means of distinguishing between subjects and objects, and between arguments A, S, and O. This is helpful so that sentences like "Tom hit Fred" cannot be interpreted as "Fred hit Tom."
1920:
observation. De Hoop and
Malchukov argue that case systems that are completely based on the identification function must be richer in case morphology compared to languages based mainly on the distinguishing function.
1550:
The omitted subject argument of the embedded clause must correspond to the subject (nominative) of the matrix-clause. If it corresponds to the object (accusative), the sentence is ungrammatical.
1588:
Here the omitted argument of the embedded clause corresponds to the direct object (absolutive) of the matrix-clause. If it corresponds to the subject (ergative), the sentence is ungrammatical.
444:. It has a wide global distribution and is the most common alignment system among the world's languages (including English). Languages with nominative–accusative alignment are commonly called
639:. In fact, there are relatively few languages that exhibit only ergative–absolutive alignment (called pure ergativity) and tend to be isolated in certain regions of the world, such as the
2141:
Fedzechkina, Maryia & Jaeger, T. Florian & Newport, Elissa L. (2011) "Functional Biases in
Language Learning: Evidence from Word Order and Case-Marking Interaction".
2096:
Dryer, Matthew S. & Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). (2011) "The World Atlas of
Language Structures Online". Munich: Max Planck Digital Library. Available online at
399:
1907:
1898:
properties or information about the nominal argument. Accusative case in the position of the direct object, for example, can be a strong identifier of
17:
1473:
English has residual verb agreement with nominative–accusative alignment, which is only manifest with third person singular S and A in present tense.
54:
506:) argument of a transitive verb. English has nominative–accusative alignment in its case marking of personal pronouns: the single argument (
432:, and are distinguished from objects of transitive verbs in basic clause constructions. Nominative–accusative alignment can be coded by
635:) to have overlapping alignment systems, which exhibit both nominative–accusative and ergative–absolutive coding, a phenomenon called
1902:. The distinguishing function is used to distinguish between the core arguments, the subject and the object, of a transitive clause.
474:. An intransitive verb is associated with only one argument, a subject. The different kinds of arguments are usually represented as
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169:
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1999:
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72:
1960:
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One of the ways in which the production of a nominative–accusative case marking system can be explained is from an
181:
50:
1326:
for S, A, and O. Both S in the intransitive clause and A in the transitive clause are marked by the same affix (
1318:
Alternatively, alignment can also manifest visibly through agreement on the verb. In the following example from
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The alignment system also impacts the triggering and realization of other such syntactic processes as
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explain the motivation and need for the distinguishing function in "Case marking strategies":
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Bickel, Balthasar; Iemmolo, Giorgio; Zakharko, Taras; Witzlack-Makarevich, Alena (2013).
1934:
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If a language exhibits morphological case marking, arguments S and A will appear in the
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van de Visser, Mario. (2006) "The Marked Status of
Ergativity". PhD. Dissertation.
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700:. There may be more than one case fulfilling the accusative role; for instance,
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1330:‘3SG.M’), while O in the transitive clause is marked by a different affix (
697:
2111:
de Hoop, Helen and
Malchukov, Andrej L. (2008) "Case-marking strategies".
1553:
If
English were an ergative–absolutive language, one would expect to see:
1611:
648:
1895:
963:‘A/The (adolescent/youth) girl/young lady/young woman works/is working’
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2085:
Languages across boundaries: Studies in memory of Anna
Siewierska.
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A transitive verb is associated with two noun phrases (or
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451:
526:) of a transitive verb ("me" in the sentence “they saw
2097:
1123:
675:
Coding properties of nominative–accusative alignment
45:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
2015:
2153:
514:walked.") behaves grammatically like the agent (
510:) of an intransitive verb ("I" in the sentence "
1994:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 25,
1989:
1445:
1437:
1370:
1162:
764:
729:
490:is the sole argument of an intransitive verb,
1990:Donohue, Mark; Wichmann, Søren, eds. (2005),
522:saw them.") but differently from the object (
518:) of a transitive verb ("I" in the sentence "
393:
1466:Lemma bottle-DEF-ACC break.PFV-3SG.M-3SG.M.O
789:
27:Concept of sentence structure in linguistics
1615:Distribution of languages by alignment type
2130:Language acquisition: The state of the art
1037:‘A/The student read/is reading a/the book’
400:
386:
2107:
2105:
2081:"Patterns of alignment in verb agreement"
2042:
2013:
1433:
1366:
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73:Learn how and when to remove this message
57:, without removing the technical details.
2128:. In E.Wanner, & L. Gleitman (Ed.),
1610:
1449:
1441:
1374:
84:
2132:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2124:Bates, E., & MacWhinney, B. (1982)
2083:. In: Bakker, Dik; Haspelmath, Martin.
