1781:(VSO word order), meaning that the verb would come first in most sentences. Carsten Peust likewise supports VSO word order, as this is found in the two oldest attested branches, Egyptian and Semitic. However, Ronny Meyer and H. Ekkehard Wolff argue that this proposal does not concord with Diakonoff's suggestion that PAA was an ergative-absolutive language, in which subject and object are not valid categories. Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay further note that, if Proto-Afroasiatic had VSO word order, then an explanation must be found for why two of its branches, Omotic and Cushitic, show
2825:). Greenberg argued that this form represented the original stem of imperfective ("present") in Afroasiatic. Maarten Kossmann and Benjamin D. Suchard have reconstructed this verb form as having the role of the imperfective in their hypothetical Proto-Berbero-Semitic while remaining agnostic on its PAA origins. Ancient Egyptian also attests a geminated stem apparently used to mark incomplete action, though it was apparently formally different from that found in other branches. Other scholars such as N. J. C. Kouwenberg and Frithiof Rundgren have argued that the
1924:, a feature which has often been assumed to go back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Robert Ratcliffe has instead argued that this reduplicating pattern originated after PAA, as a way to allow biradical nouns to insert "internal-a," a process which then became generalized to other roots in some languages; as an alternative hypothesis, they may have developed from forms with plural suffixes. Afroasiatic languages also use several pluralizing affixes – few of these, however, are present in more than a few branches, making them difficult to reconstruct.
1704:
coming from biradicals, and there are cases in which triradical roots with similar meanings appear to differ in one consonant due to root-internal changes or derivation via rhyme. Andréas
Stauder argues that the evidence from Ancient Egyptian shows that both tri- and biradical verbs were probably present in Proto-Afroasiatic. Igor Diakonoff, in contrast, argued that the PAA root was originally biradical but saw the biradical roots outside of Semitic as largely the result of losing a third consonant.
2588:('"who?") and inanimate ("what?") referents. The Old Egyptian and Berber descendants both appear to be used regardless of whether the referent is a person or thing. It is therefore not clear if this pronoun differentiated animacy in Proto-Afroasiatic. Lack of differentiation between "who?" and "what?" is also sporadically attested in Semitic and Cushitic, but appears to be absent in Chadic; most modern AA languages use different lexical roots to make the distinction.
341:(after 200 CE). Yet it is also possible for forms closer to PAA to be preserved in languages recorded later, while languages recorded earlier may have forms that diverge more from PAA. In order to provide a more accurate reconstruction of Afroasiatic, it will be necessary to first reconstruct the proto-forms of the individual branches, a task which has proven difficult. As of 2023, there is only the beginning of a consensus on the reconstruction of
2992:, and habitual aspect. The use of full or partial reduplication may derive from contact with other African languages rather than from Proto-Afroasiatic. Carsten Peust, on the other hand, argues that the presence of such verbs in Egyptian, the oldest attested language, and in Chadic and Semitic makes them a good candidate for reconstruction in Proto-Afroasiatic. It is likewise reconstructed for PAA by Christopher Ehret and Vladimir Orel.
2743:"prefix conjugation" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, the prefix conjugation may be a shared innovation in Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic. In those languages where it appears, the "prefix conjugation" is used with two stems, with Igor Diakonoff identifying one as perfective/punctual as well as jussive, and the other with the imperfective. These stems may also be known as "short form" (=perfective) and "long form" (=imperfective).
333:
history of scholarship of the
Semitic languages compared to other branches is another obstacle in reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic; typical features of Semitic have often been projected back to the proto-language, despite their cross-linguistic rarity and lack of correspondences in other branches. Like cognates, shared morphological features tend to disappear over time, as can be demonstrated within Afroasiatic by comparing
2315:, which appears in the Semitic and Old Egyptian first person independent pronouns, the Old Egyptian, Cushitic, and Semitic second person singular and plural pronouns, and the Old Egyptian and Berber third person singular and plural independent pronouns. While Ehret reconstructs this as the original form of the first person singular pronoun, other scholars argue that this element either represents a form of the
2672:, rather than purely verbal. TAMs may have been indicated by both changes in the verb stem and the use of suffixes and prefixes. Some scholars argue that prefixes were used for "eventive" (describing things happening) aspects, as opposed to the "suffix conjugation," which described states. Abdelaziz Allati, however, argues that this is a later development, which he associates primarily with Semitic.
