817:(HEFCE) published a study noting, amongst other things, that a greater percentage of students who had attended a private school prior to university achieved a first or upper second class degree compared with students from state schools. Out of a starting cohort of 24,360 candidates having attended a private school and 184,580 having attended a state school, 64.9 per cent of the former attained a first or upper second class degree, compared to 52.7 per cent of the latter. No statistical comparisons of the two groups (State vs Private) were reported, with or without controls for student characteristics such as entry qualifications, so no inferences can be drawn on the relative performance of the two groups. The stand-out finding of the study was that private school students achieved better in obtaining graduate jobs and study, even when student characteristics were allowed for (sex, ethnicity, school type, entry qualifications, area of study).
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students who graduated in 2013/14, suggested that 82 per cent of state school pupils got firsts or upper seconds compared with 73 per cent of those from private schools. Later, HEFCE admitted that it had made a transposition error, and that in fact, 73 per cent of state school graduates gained a first or upper second class degree compared with 82 per cent of private school graduates. This admission attracted far less publicity than the original erroneous assertion. Across all
English universities, state school students who scored two Bs and a C at A-level did on average eight per cent better at degree level than their privately educated counterparts. Two Bs and a C represents an entry tariff of 112, well below the average demanded by any of the UK's
230:
331:. At the same time participation at all secondary schools grew dramatically, so that the share of the independent sector fell from a little under 8 per cent in 1964 to reach a low of 5.7 per cent in 1978. Both these trends were reversed during the 1980s, and the share of the independent schools reached 7.5 per cent by 1991. The changes since 1990 have been less dramatic: the share fell to 6.9 per cent by 1996 before increasing very slightly after 2000 to reach 7.2 per cent in 2012. By 2015, the figure fell back to 6.9 per cent, with the absolute number of pupils attending independent schools falling everywhere in England apart from in the
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students from lower occupationally-ranked social-class backgrounds". Additionally, the study could not take into account the effect of a slightly different and more traditional subject mix studied by private students at university on university achievement. Despite these caveats, the paper attracted much press attention. The same study found wide variations between different independent schools, suggesting that students from a few of them were in fact significantly more likely to obtain the better degrees than state students of the same gender and class background having the same A-level score.
33:
392:
785:. The authors noted "a very well-determined and monotonically positive effect defined over Social Classes I to V" whereby, for both men and women, other things being equal, academic performance at university is better the more advantaged is the student's home background". but they also observed that a student educated at a private school was on average 6 per cent less likely to receive a first or an upper second class degree than a student from the same social class background, of the same gender, who had achieved the same A-level score at a state school.
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secured a poor A-level score, and who therefore attend less selective universities, do less well than state educated degree candidates with the same low A-level attainment. In addition, as discussed in the 2010 Buckingham report "HMC Schools: a quantitative analysis", because students from state schools tended to be admitted on lower A-level entry grades, relative to entry grades it could be claimed that these students had improved more. A countervailing finding of the
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141:
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505:. The principal forms of selection are financial, in that the pupil's family must be able to pay the school fees, and academic, the latter determined via interview and examination. Credit may also be given for musical, sporting or other talent. Entrance to some schools may be orientated to pupils whose parents practise a particular religion, or schools may require pupils to attend religious services.
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289:); this was not just a way to reduce staffing costs, but was also seen as vital preparation for the senior pupils' later roles in public or military service. More recently heads of public schools have been emphasising that senior pupils now play a much reduced role in maintaining discipline. To an extent, the public school system influenced the school systems of the
638:. According to a 2010 report from the Department for Education, private school pupils have "the highest rates of achieving grades A or B in A-level maths and sciences" compared to grammar, specialist and mainstream state schools, and pupils at private schools account for a disproportionate number of the total number of A-levels in maths and sciences.
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study was that for students of a given level of A-level attainment it is almost twice as difficult to get a first at the most selective universities than at those on the other end of the scale. Private sector schools regularly dominate the top of the A-level league tables, and their students are more
204:
The transformation of free charitable foundations into institutions which sometimes charge fees came about readily: the foundation would only afford minimal facilities, so that further fees might be charged to lodge, clothe and otherwise maintain the scholars, to the private profit of the trustees or
796:
showed that A-level performance is "overwhelmingly" the best predictor for exam performance in the earlier years ("Part I") of the undergraduate degree at
Cambridge. Partington's summary specified that "questions of school background and gender" ... "make only a marginal difference and the pattern –
492:
do exist), though they are still much less prevalent than in
England. In modern times many secondary pupils in Scotland's private schools will have fed in from the school's own fee-paying primary school, therefore there is considerable competition facing pupils from state primary schools who seek to
343:
In 2011 there were more than 2,500 private schools in the UK educating some 628,000 children, comprising over 6.5 per cent of UK children, and more than 18 per cent of pupils over the age of 16. In
England the schools account for a slightly higher percentage than in the UK as a whole. According to a
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at the same time as a reference by the
Attorney General asking the Tribunal to consider how the public benefit requirement should operate in relation to fee-charging charitable schools. The Upper Tribunal's decision, published on 14 October 2011, concluded that in all cases there must be more than
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have written that "among affluent countries, Britain’s private‑school participation is especially exclusive to the rich", and that the "existence in
Britain of a flourishing private-school sector not only limits the life chances of those who attend state schools but also damages society at large".