2045:An introduction to Japanese linguistics
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1983:
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680:will appear before or after the word.
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1477:Behavioral properties of accusativity
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1004:
619:all are coded in a different manner.
498:) argument of a transitive verb, and
452:Comparison with other alignment types
55:make it understandable to non-experts
2118:
1880:
992:
627:It is common for languages (such as
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2126:Functionalist approaches to grammar
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1597:subject-controlled subject deletion
1034:student-NOM read-3.SG.PRES book-ACC
911:Watashi-wa(S) kabin-wo(O) kowashita
793:
696:, or in a similar case such as the
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24:
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1992:The Typology of Semantic Alignment
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1601:object-controlled subject deletion
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692:and argument O will appear in the
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2087:Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 15-36.
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1124:Differential object marking (DOM)
960:(adolescent-/youth-)girl-NOM work
2047:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 382.
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446:nominative–accusative languages
418:nominative–accusative alignment
89:Nominative–accusative alignment
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2022:. Cambridge University Press.
2007:
603:receives distinct marking, or
502:is the direct object (or most
18:Nominative–accusative language
13:
1:
2014:Van Valin, Robert D. (2001).
1976:
1138:
589:ergative–absolutive alignment
428:are treated like subjects of
1961:Ergative–absolutive language
595:is coded in the same way as
7:
2043:Tsujimura, Natsuko (2007).
1944:
1130:Differential object marking
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217:Ditransitive/Monotransitive
10:
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1031:Studyent-Ø chitayet knig-u
455:
2018:An Introduction to Syntax
1966:Morphosyntactic alignment
1469:‘Lemma breaks the bottle’
1459:Ləmma t’ərmus-u-n səbbər-
1220:1SG AT-wash-APPL man that
934:(adolescent-/youth-)girl-
659:. Such languages include
587:This is in contrast with
566:
552:
458:Morphosyntactic alignment
422:morphosyntactic alignment
1303:Je(A) jette un ballon(O)
1113:Vīrá-ḥ(S) áśva-m(O) ahan
802:1SG:SBJ see:PAST 3PL:OBJ
494:is the subject (or most
1028:Студент-Ø читает книг-у
704:marks objects with the
1917:
1684:– Bolivia, Chile, Peru
1616:
1306:I-NOM throw a ball-ACC
1119:‘The man slew a horse’
1116:man-NOM horse-ACC slew
1012:
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957:Dyevushka-Ø rabota-yet
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424:in which subjects of
207:Nominative–absolutive
170:Nominative–accusative
88:
1887:Optimality Theoretic
914:I-NOM vase-ACC broke
854:Kabin-ga(S) kowareta
605:tripartite alignment
542:Ergative–absolutive
2167:Linguistic typology
1924:Functional pressure
1217:-mandi-kan pria itu
1074:‘A horse was slain’
954:Девушка-Ø работа-ет
414:linguistic typology
321:Object–verb–subject
316:Object–subject–verb
311:Subject–object–verb
299:Verb–object–subject
294:Verb–subject–object
289:Subject–verb–object
182:Ergative–absolutive
97:Linguistic typology
2113:Linguistic Inquiry
1617:
1386:Lemma go.PFV-3SG.M
1322:, the verb can be
1223:‘I bathe that man’
917:‘I broke the vase’
426:intransitive verbs
91:
2143:Cognitive Science
2054:978-1-4051-1065-5
1881:Optimality theory
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753:1SG:SBJ walk:PAST
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348:Time–manner–place
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1894:, thematic, or
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1876:Relevant theory
1677:South America:
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1584:was frightened.