1656:
however, grammarians had noticed that some triradical roots in Arabic differed in only one consonant and had related meanings. According to supporters of original triradicalism such as Gideon
Goldenberg, these variations are common in language and inconclusive for the matter. He compares phonetic similarity between words with similar meanings in English such as
1953:(oblique). These endings are very similar to each other, and due to the dual's attestation in the two earliest attested branches of Afroasiatic it is also usually reconstructed for the proto-language. The loss of the dual in the other branches over time is a well attested feature in languages, including within the Egyptian and Semitic branches themselves.
2664:) Proto-Afroasiatic might have had: it may have had two basic forms (indicative vs. subjunctive, state vs. action, transitive vs. intransitive, or perfective vs. imperfective) or three (unmarked vs. perfective vs. imperfective). There is also debate about whether some of the forms may have been nominal (using verbal nouns), or possibly
2295:/possessive pronoun. According to Igor Diakonoff, the suffix/possessive pronoun was originally used as the object of verbs and to show a possessive relationship, the "independent" pronoun served to show emphasis, and the "object" pronoun was used to mark the subject of intransitive verbs and the direct object of transitive verbs.
3625:. However, Lipiński rejects the equivalency of the Egyptian and Semitic roots but accepts the link between Semitic and Berber, while Takács accepts that the Egyptian and Semitic roots are probably related (with a case of dissimilation of /t/ to /p/ in Egyptian), but views the connection to Berber as doubtful.
3150:
language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. The
Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6–9. Igor Diakonoff has suggested that many of the
3079:
morpheme often overlap, though presumably they were distinct in PAA. The presence of all three of these morphemes across a broad range of
Afroasiatic families indicates that they originate in the proto-language rather than via chance resemblance or borrowing. However, the relationship of the Egyptian
1752:
of the noun and also marks the object. Evidence for marked nominative alignment comes primarily from the use of cases in
Cushitic and the so-called "states" of the noun in Berber languages; additionally, Helmut Satzinger has argued that the forms of the pronouns in the other branches show evidence of
3162:
In some instances, the same numeral has more than one root within a single branch. Within the
Semitic language family alone, Edward Lipiński counts four different roots meaning "one". Aren Wilson-Wright suggests that the root for 'one' has been replaced at least three times throughout the history of
1655:
are triradical, whereas most Chadic, Omotic, and
Cushitic roots are biradical. The "traditional theory" argues for original triradicalism in the family, as is the case in Semitic. In this theory, almost all biradical roots are the result of the loss of a third consonant. As early as the Middle Ages,
411:
Several
Afroasiatic languages have large consonant inventories, and it is likely that this is inherited from proto-Afroasiatic. Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova (1995) reconstruct 32 consonant phonemes, while Christopher Ehret reconstructs 42. Of these, twelve in both reconstructions rely on the same
2914:
A second type of conjugation is represented by the "suffix conjugation", used to conjugate an originally stative form of the verb, which has close matches in
Egyptian and Semitic, and parallels in Berber and Cushitic. It is commonly reconstructed as part of the verbal system of PAA. Like the prefix
2298:
All Afroasiatic branches differentiate between masculine and feminine third person singular pronouns, and all except for Cushitic and Omotic also differentiate between second person singular masculine and feminine pronouns. Semitic and Berber also differentiate between masculine and feminine second
1764:
marks the subject of transitive verbs and the absolutive case marks both the object of transitive verbs and the subject of intransitive verbs. Satzinger suggests that Proto-Afroasiatic may have developed from ergative-absolutive to a marked nominative language. However, Abdelaziz Allati notes that,
2950:
Egyptologists Frank Kammerzell and Wolfgang Schenkel have argued, on the basis of the spelling of the stative form in Old Egyptian, that the Egyptian stative actually shows two conjugations, one perfective and one stative in meaning. Rainer Voigt has taken this as an Afroasiatic feature which also
1916:
has argued that while plurals via vowel alteration are frequent in Chadic, they cannot be reconstructed back to Proto-Chadic or Proto-Afroasiatic. Andréas Stauder likewise argues that Coptic and Egyptian plurals via vowel change may have developed independently. Lameen Souag argues that while some
1703:
Many scholars do not argue for the original nature of either biradical or triradical roots, instead arguing that there are original triradical roots, original biradical roots, and triradical roots resulting from the addition of a consonant. Not all triradical roots can be convincingly explained as
1587:
and some branches subsequently developed tone. Such scholars postulate that tones developed to compensate for lost or reduced syllables, and note that certain tones are often associated with certain syllable-final consonants. Zygmunt Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that in AA tonal languages, tone
2926:
Some scholars have questioned the common origin of the stative: Elsa Oréal argues the Egyptian and Semitic forms followed a common grammaticalization process rather than originating in PAA. Maarten Kossmann and Benjamin D. Suchard similarly argue that the vowel patterns of the Semitic and Berber
2306:
Helmut Satzinger has argued that Proto-Afroasiatic only distinguished between the "object" and "possessive" pronouns, deriving the independent pronouns via various processes in the branches. He argues that the independent pronouns derive from various strategies combining pronominal elements with
332:
The current state of reconstruction is also hindered by the fact that the Egyptian and Semitic branches of Afroasiatic are attested as early as 3000 BCE, while the languages of the Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Omotic branches are only attested much later, sometimes in the 20th century. The long
1727:
If root-and-pattern morphology originated in Proto-Afroasiatic, then an explanation must be found for why it has mostly disappeared in the Omotic and Chadic branches; if it was not present in PAA, then an explanation must be found for why it developed independently in the Semitic, Egyptian, and
1626:
argues that Proto-Afroasiatic required a consonant at both the beginning of a syllable and the end of a word, and that only one consonant was possible at the beginning or end of a syllable. Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that these rules appear to be based on Semitic structures, whereas
267:
they expressed. There is also widespread agreement that there were possibly two sets of conjugational affixes (prefixes and suffixes) used for different purposes. Additionally, the importance of verbal gemination and reduplication and the existence of three derivational affixes, especially of a
2742:
Helmut Satzinger has argued that the earliest form of conjugation in Afroasiatic was the so-called "prefix conjugation," a form found in Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic that uses prefixes to conjugate verbs for person, gender, and number. Other scholars ague that, as there is no evidence for the
1864:
from Semitic and Berber evidence: he argues that this ending comes down from the last common ancestor of Berber and Semitic, which may be Proto-Afroasiatic. Despite arguing that Proto-Afroasiatic had no grammatical gender, Ehret argues that there is evidence for natural gender in all branches,
1687:
that subsequently became fossilized as third consonants. This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions. An
320:
from a small number of examples. The most convincing cognates in Afroasiatic often have the same or very similar consonants but very different vowels, a fact which has not yet been explained. Additionally, it is not always clear which words are cognates, as some proposed cognates may be chance
2294:
The forms of the personal pronouns are very stable throughout Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic), but there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like. Most modern branches have an independent / absolute pronoun, an object pronoun, and a suffix
2253:'craft'. Carsten Peust argues that this suffix descends from Proto-Afroasiatic, as it is found in the two oldest attested branches of the family. In the Semitic languages, the "nisba" is used to form adjectives, derive nouns for people associated with a place or profession, and to form
638:
Taking Ehret's labialized velars as equivalent to Orel and Stolbova's non-labialized set, and taking Ehret's extra nasals as equivalent to Orel and Stolbova's <n>, the two reconstructions mostly agree on the following correspondences between the different branches of Afroasiatic:
325:, making them harder to recognize. As words change meaning over time, the question of which words might have originally meant the same thing is often difficult to answer. As a result, Robert Ratcliffe suggests that Proto-Afroasiatic may never be reconstructed in the same way that
1692:, who argued that the third consonants were added to differentiate roots of similar meaning but without the third consonant having a particular meaning itself. Biradical verbs may also have been made triradical on the model of so-called "weak verbs," which have a final radical
1888:, which was already unproductive in the Proto-Afroasiatic stage. In particular, he noted a suffix *-Vb- used to mark harmful animals. Vladimir Orel also attests less well-defined uses for this suffix, while Ehret takes this as a suffix to mark animals and parts of the body.