537:
Private schools, as compared with maintained schools, generally have more individual teaching; much lower pupil-teacher ratios at around 9:1; longer teaching hours (sometimes including
Saturday morning teaching) and homework (known as prep); though they have shorter terms. They also have more time
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An investigation into official exam data by the BBC's Radio 4 Today programme, in 2017, showed that 20% of private school pupils were given extra time for their GCSE and A level exams, as compared with fewer than 12% of pupils in public sector schools. The most commonly given amount of extra exam
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In 2015, the UK press widely reported the outcome of research suggesting that school-leavers from state schools that attained similar A level grades go on to achieve higher undergraduate degree classes than their private school counterparts. The quoted figures, based on the degree results of all
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and published in 2010 focused mainly on the possible use of US-style SAT tests as a way of detecting a candidate's academic potential. Its findings confirmed those of the Smith & Naylor study in that it found that privately educated pupils who, despite their educational advantages, have only
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as applied to Higher
Education. This belief is reinforced by the fact that the legal rights of pupils are governed by a private contract, as opposed to rights implemented by the national government. For instance, a pupil seeking admission to a state school that is rejected is legally entitled to
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The averaged effect was described as very variable across the social class and A-level attainment of the candidates; it was "small and not strongly significant for students with high A-level scores" (i.e. for students at the more selective universities) and "statistically significant mostly for
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As boarding schools are fully responsible for their pupils throughout term-time, pastoral care is an essential part of boarding education, and many such schools have their own distinctive ethos, including social aspirations, manners and accents, associated with their own school traditions. Many
780:
conducted a study into the determinants of degree performance at UK universities. Their study confirmed that the internationally recognized phenomenon whereby "children from more advantaged class backgrounds have higher levels of educational attainment than children from less-advantaged class
670:
A major area of debate in recent years has centred around the continuing charitable status of private schools, which means they are not charged business rates by local councils, amongst other benefits. This is estimated to save the schools about £200 per pupil and to cost the
Exchequer about
379:. Those schools in England which are members of the affiliated organisations of the ISC are inspected by the Independent Schools Inspectorate under a framework approved by the Government's Department for Education (DfE). Private schools not affiliated to the ISC in England are inspected by
108:. There are around 2,600 independent schools in the UK, which educate around 615,000 children, some 7 per cent of all British school-age children and 18 per cent of pupils over the age of 16. In addition to charging tuition fees, they may also benefit from gifts, charitable endowments and
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in
England and Wales in 1980, whereby the state paid the school fees for those pupils capable of gaining a place but unable to afford the fees. This was essentially a response to the decision of the previous Labour government in the mid-1970s to remove government funding of
205:
headmaster. Also, facilities already provided by the charitable foundation for a few students could profitably be extended to further paying pupils. Some schools still keep their foundation students in a separate house from other pupils, or distinguish them in other ways.
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would become a minor part of the school's finances. By 2022 senior boarding schools were charging fees of over £40,000 per annum. Most of the independent schools today are still registered as a charity, and bursaries are available to students on a means test basis.
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reported that he says that boarding school are "simply unsafe" and that "he has, he says, a database of more than 800 criminal allegations from former schoolchildren of 300 mainly private boarding schools". He presented an episode of the television programme
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Only a small minority of parents can afford school fees averaging (as of 2021) over £36,000 per annum for boarding pupils and £15,000 for day pupils, with additional costs for uniform, equipment and extra-curricular activities. Scholarships and
2237:
560:
Independent schools can set their own discipline regime, with much greater freedom to exclude children, primarily exercised in the wider interests of the school. In England and Wales there are no requirements for teaching staff to have
324:. The Direct Grant Grammar Schools (Cessation of Grant) Regulations 1975 required these schools to choose between full state funding as comprehensive schools and full independence. As a result, 119 of these schools became independent.
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likely to apply to the most selective universities; as a result private sector students are particularly well represented at these institutions, and therefore only the very ablest of them are likely to secure the best degrees.
475:
In Scotland, it was common for children destined for private schools to receive their primary education at a local school. This arose because of Scotland's long tradition of state-funded education, which was spearheaded by the
85:. The term "public school" meant they were then open to pupils regardless of where they lived or their religion (while in the United States and most other English-speaking countries "public school" refers to a publicly funded
528:
by a new infusion of high-performing sixth-form-only pupils, which may distort apparent results. On the other hand, pupils performing poorly cannot legally be excluded from a state school solely for poor performance.
959:
678:. In 2008, the Charity Commission published guidance, including guidance on public benefit and fee charging, setting out issues to be considered by charities charging high fees that many people could not afford. The
383:. Private schools accredited to the ISC in Scotland and Wales and Northern Ireland or others in England out with the inspectorial bodies listed above are inspected through the national inspectorates in each country.
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social elite. Under a number of forward-looking headmasters leading public schools created a curriculum based heavily on classics and physical activity for boys and young men of the upper and upper middle classes.
359:. Boarding-school traditions give a distinctive character to British private education, even in the case of day-pupils. A high proportion of private schools, particularly the larger and older institutions, have
197:(1407) were the first of their kind (although they had a strong Christian religious ethos) and such early "free grammar schools" founded by wealthy benefactors paved the way for the establishment of the modern "
272:
introduced major reforms, focusing on the importance of the individual and of competition, as well as the need for a "total curriculum" with academia, music, sport and drama being central to education. Most
2203:
58:, most are governed by a board of governors, and are owned by a mixture of corporations, trusts and private individuals. They are independent of many of the regulations and conditions that apply to
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appeal, whereas at a private school admissions are at the discretion of the governing body of the school. In 2006, pupils at fee-paying schools made up 43 per cent of those selected for places at
2229:
1377:
1213:
201:". These were typically established for male students from poor or disadvantaged backgrounds. English law has always regarded education as a charitable end in itself, irrespective of poverty.
189:(948). These schools were founded by the church and were under its complete dominion. During the late 14th and early 15th centuries the first schools independent of the church were founded.
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682:
was granted permission by the High Court to bring a judicial review of the Charity Commission's public benefit guidance as it affected the private education sector. This was heard by the
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former pupils aspire to send their own children to their old schools over successive generations. Most offer sporting, musical, dramatic and art facilities, sometimes with extra charges.
1979:
614:
The former classics-based curriculum was also criticised for not providing skills in sciences or engineering, but was perhaps in response to the requirement of classics for entry to
285:
They were schools for the gentlemanly elite of Victorian politics, armed forces and colonial government. Much of the discipline was in the hands of senior pupils (usually known as
641:
Some parents complain that their rights and their children's are compromised by vague and one-sided contracts which allow Heads to use discretionary powers unfairly, such as in
1918:
951:
344:
2010 study by Ryan & Sibetia, "the proportion of pupils attending independent schools in England is currently 7.2 per cent (considering full-time pupils only)".
