223:, and the right posterior cingulate cortex. There was increased engagement of higher cortical structures noted with increase in demands of locomotor tasks. Using FMRI, Jahn et al. 2004 studied the activation pattern with three imagined conditions and found that standing was associated with activation of the thalamus, basal ganglia, and cerebellar vermis. Using FNIRS, Mihara M et al. 2008 studied activation related to external perturbation and suggested prefrontal cortex to be involved in adequate allocation of visuospatial attention. Zwergal A et al. 2012 studied role of aging on activation pattern in standing and found more activation in bilateral insula, superior and middle temporal gyrus, inferior frontal gyrus, middle occipital gyrus and postcentral gyrus suggesting decreased reciprocal inhibition of these areas.
22:
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In some cases, a resistance reflex is reversed in certain contexts, becoming an âassistance reflexâ - causing movement in the same direction as the perturbation. For example, in the crayfish, perturbation of the leg causes a resistance reflex when the animal is standing, but an assistance reflex when
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or dynamic activity for the regulation of stability and orientation. The interaction of the individual with the task and the environment develops postural control. Stability refers to maintenance of the center of mass within the base of support while orientation refers to maintenance of relationship
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Ackermann, H., Diener, H. C., & Dichgans, J. (1987). Changes in sensorimotor functions after spinal lesions evaluated in terms of long-latency reflexes. J Neurol
Neurosurg Psychiatry, 50(12), 1647-1654; Jacobs, J. V., & Horak, F. B. (2007). Cortical control of postural responses. Journal of
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An initial postural reaction on exposure to an external perturbations was shown to be generated by the brainstem and spinal cord in animal and human studies (short latency mono or polysynaptic spinal loop 40-65ms) followed by the later part of the reaction which is modified by direct transcortical
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systems. While the ability to regulate posture in vertebrates was previously thought to be a mostly automatic task, controlled by circuits in the spinal cord and brainstem, it is now clear that cortical areas are also involved, updating motor commands based on the state of the body and environment.
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postural control respectively in order to maintain stability during various circumstances. Feed forward postural control refers to the postural adjustments made in response to the anticipation of a voluntary or a self-generated movement that may be destabilizing, while feedback postural control
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Diener, H. C., Dichgans, J., Bootz, F., & Bacher, M. (1984). Early stabilization of human posture after a sudden disturbance: influence of rate and amplitude of displacement. Experimental Brain
Research, 56(1), 126-134; Keck, M. E., Pijnappels, M., Schubert, M., Colombo, G., Curt, A., &
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that aid in postural control. One of the most widespread feedback systems in limb postural control is the resistance reflex in arthropods and stretch reflex in vertebrates. These feedback loops consist of sensory neurons that detect external perturbations and activate motor neurons that produce
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Traditionally postural control was regarded an automatic response to sensory stimuli generated by subcortical structures such as the brainstem and spinal circuits. Since postural responses are generated quickly, without voluntary intent and with less variability than cued, voluntary movements,
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in maintenance of standing posture and further suggested involvement of the visual association cortex in controlling postural equilibrium while standing. Mauloin et al. 2003 using PET studied motor imagery of locomotion under four conditions and confirmed supraspinal control in locomotion by
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refer to the postural adjustments made in reaction to sensory stimuli from the externally generated perturbation. Furthermore, these strategies may involve either a fixed-support or a change-in-support response depending on the intensity of the perturbation.
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cerebral cortex was not considered to be involved in postural control. However, current evolving evidence from numerous neurophysiological and neuroimaging studies (as given below) suggest cortical involvement in postural control and maintenance of balance.
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within the body segments and between body and the environment for the task. These stability and orientation challenges necessitate change in the task and environment, thereby making postural control the most essential prerequisite for most of the tasks.
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Sherrington, C. S. (1910). Flexionâreflex of the limb, crossed extensionâreflex, and reflex stepping and standing. The
Journal of physiology, 40(1-2), 28-121; Magnus, R. (1926). The physiology of posture: Cameron Lectures. Lancet, 211(53),
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Bove, M., Nardone, A., & Schieppati, M. (2003). Effects of leg muscle tendon vibration on group Ia and group II reflex responses to stance perturbation in humans. J Physiol, 550(Pt 2), 617-630. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2003.043331
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Graydon, F. X., Friston, K. J., Thomas, C. G., Brooks, V. B., & Menon, R. S. (2005). Learning-related fMRI activation associated with a rotational visuo-motor transformation. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res, 22(3), 373-383.