345:, and no widely accepted reconstruction of any of the other branches' proto-forms. Current attempts at reconstructing Afroasiatic often rely on comparing individual words or features in the daughter languages, which leads to results that are not convincing to many scholars.
2801:. Semitic, however, also attest a perfective form with -a- (yV-CCaC), used with intransitive verbs. Kossmann and Suchard argue for its connection to a similar form in Berber, an aspectual stative form with the same vocalization. Kouwenberg argues for the PAA origin of the
287:, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are firmly attested. However, in all likelihood these languages began to diverge well before this hard boundary. The estimations offered by scholars as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary widely, ranging from 18,000
2548:'this'. Diakonoff argues that in Proto-Afroasiatic these forms were originally demonstrative pronouns that later developed into third person personal pronouns in some branches and into genitive markers in others. Ehret also reconstructs a demonstrative
2066:, only the nominative and an oblique were distinguished. David Wilson, on the other hand, argues that the case endings are often not cognate in the individual branches of Afroasiatic and that this precludes their reconstruction for the proto-language.
6943:
Ehret, Christopher; Vyas, Deven N.; Assefa, Shiferaw; Gaston, J. Lafayette; Gleason, Tiffany; Kitchen, Andrew (2023). "Ancient Egyptian's Place in the Afroasiatic Language Family". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
583:
Both reconstructions also include a number of other consonants. While some of these are the same, they rely on correspondences in the daughter languages which cannot be reconciled. For instance, although both Ehret and Orel and Stolbova reconstruct
1558:(*l, *m, *n, *r) and semivowels or semivowel-like consonants (*w, *y, *ʔ, *ḥ, *ʕ, *h, *ʔʷ, *ḥʷ, *ʕʷ, *hʷ) to form syllables; vowels would have later been inserted into these syllables ("vocalogenesis"), developing first into a two vowel system (
2766:. The prefixes may have originally developed from the pronouns or from auxiliary verbs with pronominal elements, though N. J. C. Kouwenberg argues that the close agreement between the forms in Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic indicates that such
311:
At present, there is no commonly accepted reconstruction of Afroasiatic morphology, grammar, syntax, or phonology. Because of the great amount of time since Afroasiatic split into branches, there are limits to what scholars can reconstruct.
1579:
words. Christopher Ehret instead takes the fact that three branches of AA have tone as his starting point; he has postulated a tonal system of at least two tonal phonemes, falling tone, rising tone, and possibly a third tone, level tone.
3287:'each, everyone'. Aren Wilson-Wright finds the Egyptian match the best despite some semantic and phonological difficulties, but notes the difficulty in reconstructing the Berber and Omotic roots in their respective proto-languages.
2260:
The "nisba" is often assumed to be connected to the genitive case ending in Semitic and possibly Cushitic. Igor Diakonoff argued that the "nisba" was an "expanded" form of the genitive suffix: he reconstructs the "nisba" suffix as
168:. The immense amount of time over which the branches have been separated, coupled with the wide gap between the attestations of the original branches (3rd millennium BC for Egyptian and Semitic, 19th and 20th centuries for many
3237:. This is a traditional proposed etymology. This set is rejected by Takács, but Lipiński does support the connection between Berber and Egyptian. Carsten Peust supports the Egypto-Semitic connection but notes that it relies on
1574:
Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic was a tonal language, with tonality subsequently lost in some branches. Igor Diakonoff argued for the existence of tone based on his reconstruction of many otherwise
2299:
and third person plural, but there is no evidence for this in Ancient Egyptian, Cushitic, or Chadic, perhaps indicating that there was no gender distinction in the plural in Proto-Afroasiatic. Chadic has both an
2201:'who'. Christopher Ehret, meanwhile, proposes that the prefix did not exist in PAA at all, but is a later development from the interrogative pronoun. Gábor Takács and Andrzej Zaborski both reject a connection to
2927:
forms cannot be reconciled for their hypothetical "Proto-Berbero-Semitic," indicating that they are not directly cognate. John Huehnergard, however, argues that the close match between e.g. Proto-Semitic
1588:
usually has a grammatical rather than a lexical function, and argue that there is thus no basis to reconstruct it as a lexical feature in PAA, as Diakonoff does; they find Ehret's reasoning more sound.