850:
1128:
553:. A much higher proportion go to university. Some schools specialise in particular strengths, academic or other, although this is not as common as it is in the
1346:
1257:
1168:
2126:
1817:
93:(also known as "private schools") educate younger children up to the age of 13 to prepare them for entry to the public schools and other secondary schools.
77:
school subject to a trust or of charitable status. Many of the older independent schools catering for the 13–18 age range in England and Wales are known as
2418:
520:
at ages 11+ or 13+. Schools often offer scholarships to attract abler pupils (which improves their average results); the standard sometimes approaches the
1648:
1400:
1766:
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only became more widespread in Scotland from the late 19th century (usually attached to an existing secondary private school, though exceptions such as
1567:
1369:
1205:
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or token benefit for the poor, but that trustees of a charitable private school should decide what was appropriate in their particular circumstances.
611:. The scheme was terminated by the Labour government in 1997, and since then the private sector has moved to increase its own means-tested bursaries.
1601:
1535:
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as the body representing private schools in Scotland. Unlike England, all Scottish private schools are subject to the same regime of inspections by
860:
152:
1792:
1449:
674:
Since the Charities Act was passed in November 2006, charitable status is based on an organisation providing a "public benefit", as judged by the
671:£100 million in tax breaks, assuming that an increase in fees would not result in any transfer of pupils from private to maintained sector.
3305:
855:
2106:
1971:
814:
2297:
2060:
Smith, Jeremy; Naylor, Robin (2005). "Schooling effects on subsequent university performance: evidence for the UK university population".
577:
In 2023 the Independent Schools Council reports that private schools contribute £16.5 billion to gross value added (GVA) in Britain.
1853:
1293:
521:
375:(ISC), through seven affiliated organisations, represents 1,300 schools that together educate over 80 per cent of the pupils in the UK
698:, under the Charities and Trustee Investment Act (Scotland), there is an entirely separate test of charitable status, overseen by the
3173:
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educate about 31,000 children. Although many of the Scottish private schools are members of the ISC they are also represented by the
356:
2165:
585:
Private schools are often criticised for being elitist, and seen as lying outside the spirit of the state system. Francis Green and
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bursaries to assist the education of the less well-off are usually awarded by a process which combines academic and other criteria.
3300:
2813:
2725:
1910:
1740:
765:
699:
675:
1073:
1297:
524:(GCSE) intended for age 16. Poorly-performing pupils may be required to leave, and following GCSE results can be replaced in the
421:
411:
109:
2264:
1714:
1693:
1187:
902:
36:
1854:"Boarding Schools: The Secret Shame – Exposure review: a raw and emotional exploration of systematic failure of abuse victims"
1118:
1510:
566:
1325:
398:(1870) is one of Scotland's most famous private schools, particularly since the 1997 Labour Government led by former pupil,
3124:
844:
1949:
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time is 25%. Such 'exam access' arrangements are given for a range of disabilities and educational special needs such as
607:, most of which then became private schools; some Assisted Places pupils went to the former direct-grant schools such as
407:
277:
developed significantly during the 18th and 19th centuries, and came to play an important role in the development of the
90:
17:
545:
Educational achievement is generally very good. Independent school pupils are four times more likely to attain an A* at
2288:
320:
Until 1975 there had been a group of 179 academically selective schools drawing on both private and state funding, the
565:
or to be registered with the General Teaching Council. In Scotland a teaching qualification and registration with the
2344:
865:
501:
Private schools, like state grammar schools, are free to select their pupils, subject to general legislation against
433:
221:
is an example: a large proportion of its students are funded by its charitable foundation or by various benefactors.
3279:
3188:
1342:
1254:
453:
186:
158:
1160:
2123:
1829:
1238:
839:
162:
63:
2204:"University funding body admits 'disturbing blunder' over state- vs private-educated pupils' degree performance"
1591:
2771:
489:
485:
274:
78:
59:
1656:
1408:
3183:
1762:
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are extremely expensive, and many have entry criteria geared towards those who have been at private "feeder"
441:
1560:
2530:
1273:
723:
249:
679:
604:
517:
372:
321:
313:
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has been published annually since 1986. This was a name change of a publication that started in 1889 as
113:
105:
3064:
2459:
1622:
1446:
445:
437:
229:
166:
2469:
2372:
608:
449:
2791:
2707:
2479:
2143:
2092:"Schooling effects on subsequent university performance: evidence for the UK university population"
2074:
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for a class of Southern Railway locomotives that were named after Public Schools in the early 1930s
562:
1030:
925:
727:, "Boarding Schools, the Secret Shame". In 2022, he co-wrote (with Caitlin Smith) and presented a
3239:
2859:
2826:
2605:
635:
360:
294:
82:
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than their non-selective state sector counterparts, and twice as likely to attain an A grade at
3069:
2647:
2600:
2304:
2069:
834:
599:
465:
174:
1422:
662:(although such pupils represent only 18 per cent of the 16 years old plus school population).
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on non-disciplinary grounds. They believe private schools have not embraced the principles of
32:
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2906:
2743:
2652:
2640:
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1466:
1301:
777:
469:
261:
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The educational reforms of the 19th century were particularly important. Reformers included
3079:
3074:
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2918:
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2871:
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2733:
2720:
2615:
2474:
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2014:
1501:
793:
659:
642:
214:
40:
8:
3151:
3094:
2625:
2620:
2557:
2441:
2162:
2150:
2001:
Erikson, Robert; Goldthorpe, John H.; Jackson, Michelle; Yaish, Meir; Cox, D. R. (2005).