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1723:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1715:
1712:
1711:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1686:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1678:
1675:
1671:– New Zealand
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1652:Australasia:
1650:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1621:
1613:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1571:
1556:
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1554:
1551:
1533:
1518:
1503:
1488:
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1474:
1470:
1467:
1464:
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1456:
1430:
1428:
1421:
1411:
1406:
1403:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1377:
1363:
1362:
1355:
1352:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1300:
1294:
1289:
1286:
1281:
1278:
1273:
1267:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1243:
1237:
1232:
1229:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1206:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1191:
1188:
1183:
1174:
1165:
1160:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1136:
1131:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1102:
1100:
1094:
1089:
1087:
1081:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1062:
1057:
1055:
1049:
1044:
1043:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1025:
1023:
1017:
1014:
1009:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
986:
981:
979:
973:
970:
964:
961:
958:
955:
951:
948:
945:
940:
938:
932:
929:
924:
923:
918:
915:
912:
909:
905:
902:
899:
894:
892:
886:
883:
878:
876:
870:
869:Watashi-wa(S)
867:
861:
858:
855:
852:
848:
845:
842:
838:
835:
832:
827:
825:
819:
816:
811:
810:
805:
803:
800:
796:
787:
782:
776:
771:
762:
756:
754:
751:
747:
741:
736:
727:
722:
721:
717:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
681:
672:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
645:North America
642:
638:
634:
630:
620:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
580:
577:
574:
573:
569:
563:
562:
558:
555:
549:
548:
544:
541:
538:
535:
534:
531:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
473:
472:direct object
469:
465:
459:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
420:is a type of
419:
415:
403:
398:
396:
391:
389:
384:
383:
381:
380:
375:
372:
370:
367:
366:
365:
364:
361:
358:
357:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
338:OS word order
336:
334:
333:V2 word order
331:
329:
328:V1 word order
326:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
308:
307:
304:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
286:
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281:
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279:
276:
273:
272:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
236:Zero-marking
234:
228:
225:
223:
220:
219:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
176:
173:
172:
171:
168:
167:
166:
163:
162:
161:
160:
157:
154:
153:
146:
143:
141:
140:Polysynthetic
138:
136:
135:Agglutinative
133:
131:
128:
127:
126:
123:
119:
116:
115:
114:
111:
110:
109:
108:
105:
104:Morphological
102:
101:
98:
95:
94:
87:
77:
74:
66:
63:February 2016
56:
52:
46:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
2142:
2137:
2129:
2125:
2120:
2112:
2092:
2084:
2075:
2044:
2038:
2017:
2009:
1991:
1985:
1940:
1931:
1927:
1918:
1913:
1884:
1823:
1806:– Madagascar
1768:
1713:
1676:
1651:
1626:
1618:
1607:Distribution
1590:
1587:
1552:
1549:
1493:saw Judy-ACC
1484:
1480:
1472:
1468:
1465:
1460:
1458:
1431:
1426:
1424:
1412:
1409:
1404:
1401:
1394:
1389:‘Lemma came’
1388:
1385:
1381:
1379:
1364:
1360:
1358:
1353:
1350:
1344:intransitive
1343:
1334:‘3SG.M.O’).
1331:
1327:
1317:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1295:
1292:
1287:
1284:
1279:
1276:
1268:
1265:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1249:
1246:
1238:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1219:
1208:
1204:
1202:
1197:
1194:
1189:
1186:
1175:
1168:
1161:
1155:
1150:
1142:
1133:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1108:
1105:
1095:
1092:
1082:
1079:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1050:
1047:
1040:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1018:
990:
974:
962:
959:
956:
953:
949:
933:
920:
916:
913:
910:
907:
903:
887:
871:
859:
856:
853:
850:
846:
843:
841:
836:
820:
807:
804:
801:
798:
788:
785:
777:
774:
763:
760:
755:
752:
749:
742:
739:
728:
725:
718:
712:to contrast
687:
684:Case marking
678:
626:
616:
612:
608:
600:
596:
592:
586:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
504:patient-like
499:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
461:
445:
417:
411:
306:OV languages
284:VO languages
256:Null-subject
251:Head-marking
69:
60:
44:
1900:patienthood
1665:– Australia
1659:– Australia
1410:t’ərmus-u-n
1324:head-marked
1151:Indonesian
931:Dyevushka-Ø
885:kabin-wo(O)
818:Kabin-ga(S)
799:I saw them.
649:Mesoamerica
643:, parts of
545:Tripartite
369:Color terms
227:Indirective
222:Secundative
2156:Categories
1977:References
1935:Tripartite
1861:– Mongolia
1831:– Pakistan
1818:– Ethiopia
1788:– Tanzania
1690:– Colombia
1489:a. Sue-NOM
1395:transitive
1380:Ləmma hed-
1257:I-NOM work
1173:-mandi-kan
1146:Indonesian
1139:Word order
972:Studyent-Ø
947:rabota-yet
908:私は 花瓶を 壊した
710:accusative
633:Hindustani
581:different
570:different
559:different
496:agent-like
442:word order
275:Word order
266:Theta role
202:Tripartite
1896:pragmatic
1859:Mongolian
1837:– Myanmar
1800:– Namibia
1782:– Nigeria
1776:– Morocco
1745:– Hungary
1743:Hungarian
1733:– Germany
1727:– Finland
1721:– Armenia
1696:– Ecuador
1663:Mangarayi
1657:Kayardild
1580:, and ___
1565:, and ___
1527:, and she
1497:, and she
1293:ballon(O)
1247:travaille
1093:áśva-m(O)
1080:Vīrá-ḥ(S)
1048:Áśva-ḥ(S)
969:Студент-Ø
944:работа-ет
928:Девушка-Ø
901:kowashita
750:I walked.