2307:
different nominal or pronominal bases. Václav Blažek reconstructs an original set of independent pronouns but argues that the ones found in most current Afroasiatic languages arose by a process of
2844:, which Rundgren argued was the original Semitic imperfective form. Kouwenberg argues that this form has parallels in Semitic, Chadic, and Berber, and thus likely represents the PAA imperfective.
1463:
Attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. While there is no consensus, many scholars prefer to reconstruct a simple three vowel system with long and short
1554:
could not occur together in the same root. Taking a different approach, Ronny Meyer and H. Ekkehard Wolff propose that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had no vowels as such, instead employing various
369:
There is currently no consensus on the consonant phonemes of Afroasiatic or on their correspondences in the individual daughter languages. Most reconstructions agree that PAA had three series of
6880:
Bubenik, Vit (2023). "Reconstructing the Proto-Semitic Nominal and Verbal Systems in the Context of Afroasiatic Languages". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
1286:
extremely unlikely, though still possible, while many of the etymologies proposed in support of the theory have been attacked by Gábor Takács. The most important sound correspondences in the
255:) forms. There is also agreement that a widespread demonstrative pattern of n = masculine and plural, t= feminine goes back to PAA, as well as about the existence of an interrogative pronoun
2837:
stem is an original form of the imperfective, but argues that it was only used with certain classes of verbs. According to Voigt, the important feature of the imperfective was a-apophony.
7803:
Souag, Lameen (2023). "Restructured or Archaic? The Hunt for Shared Morphological Innovation Involving Egyptian". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
2273:. Lipiński suggests that the "nisba" originated as a postposition, which was also used to create the genitive case. Christopher Ehret argues that the original form of the suffix was
612:. Additionally, Ehret has reconstructed 11 consonants not found in Orel and Stolbova, while Orel and Stolbova have reconstructed 2 not found in Ehret. The additional consonants are:
2028:
on the basis of his reconstruction of the Proto-Cushitic case system in 1984, Proto-Afroasiatic is usually reconstructed with a case system similar to Proto-Semitic. This gives a
1679:
Other scholars argue that the PAA root may have originally been mostly biradical, to which a third radical was then added. Christopher Ehret argues that the third consonants were
1651:
The degree to which the Proto-AA verbal root was originally triradical (having three consonants) or biradical (having two consonants) is debated. Among the modern branches, most
6841:
Numerals: comparative-etymological analyses of numeral systems and their implications:(Saharan, Nubian, Egyptian, Berber, Kartvelian, Uralic, Altaic and Indo-European languages)
1832:, as this feature has also independently developed in some Chadic and Cushitic languages. Diakonoff argued that the original gender system of Afroasiatic had masculine endings
251:
is also widely reconstructed. While there is disagreement about the forms of the PAA personal pronouns, there is agreement that there were independent and "bound" (unstressed,
3175:
argue that such differences could arise from different words for ordinal and cardinal numbers or from the use of different words for counting and adjectival forms of numbers.
1479:(or "ablaut") in the "root-and-pattern" system found in various Afroasiatic languages. In addition to apophony, some modern AA languages display vowel changes referred to as
7371:
Levin, Saul (2003). "The Problem of Vowels in Proto-Afrasian, as Reconstructed by Diakonoff and Others". In Bender, M. Lionel; Takács, Gábor; Appleyard, David. L. (eds.).
7234:
Idiatov, Dmitry (2015). "Egyptian non-selective interrogative pronominals: history and typology". In Grossman, Eitan; Haspelmath, Martin; Richter, Tonio Sebastian (eds.).