1859:
694:
The Charity Commission accordingly published revised public benefit guidance in 2013. In
457:
425:
328:
209:
74:
55:
2298:"Unleashing Aspiration: The Final Report of the Panel on Fair Access to the Professions"
2018:
1736:
1092:
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from the seventeenth century, long before such education was common in England. Private
391:
3164:
3134:
3099:
3033:
2849:
2781:
2672:
2545:
2520:
2489:
2037:
2002:
1674:
1143:
591:
477:
429:
332:
198:
190:
1690:
3104:
3084:
2938:
2928:
2891:
2786:
2595:
2567:
2449:
2400:
2363:
2272:
2083:
2042:
1710:
1516:
1506:
1184:
894:
655:
631:
554:
257:
1080:(via HathiTrust Digital Library ed.). London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. 1889.
3214:
3146:
3129:
3089:
3043:
2989:
2974:
2952:
2923:
2798:
2577:
2562:
2514:
2385:
2330:
2079:
2032:
2022:
595:
269:
170:
208:
After a time, such fees eclipsed the original charitable income, and the original
3141:
3023:
2979:
2969:
2803:
2682:
2189:
2169:
2130:
1697:
1453:
1329:
1322:
1280:
1261:
1242:
1191:
646:
348:
194:
121:
2230:"The type of school you went to could matter more than A-levels for your degree"
1941:
1793:"Alex Renton: the abuse survivor still shining light on 'vicious' elite schools"
1055:
702:, which assesses the public benefit provided by each registered school charity.
3259:
3178:
3048:
2864:
2756:
2738:
2715:
2610:
2509:
2484:
2430:
2007:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1496:
782:
740:
683:
586:
502:
461:
395:
376:
309:
290:
233:
178:
144:
101:
97:
70:
1520:
797:
particularly in relation to school background – is in any case inconsistent."
3294:
3209:
3038:
2964:
2876:
2677:
2525:
2454:
2425:
2413:
1605:
822:
623:
278:
265:
264:" and the latter the importance of scholarship and competitive examinations.
241:
182:
2133:
Admissions & Data Services at Cambridge Admissions Office, February 2011
2124:
The predictive effectiveness of metrics in admission to Cambridge University
2027:
1881:
516:
Private schools are generally academically selective, using the competitive
436:. The nine largest Scottish private schools, with 1,000 or more pupils, are
3204:
2896:
2881:
2821:
2687:
2535:
2504:
2408:
2390:
2046:
806:
801:
736:
716:
245:
86:
2153:
Web Archives, National Foundation for Educational Research, September 2010
2808:
2494:
2142:
Catherine Kirkup, Rebecca Wheater, Jo Morrison, Ben Durbin, Marco Pomati
744:
735:, about abuse and cover-up at some of Britain's elite schools, including
728:
711:
650:
116:. In 2021, the average annual cost for private schooling was £15,191 for
54:) are schools that require fees for admission and enrollment. Some have
3028:
2635:
2183:
Higher education and beyond: Outcomes from full-time first degree study
870:
525:
510:
399:
352:
140:
117:
104:
and the subsequent cessation in 1975 of government funding support for
1561:"Maths and science education: the supply of high achievers at A level"
1235:
493:
enter a private school at secondary stage, via entrance examinations.
2751:
2380:
847:(list of schools that were part of the scheme, between 1945 and 1976)
761:
618:
until the early 1960s, as well as a hangover from centuries ago when
1078:
Public Schools Year Book and Preparatory Schools Year Book1908, 1909
3234:
2984:
2630:
1000:
757:
695:
628:
English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit: 1850–1980
615:
417:
305:
2999:
2994:
2590:
2585:
1825:
1206:"Soaring school fees put private education out of reach for many"
1123:
550:
286:
218:
952:"Philip Hensher: Rejecting Oxbridge isn't clever—it's a mistake"
2499:
2353:
2322:
2144:
Use of an aptitude test in university entrance:a validity study
1255:
Response to Charity Commission draft guidance on public benefit
380:
1599:? Disappointment damages for breach of the contract to educate
926:"Private schools add nearly £12bn yearly to UK, says research"
432:
as local authority schools and they have to register with the
347:
Most of the larger private schools are either full or partial
327:
Pupil numbers at independent schools fell slightly during the
2172:. Buckingham.ac.uk (2 January 1997). Retrieved on 2013-08-13.
2000:
100:
converted to a private fee-charging model following the 1965
73:
referred to a school in private ownership, in contrast to an
1502:
Engines of privilege : Britain's private school problem
626:'s opposition to this tendency which inspired his 1981 book
622:
Latin and Greek were taught at many public schools. It was
546:
792:
In 2011, a subsequent study led by Richard Partington at
1127:. House of Commons. 22 March 1978. col. 582W–586W.
851:
List of English and Welsh endowed schools (19th century)
714:
has written about abuse of pupils at boarding schools;
293:, and recognisably public schools can be found in many
157:
Some independent schools are particularly old, such as
1711:"Charities and Trustee Investment (Scotland) Act 2005"
147:(914) is one of the oldest private schools in Britain.
1680:. House of Commons Library, Standard Note SN/HA/5222.
1536:"Britain's private school problem: it's time to talk"
1370:"Richest independent schools give smallest bursaries"
1031:"Growth in private school fees slows during pandemic"
62:. For example, the schools do not have to follow the
1161:"Why private schooling is on the decline in England"
1534:Green, Francis; Kynaston, David (13 January 2019).
112:. Some of these schools (1,300) are members of the
2003:"On class differentials in educational attainment"
1852:
634:government's opposition to old-school gentlemanly
1972:"Extra Time In Exams: Your Child May Be Eligible"
1610:Oxford Centre for Higher Education Policy Studies
1399:Hackett, Geraldine; Baird, Tom (14 August 2005).
1024:
1022:
781:backgrounds" persists at university level in the
569:(GTCS) are mandatory for all teaching positions.
260:; the first of these emphasised team spirit and "
3292:
2156:
861:List of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom
153:List of the oldest schools in the United Kingdom
1911:"Private school pupils get more time for exams"
1649:"Poorer pupils still fail to get into Oxbridge"
2090:Naylor, Robin; Smith, Jeremy (November 2002).