706:partitive
657:Australia
578:different
556:different
464:arguments
438:agreement
165:Alignment
125:Synthetic
118:Isolating
1945:See also
1892:semantic
1853:Japanese
1849:– Israel
1804:Malagasy
1798:Khoekhoe
1769:Africa:
1757:– Russia
1751:– Turkey
1739:– Greece
1719:Armenian
1714:Europe:
1702:– Brazil
1688:Barasana
1632:Cahuilla
1576:saw Judy
1561:saw Judy
1538:saw Judy
1523:saw Judy
1508:saw Judy
1485:English
1260:‘I work’
1042:Sanskrit
988:chitayet
975:student-
834:kowareta
809:Japanese
714:telicity
661:Sumerian
641:Caucasus
629:Georgian
607:, where
599:, while
591:, where
374:Numerals
130:Fusional
113:Analytic
1867:– Korea
1855:– Japan
1843:– India
1835:Burmese
1812:– Sudan
1763:– Spain
1761:Spanish
1755:Russian
1749:Turkish
1725:Finnish
1700:Xavante
1694:Quechua
1638:Koasati
1593:raising
1572:c’. Sue
1557:b’. Sue
1542:and ___
1512:and ___
1425:səbbər-
1413:bottle-
1338:Amharic
1320:Amharic
1231:French
1061:aghnata
922:Russian
851:花瓶が 壊れた
740:walked.
720:English
708:or the
702:Finnish
698:oblique
536:
468:subject
440:and/or
360:Lexicon
49:Please
2162:Syntax
2051:
2026:
1998:
1865:Korean
1847:Hebrew
1829:Brahui
1824:Asia:
1810:Nubian
1794:– Chad
1792:Kanuri
1774:Berber
1731:German
1682:Aymara
1646:– U.S.
1640:– U.S.
1634:– U.S.
1534:d. Sue
1519:c. Sue
1504:b. Sue
1432:break.
1205:
1179:-wash-
1096:horse-
1051:horse-
1016:knig-u
1013:книг-у
985:читает
847:
844:
667:, and
655:, and
651:, the
482:, and
470:and a
1816:Oromo
1786:Iraqw
1737:Greek
1669:Māori
1644:Miwok
1405:Lemma
1402:Ləmma
1354:Lemma
1351:Ləmma
1296:ball-
1280:throw
1277:jette
1266:Je(A)
1236:Je(S)
1064:slain
1019:book-
991:read-
904:broke
888:vase-
837:broke
821:vase-
786:them.
743:walk:
669:Mayan
530:.").
466:): a
2098:WALS
2049:ISBN
2024:ISBN
1996:ISBN
1906:and
1841:Garo
1780:Igbo
1599:and
1582:*i/j
1569:ran.
1567:*i/j
1544:i/*j
1516:ran.
1514:i/*j
1501:ran.
1359:hed-
1250:work
1209:saya
1198:that
1187:pria
1181:APPL
1156:saya
1109:slew
1106:ahan
1083:man-
1006:PRES
950:work
780:PAST
778:see:
745:PAST
647:and
631:and
615:and
567:same
553:same
434:case
1529:i/j
1499:i/j
1446:3SG
1438:3SG
1434:PFV
1419:ACC
1415:DEF
1371:3SG
1367:PFV
1365:go.
1298:ACC
1271:NOM
1241:NOM
1195:itu
1190:man
1163:1SG
1099:ACC
1086:NOM
1054:NOM
1022:ACC
978:NOM
937:NOM
898:壊した
891:ACC
882:花瓶を
875:NOM
831:壊れた
824:NOM
815:花瓶が
794:OBJ
790:3PL
775:saw
769:SBJ
765:1SG
734:SBJ
730:1SG
412:In
53:to
2158::
2104:^
2063:^
1603:.
1463:-w
1429:-w
1332:-w
1328:-ə
1285:un
1269:I-
1239:I-
1213:me
1177:AT
1169:me
1148:.
1000:SG
872:I-
866:私は
671:.
663:,
611:,
575:O
564:S
550:A
528:me
486:.
478:,
448:.
416:,
2145:.
2115:.
2057:.
2032:.
1578:j
1574:i
1563:j
1559:i
1540:j
1536:i
1525:j
1521:i
1510:j
1506:i
1495:j
1491:i
1461:ə
1454:O
1452:.
1450:M
1448:.
1444:-
1442:M
1440:.
1436:-
1427:ə
1417:-
1382:ə
1375:M
1373:.
1369:-
1361:ə
1288:a
1215:i
1211:i
1171:i
1158:i
1003:.
997:.
994:3
792::
767::
761:I
732::
726:I
617:O
613:S
609:A
601:A
597:O
593:S
524:O
520:I
516:A
512:I
508:S
500:O
492:A
488:S
484:O
480:A
476:S
401:e
394:t
387:v
76:)
70:(
65:)
61:(
47:.
20:)
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