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Jahn, K., Deutschländer, A., Stephan, T., Strupp, M., Wiesmann, M., & Brandt, T. (2004). Brain activation patterns during imagined stance and locomotion in functional magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroimage, 22(4),
46:
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have been used to elucidate cortical control in static and dynamic postures. Using PET, Ouchi Y et al. 1999 evaluated mechanisms involved in bipedal standing and confirmed the pivotal contribution of
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Malouin, F., Richards, C. L., Jackson, P. L., Dumas, F., & Doyon, J. (2003). Brain activations during motor imagery of locomotorârelated tasks: A PET study. Human Brain
Mapping, 19(1), 47-62
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Zwergal, A., Linn, J., Xiong, G., Brandt, T., Strupp, M., & Jahn, K. (2012). Aging of human supraspinal locomotor and postural control in fMRI. Neurobiology of aging, 33(6), 1073-1084
125:
Postural control involves a complex interaction of multiple systems in order to maintain stability and orientation. Multi-components of the conceptual model of postural control include:
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Dietz, V. (1998). Stumbling reactions in man: influence of corticospinal input. Electroencephalography and
Clinical Neurophysiology/Electromyography and Motor Control, 109(3), 215-223
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via cerebellum which helps in adapting by using prior experience or via basal ganglia which helps generating a response based on the current context, modifies the postural response.
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Ouchi, Y., Okada, H., Yoshikawa, E., Nobezawa, S., & Futatsubashi, M. (1999). Brain activation during maintenance of standing postures in humans. Brain, 122(2), 329-338
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Pollock AS1, Durward BR, Rowe PJ, Paul JP (2000). âWhat is balance?â Clinical rehabilitation 14(4):402-6; Anne
Shumway Cook, Wollcott (2007) Motor control, 3rd edition
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Mihara, M., Miyai, I., Hatakenaka, M., Kubota, K., & Sakoda, S. (2008). Role of the prefrontal cortex in human balance control. Neuroimage, 43(2), 329-336
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the animal is walking. This phenomenon is called âreflex reversalâ, where the reflex response to a stimulus changes given the state of the animal.
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interprets sensory input to produce motor output that maintains upright posture. Sensory information used for postural control largely comes from
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Jacobs, J. V., & Horak, F. B. (2007). Cortical control of postural responses. Journal of neural transmission, 114(10), 1339-1348
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demonstrating activation in the dorsal premotor cortex and precuneus bilaterally, the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the left
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There are two types of postural control strategies: predictive and reactive, which utilize the feed forward and
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Pollock AS1, Durward BR, Rowe PJ, Paul JP (2000). âWhat is balance?â Clinical rehabilitation 14(4):402-6
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557:"Neural mechanisms of reflex reversal in coxo-basipodite depressor motor neurons of the crayfish"
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The functional task and the environment define the precise organization of the postural systems.
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Massion, J. (1994). Postural control system. Current
Opinion in Neurobiology, 4(6), 877-887
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Lephart, Scott M.; Pincivero, Danny M.; Giraido, Jorge L.; Fu, Freddie H. (January 1997).
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510:"Inhibitory Component of the Resistance Reflex in the Locomotor Network of the Crayfish"
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Postural control is defined as achievement, maintenance or regulation of
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Postural control refers to the maintenance of body posture in space. The
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Individual sensory systems: visual, vestibular and somatosensory system
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Clarac, François; Cattaert, Daniel; Le Ray, Didier (May 2000).
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455:"Central control components of a 'simple' stretch reflex"
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Le Bon-Jego, Morgane; Cattaert, Daniel (2002-11-01).
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310:The American Journal of Sports Medicine
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208:Functional magnetic resonance imaging
204:Functional near-infrared spectroscopy
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249:Peterka, R. J. (2002-09-01).
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613:"reflex-reversal phenomenon"
212:Positron emission tomography
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514:Journal of Neurophysiology
322:10.1177/036354659702500126
255:Journal of Neurophysiology
181:Neurophysiological studies
129:Musculoskeletal components
574:10.1152/jn.1997.77.4.1963
267:10.1152/jn.2002.88.3.1097
155:Postural control reflexes
221:inferior parietal lobule
147:Internal representations
132:Neuro muscular synergies
459:Trends in Neurosciences
404:Trends in Neurosciences
200:functional neuroimaging
141:Anticipatory mechanisms
35:, as no other articles
72:central nervous system
526:10.1152/jn.00178.2002
194:Neuroimaging studies
202:techniques such as
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