1343:"Scholarships for Private Independent Schools"
1019:
351:, although many have now become predominantly
2338:
2289:"University Admissions by Individual Schools"
1533:
1494:
856:List of private schools in the United Kingdom
776:In 2002 Jeremy Smith and Robin Naylor of the
1786:
1784:
1668:
1666:
1401:"Schools 'cull pupils to lift A-level rank'"
1398:
1367:
1093:"Britain's most expensive secondary schools"
815:Higher Education Funding Council for England
2089:
2059:
1675:"Charitable status and independent schools"
1203:
1090:
771:
658:and 38 per cent of those granted places at
538:for organised extra-curricular activities.
2345:
2331:
2163:CEER Publications|University of Buckingham
1332:, Scottish Council of Independent Schools.
1274:The Independent Schools Inspectorate (ISI)
522:General Certificate of Secondary Education
300:
2073:
2036:
2026:
1781:
1672:
1663:
1236:Private schooling in the UK and Australia
598:. The Thatcher government introduced the
355:. By contrast there are only a few dozen
81:, seven of which were the subject of the
2262:
1942:"Private school students gain exam time"
1447:Teaching Staff & Teacher/Pupil Ratio
700:Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator
481:
390:
304:
228:
139:
31:
2295:
1939:
1647:Hackett, Geraldine (17 December 2006).
1646:
1298:Scottish Council of Independent Schools
949:
923:
889:
887:
422:Scottish Council of Independent Schools
412:Scottish Council of Independent Schools
27:Fee-paying school in the United Kingdom
14:
3293:
2201:
2181:Quantitative Analysis for Policy Team
1180:
1178:
1141:
1028:
224:
3306:Private schools in the United Kingdom
2326:
1921:from the original on 15 February 2017
1908:
1850:
1769:from the original on 11 November 2013
1743:from the original on 11 November 2013
1673:Fairbairn, Catherine (October 2013).
1294:"Facts and Statistics: Pupil numbers"
1216:from the original on 11 December 2008
1204:Murray-West, Rosie (9 October 2006).
1171:from the original on 12 October 2017.
1060:www.independentschoolsyearbook.co.uk/
567:General Teaching Council for Scotland
48:Private schools in the United Kingdom
3275:
3125:Ancient higher-learning institutions
2263:Passmore, Biddy (31 December 1999).
2240:from the original on 30 January 2016
2101:. Warwick Economic Research Papers.
1952:from the original on 18 October 2017
1818:"Boarding Schools: The Secret Shame"
1790:
1717:from the original on 14 October 2012
1527:
905:from the original on 29 January 2018
884:
845:List of direct grant grammar schools
665:
649:as adopted by the state sector, and
630:. It became a huge influence on the
338:
2202:Garner, Richard (3 November 2015).
1982:from the original on 6 October 2017
1851:Hogan, Michael (19 February 2018).
1713:. Legislation.gov.uk. 26 May 2011.
1349:from the original on 31 August 2011
1245:, Institute of Fiscal Studies, 2010
1175:
962:from the original on 9 August 2012.
950:Hensher, Philip (20 January 2012).
408:List of private schools in Scotland
24:
2112:from the original on 18 July 2011.
1909:Pluck, Andrea (10 February 2017).
1828:. 19 February 2018. Archived from
1144:"Education: Historical statistics"
1131:from the original on 3 March 2016.
1056:"The Independent Schools Yearbook"
895:"Types of school: Private schools"
750:
572:
25:
3322:
2256:
1940:Bateman, Tom (10 February 2017).
1573:from the original on 12 July 2011
1380:from the original on 28 July 2010
972:
866:Private school fee fixing scandal
66:, although many such schools do.
3274:
3265:
3264:
3253:
2352:
2291:. Sutton Trust. 1 February 2008.
2084:10.1016/j.econedurev.2004.07.016
975:"Private schools and inequality"
126:The Independent Schools Yearbook
3301:Education in the United Kingdom
2222:
2195:
2175:
2136:
2116:
2053:
1994:
1964:
1933:
1902:
1874:
1844:
1810:
1755:
1729:
1703:
1684:
1640:
1615:
1585:
1553:
1488:
1459:
1440:
1415:
1392:
1361:
1335:
1316:
1286:
1267:
1248:
1234:Chris Ryan & Luke Sibetia,
1228:
1197:
1153:
1135:
1124:Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)
1111:
924:Warrell, Helen (2 April 2014).
840:Education in the United Kingdom
64:National Curriculum for England
2296:Milburn, Alan (chair) (2009).
1763:"Reviews of charitable status"
1456:, Independent Schools Council.
1283:, Independent Schools Council.
1264:, Independent Schools Council.
1194:, Independent Schools Council.
1084:
1066:
1048:
1029:Staton, Bethan (11 May 2021).
993:
981:. Institute for FIscal Studies
966:
943:
917:
490:Cargilfield Preparatory School
486:Craigclowan Preparatory School
13:
1:
2099:Economics of Education Review
2062:Economics of Education Review
1791:Hill, Amelia (27 July 2022).
1368:Nick Collins (26 July 2010).
1074:"The Public Schools Yearbook"
1007:. Independent Schools Council
580:
532:
159:The King's School, Canterbury
2531:University technical college
1608:by David Palfreyman, at the
800:A study commissioned by the
605:direct grant grammar schools
496:
322:direct grant grammar schools
163:The King's School, Rochester
106:direct grant grammar schools
7:
1345:. GetTheRightSchool.co.uk.
1149:. House of Commons Library.
1099:. Spear's Wealth Management
828:
680:Independent Schools Council
518:Common Entrance Examination
386:
373:Independent Schools Council
130:The Public Schools Yearbook
114:Independent Schools Council
10:
3327:
2460:College-preparatory school
2269:Times Education Supplement
2122:Richard Partington et al.
442:Hutcheson's Grammar School
405:
150:
135:
91:Prep (preparatory) schools
39:(1561) is one of the nine
3248:
3227:
3197:
3160:
3120:
3113:
3057:
3016:
2960:
2951:
2914:
2905:
2845:
2838:
2700:
2665:
2576:
2553:
2544:
2470:Comprehensive high school
2440:
2399:
2371:
2361:
2265:"Bastions for the elite?"
2105:. University of Warwick.
871:Schools Class locomotives
609:Manchester Grammar School
2827:State-integrated school
2701:By funding / eligibility
2480:Continuation high school
2188:11 December 2013 at the
1739:. SCIS. 1 January 1970.
1655:. London. Archived from
1623:"School admissions code"
1407:. London. Archived from
1260:27 February 2008 at the
1091:Spear's (October 2022).
877:
772:Types and degree classes
705:
563:Qualified Teacher Status
37:Merchant Taylors' School
3240:Educational institution
2860:Anarchistic free school
2606:Institute of technology
2149:8 December 2010 at the
2028:10.1073/pnas.0502433102
1915:educationbusinessuk.net
1452:31 October 2007 at the
1190:18 January 2012 at the
747:and its junior school.
590:Many of the best-known
446:Robert Gordon's College
438:George Watson's College
301:20th and 21st centuries
167:St Peter's School, York
83:Public Schools Act 1868
69:Historically, the term
3070:Compensatory education
2822:State or public school
2648:Upper division college
1696:7 October 2008 at the
1505:. London: Bloomsbury.
1279:25 August 2009 at the
1119:"Direct Grant Schools"
835:Armorial of UK schools
600:Assisted Places Scheme
466:High School of Glasgow
450:George Heriot's School
403:
367:Inspections in England
357:state boarding schools
317:
237:
175:Wells Cathedral School
148:
44:
2726:Comprehensive school
2653:Vocational university
2236:. 16 September 2015.
1700:, Charity Commission.
1142:Bolton, Paul (2012).
778:University of Warwick
470:High School of Dundee
394:
308:
262:muscular Christianity
232:
143:
35:
3189:in the United States
3080:Continuing education
3075:Compulsory education
2919:Free school movement
2887:Single-sex education
2872:International school
2855:Democratic education
2734:For-profit education
2721:Community day school
2616:Liberal arts college
2475:Comprehensive school
2465:Collegiate institute
2129:14 June 2012 at the
1976:huffingtonpost.co.uk
794:Cambridge University
660:Cambridge University
454:St Aloysius' College
434:Learning Directorate
424:, recognised by the
60:state-funded schools
56:financial endowments
41:Clarendon Commission
3198:Informal or illegal
3152:Medieval university
3095:Inclusive education
3065:College preparatory
2626:Residential college
2621:Research university
2558:Professional school
2433:/ Elementary school
2151:Library of Congress
2019:2005PNAS..102.9730E
1860:The Daily Telegraph
1832:on 23 February 2018
1604:13 October 2003 at
1374:The Daily Telegraph
1304:on 28 February 2014
1241:5 July 2012 at the
1167:. 1 December 2015.
596:preparatory schools
458:The Glasgow Academy
426:Scottish Parliament
416:Private schools in
329:mid-1970s recession
225:Victorian expansion
52:independent schools
18:Private school (UK)
3260:Schools portal
3165:indigenous peoples
3162:Schools imposed on
3100:Remedial education
3034:Distance education
2850:Alternative school
2839:By style / purpose
2814:Specialist school
2673:All-through school
2521:Sixth form college
2310:on 15 January 2010
2168:8 May 2015 at the
2088:Preprint version:
1890:(Audio). July 2022
1423:"School exclusion"
1328:1 May 2009 at the
676:Charity Commission
478:Church of Scotland
430:Education Scotland
404:
318:
238:
169:(founded c. 627),
149:
45:
3288:
3287:
3223:
3222:
3105:Special education
3085:Further education
3012:
3011:
3008:
3007:
2947:
2946:
2934:Montessori school
2929:Laboratory school
2892:Specialist school
2830:
2817:
2762:UK private school
2747:
2729:
2711:
2696:
2695:
2661:
2660:
2596:Community college
2568:Vocational school
2450:Adult high school
2364:educational stage
2013:(27): 9730–9733.
1978:. 11 April 2016.
1593:Phelps...Clark...
1512:978-1-5266-0127-8
666:Charitable status
656:Oxford University
339:England and Wales
312:(1873), a former
215:Christ's Hospital
110:charitable status
16:(Redirected from
3318:
3278:
3277:
3268:
3267:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3147:Cathedral school
3130:Platonic Academy
3118:
3117:
3090:Gifted education
3044:Prison education
2990:Parochial school
2975:Christian school
2958:
2957:
2924:Folk high school
2912:
2911:
2843:
2842:
2828:
2816:(United Kingdom)
2815:
2799:Selective school
2745:
2727:
2709:
2563:Technical school
2551:
2550:
2515:Secondary school
2419:Global influence
2386:Pre-kindergarten
2369:
2368:
2347:
2340:
2333:
2324:
2323:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2309:
2303:. Archived from
2302:
2292:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2271:. Archived from
2250:
2249:
2247:
2245:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2199:
2193:
2179:
2173:
2160:
2154:
2140:
2134:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2096:
2087:
2077:
2057:
2051:
2050:
2040:
2030:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1856:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1788:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1737:"Public Benefit"
1733:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1707:
1701:
1688:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1670:
1661:
1660:
1653:The Sunday Times
1644:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1619:
1613:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1572:
1565:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1495:Green, Francis;
1492:
1486:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1471:
1463:
1457:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1396:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1365:
1359:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1339:
1333:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1300:. Archived from
1290:
1284:
1271:
1265:
1252:
1246:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1201:
1195:
1182:
1173:
1172:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1148:
1139:
1133:
1132:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1070:
1064:
1063:
1052:
1046:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1026:
1017:
1016:
1014:
1012:
997:
991:
990:
988:
986:
973:Green, Francis.
970:
964:
963:
947:
941:
940:
938:
936:
921:
915:
914:
912:
910:
891:
349:boarding schools
270:Uppingham School
254:Benjamin Kennedy
187:St Albans School
171:Sherborne School
122:boarding schools
120:and £36,000 for
21:
3326:
3325:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3291:
3290:
3289:
3284:
3254:
3252:
3244:
3219:
3193:
3184:in South Africa
3167:
3163:
3156:
3142:Monastic school
3109:
3053:
3024:Boarding school
3004:
2980:Female seminary
2970:Catholic school
2943:
2901:
2834:
2804:Separate school
2692:
2683:One-room school
2657:
2601:Graduate school
2572:
2540:
2436:
2395:
2373:Early childhood
2357:
2351:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2300:
2287:
2278:
2276:
2275:on 10 June 2011
2259:
2254:
2253:
2243:
2241:
2234:The Independent
2228:
2227:
2223:
2213:
2211:
2208:The Independent
2200:
2196:
2190:Wayback Machine
2180:
2176:
2170:Wayback Machine
2161:
2157:
2141:
2137:
2131:Wayback Machine
2121:
2117:
2109:
2094:
2058:
2054:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1983:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1955:
1953:
1938:
1934:
1924:
1922:
1907:
1903:
1893:
1891:
1883:In Dark Corners
1880:
1879:
1875:
1865:
1863:
1849:
1845:
1835:
1833:
1816:
1815:
1811:
1801:
1799:
1789:
1782:
1772:
1770:
1765:. Oscr.org.uk.
1761:
1760:
1756:
1746:
1744:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1720:
1718:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1698:Wayback Machine
1689:
1685:
1677:
1671:
1664:
1659:on 6 June 2010.
1645:
1641:
1631:
1629:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1612:(OxCHEPS), 2003
1590:
1586:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1544:
1542:
1532:
1528:
1513:
1497:Kynaston, David
1493:
1489:
1479:
1477:
1469:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1454:Wayback Machine
1445:
1441:
1431:
1429:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1411:on 6 June 2010.
1397:
1393:
1383:
1381:
1366:
1362:
1352:
1350:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1330:Wayback Machine
1321:
1317:
1307:
1305:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1281:Wayback Machine
1272:
1268:
1262:Wayback Machine
1253:
1249:
1243:Wayback Machine
1233:
1229:
1219:
1217:
1202:
1198:
1192:Wayback Machine
1183:
1176:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1140:
1136:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1102:
1100:
1089:
1085:
1072:
1071:
1067:
1054:
1053:
1049:
1039:
1037:
1035:Financial Times
1027:
1020:
1010:
1008:
999:
998:
994:
984:
982:
971:
967:
956:The Independent
948:
944:
934:
932:
930:Financial Times
922:
918:
908:
906:
893:
892:
885:
880:
831:
774:
753:
751:Extra exam time
733:In Dark Corners
708:
668:
647:natural justice
583:
575:
573:Economic impact
535:
499:
414:
389:
341:
303:
227:
177:(founded 909),
173:(founded 705),
165:(founded 604),
161:(founded 597),
155:
138:
98:grammar schools
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3324:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3282:
3272:
3262:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3231:
3229:
3228:Related topics
3225:
3224:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3215:in South Tyrol
3212:
3207:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3179:in New Zealand
3176:
3170:
3168:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3132:
3121:
3115:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3054:
3052:
3051:
3049:Virtual school
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3020:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3010:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2961:
2955:
2949:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2939:Waldorf school
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2915:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2865:Sudbury school
2862:
2852:
2846:
2840:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2832:
2824:
2819:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2769:
2759:
2757:Private school
2754:
2749:
2741:
2739:Free education
2736:
2731:
2723:
2718:
2716:Charter school
2713:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2697:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2644:
2643:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2611:Junior college
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2582:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2554:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2512:
2510:Minor seminary
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2485:Grammar school
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2435:
2434:
2431:Primary school
2428:
2423:
2422:
2421:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2377:
2375:
2366:
2359:
2358:
2350:
2349:
2342:
2335:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2293:
2285:
2258:
2257:External links
2255:
2252:
2251:
2221:
2194:
2174:
2155:
2135:
2115:
2075:10.1.1.11.4521
2068:(5): 549–562.
2052:
1993:
1963:
1932:
1901:
1873:
1843:
1809:
1780:
1754:
1728:
1702:
1691:Public Benefit
1683:
1662:
1639:
1614:
1584:
1552:
1526:
1511:
1487:
1474:www.isc.co.uk/
1458:
1439:
1414:
1391:
1360:
1334:
1315:
1285:
1266:
1247:
1227:
1196:
1174:
1152:
1134:
1110:
1083:
1065:
1047:
1018:
992:
965:
942:
916:
882:
881:
879:
876:
875:
874:
868:
863:
858:
853:
848:
842:
837:
830:
827:
825:universities.
783:United Kingdom
773:
770:
752:
749:
741:Fettes College
707:
704:
684:Upper Tribunal
667:
664:
592:public schools
587:David Kynaston
582:
579:
574:
571:
534:
531:
503:discrimination
498:
495:
462:Dollar Academy
396:Fettes College
388:
385:
377:private sector
369:
368:
340:
337:
314:'direct grant'
310:Culford School
302:
299:
291:British Empire
275:public schools
234:Rossall School
226:
223:
179:Warwick School
145:Warwick School
137:
134:
102:Circular 10/65
79:public schools
71:private school
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3323:
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247:
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242:Thomas Arnold
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2882:Music school
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2744:Free school
2688:Ranch school
2536:Upper school
2505:Maths school
2409:First school
2391:Kindergarten
2312:. Retrieved
2305:the original
2277:. Retrieved
2273:the original
2268:
2242:. Retrieved
2233:
2224:
2212:. Retrieved
2207:
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2177:
2158:
2138:
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2098:
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2010:
2006:
1996:
1984:. Retrieved
1975:
1966:
1954:. Retrieved
1945:
1935:
1923:. Retrieved
1914:
1904:
1894:15 September
1892:. Retrieved
1887:
1882:
1876:
1866:15 September
1864:. Retrieved
1858:
1846:
1836:15 September
1834:. Retrieved
1830:the original
1821:
1812:
1802:15 September
1800:. Retrieved
1797:The Guardian
1796:
1771:. Retrieved
1757:
1745:. Retrieved
1731:
1719:. Retrieved
1705:
1686:
1657:the original
1652:
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1626:
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1575:. Retrieved
1555:
1545:15 September
1543:. Retrieved
1540:the Guardian
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1478:. Retrieved
1473:
1467:"ISC Census"
1461:
1442:
1430:. Retrieved
1426:
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1409:the original
1404:
1394:
1382:. Retrieved
1373:
1363:
1351:. Retrieved
1337:
1323:Independence
1318:
1306:. Retrieved
1302:the original
1288:
1269:
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1230:
1218:. Retrieved
1209:
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1122:
1113:
1101:. Retrieved
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1086:
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1038:. Retrieved
1034:
1009:. Retrieved
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983:. Retrieved
978:
968:
955:
945:
933:. Retrieved
929:
919:
907:. Retrieved
898:
819:
813:In 2013 the
812:
807:Sutton Trust
802:Sutton Trust
799:
791:
787:
775:
754:
737:Eton College
732:
722:
717:The Guardian
715:
709:
693:
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669:
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627:
619:
613:
584:
576:
559:
555:state sector
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511:means-tested
507:
500:
482:prep schools
474:
415:
370:
346:
342:
326:
319:
295:Commonwealth
284:
239:
207:
203:
156:
129:
125:
96:Some former
95:
87:state school
68:
51:
47:
46:
29:
3017:By location
2907:Progressive
2809:Sink school
2778:University
2767:preparatory
2495:Hauptschule
2244:11 February
1888:BBC Radio 4
1773:13 November
1747:13 November
1721:13 November
1001:"About ISC"
745:Gordonstoun
729:BBC Radio 4
712:Alex Renton
710:Journalist
651:private law
353:day schools
297:countries.
248:, and then
193:(1382) and
118:day schools
3295:Categories
3205:in Ireland
3114:Historical
3029:Day school
2641:Collegiate
2636:University
2279:14 January
2192:HEFCE 2013
1597:Rycotewood
1521:1108696740
1376:. London.
1212:. London.
979:ifs.org.uk
958:. London.
689:de minimis
581:Criticisms
533:Conditions
526:sixth form
406:See also:
400:Tony Blair
361:charitable
333:South East
258:Shrewsbury
252:and later
191:Winchester
183:King's Ely
181:(c. 914),
151:See also:
3210:in Greece
3174:in Canada
2953:Religious
2752:Institute
2746:(England)
2728:(British)
2710:(England)
2490:Gymnasium
2442:Secondary
2381:Preschool
2070:CiteSeerX
1405:The Times
1308:25 August
762:dyspraxia
643:expulsion
497:Selection
363:status.
279:Victorian
210:endowment
3270:Category
3058:By scope
2985:Gurukula
2708:Academy
2666:Combined
2631:Seminary
2546:Tertiary
2238:Archived
2186:Archived
2166:Archived
2147:Archived
2127:Archived
2107:Archived
2047:15976024
1986:28 April
1980:Archived
1956:28 April
1950:Archived
1946:BBC News
1925:28 April
1919:Archived
1822:Exposure
1767:Archived
1741:Archived
1715:Archived
1694:Archived
1602:Archived
1595:and now
1568:Archived
1499:(2019).
1450:Archived
1378:Archived
1347:Archived
1326:Archived
1277:Archived
1258:Archived
1239:Archived
1214:Archived
1188:Archived
1169:Archived
1129:Archived
960:Archived
909:28 April
903:Archived
829:See also
758:dyslexia
731:series,
724:Exposure
696:Scotland
632:Thatcher
616:Oxbridge
468:and the
418:Scotland
387:Scotland
287:prefects
195:Oswestry
43:schools.
3280:Commons
3000:Yeshiva
2995:Madrasa
2782:private
2591:College
2586:Academy
2401:Primary
2038:1172254
2015:Bibcode
1826:ITV Hub
1384:5 April
1353:5 April
1103:2 March
1040:2 March
1011:1 March
985:1 March
935:1 March
636:Toryism
551:A-level
219:Horsham
136:Origins
75:endowed
3135:Lyceum
2787:public
2772:public
2578:Higher
2500:Lyceum
2354:School
2314:25 May
2214:2 July
2072:
2045:
2035:
1632:22 May
1627:GOV.UK
1577:3 July
1519:
1509:
1480:3 June
1432:22 May
1427:GOV.UK
1220:19 May
899:GOV.UK
464:, the
381:Ofsted
316:school
236:(1844)
2356:types
2308:(PDF)
2301:(PDF)
2110:(PDF)
2095:(PDF)
1678:(PDF)
1571:(PDF)
1564:(PDF)
1476:. ISC
1470:(PDF)
1147:(PDF)
878:Notes
706:Abuse
246:Rugby
3235:K–12
2316:2010
2281:2010
2246:2016
2216:2020
2210:. UK
2043:PMID
1988:2018
1958:2018
1927:2018
1896:2024
1868:2024
1838:2024
1804:2024
1775:2013
1749:2013
1723:2013
1634:2019
1579:2011
1547:2024
1517:OCLC
1507:ISBN
1482:2024
1434:2019
1386:2011
1355:2011
1310:2014
1222:2010
1105:2023
1042:2023
1013:2023
987:2023
937:2023
911:2018
766:ADHD
764:and
620:only
547:GCSE
488:and
410:and
371:The
2362:By
2103:657
2080:doi
2033:PMC
2023:doi
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268:of
256:at
244:at
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2041:.
2031:.
2021:.
2009:.
2005:.
1974:.
1948:.
1944:.
1917:.
1913:.
1886:.
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1824:.
1820:.
1795:.
1783:^
1665:^
1651:.
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1177:^
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1058:.
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1021:^
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1990:.
1960:.
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20:)
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