1252:
Additionally, there is another proposal for the sound correspondences between – and phonetic values of – Egyptian and Semitic consonants. This second theory is known as
2054:. Besides Proto-Semitic, evidence for these endings is derived from the Cushitic languages and has been argued to exist in Berber as well. The Egyptian nominal ending
7655:
Ratcliffe, Robert R. (2012). "On calculating the reliability of the comparative method at long and medium distances: Afroasiatic comparative lexica as a test case".
2947:, which he argues matches the Semitic form well. The relationship of the Berber and Semitic form remains unclear, with most scholars holding them not to be cognate.
3312:'to be united, together'. Carsten Peust notes that this root is somewhat dubious because several unrelated languages around the world have similar words for 'one'.
1720:
according to "templates" to create words. A "template" consists of one or more vowels and sometimes a consonant; consonants included in the pattern often involve
3506:, with the Berber form having changed its initial sound to /s/ to alliterate with the word for 'six' Alternatively, the Berber form may be borrowed from Semitic.
3119:
consistently appear as suffixes rather than prefixes, while in Cushitic, the placement of the affixes varies in the prefix and suffix conjugations. In Egyptian,
7693:
Sanker, Chelsea (2023). "Data Limitations and Supplementary Methods in Placing Egyptian". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
3386:. Takács and Václav Blažek both suggest that this form may be a variant of the first root for 'two'. Takács notes that only one branch, Semitic has both forms.
3178:
An additional difficulty in comparing numeral sets is that they often have irregular sound correspondences, as can be seen in Indo-European by comparing Latin
2915:
conjugation, the endings show some similarities to the pronominal system, although they are not as clear: they appear related to the endings added to the base
141:
are descended. Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago (12 to 18
8000:
Winand, Jean (2023). "Afroasiatic Lexical Comparison: An Egyptologist's Point of View". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
3726:
Because Ehret argues that grammatical gender did not exist in Proto-Afroasiatic, he has only reconstructed one third person pronoun for both male and female.
1818:
separating all other Afroasiatic languages from Omotic, which alone preserves the original, genderless grammar of the proto-language. Other scholars such as
299:
has argued that less time may have been required for the divergence than is usually assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to
272:-*s-, are commonly reconstructed. A numeral system cannot be reconstructed, although numerous PAA numerals and cognate sets from 1 to 9 have been proposed.
1522:, arguing that his reconstruction is supported by the Chadic and Cushitic vowels. Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova instead proposed a six vowel system with
295:
BCE. An estimate at the youngest end of this range still makes Afroasiatic the oldest proven language family. Contrasting proposals of an early emergence,
2610:, which he claims left traces in Semitic, Cushitic, and Omotic. Lipiński, on the other hand, holds this term to be Semitic and deriving from a particle
3640:
316:
tend to disappear from related languages over time. There are currently not many widely accepted Afroasiatic cognates, and it is difficult to derive
263:. There is some agreement that the PAA verb had two or possibly three basic forms, though there is disagreement about what those forms were and what
7524:
Oréal, Else (2023). "Some Common Features of Akkadian and Egyptian Revisited". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
1634:
David Wilson agrees with Diakonoff that the root syllable could only begin with a single consonant, but adds a requirement that syllables have two
2189:
The precise meaning and origin of this prefix in PAA are debated. There is a long tradition of comparing the prefix to the interrogative pronoun
7292:(University of California Publications, Linguistics 126.). xvii + 557 pp. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press 1995. US$ 62".
7026:
Gensler, Orin D. (2015). "A typological look at Egyptian *d > ʕ". In Grossman, Eitan; Haspelmath, Martin; Richter, Tonio Sebastian (eds.).
280:
There is no consensus as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. The absolute latest date for when Proto-Afroasiatic could have been extant is
208:, that is, whether they originally had two or three consonants. It also plays into the question of the degree to which Proto-Afroasiatic had
7565:
389:
were all voiceless. There is also general agreement that obstruents were organized in triads of voiceless, voiced, and "emphatic" (possibly
2785:, based on Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic data. There are a number of different "short" stems attested in Afroasiatic: in Semitic there are
1825:
A feminine morpheme -Vt is found widely in Afroasiatic languages. Lameen Souag argues that this feminine ending -t is probably a case of a
2923:
adjectives in PAA, though little else can be said about the development of the form. It may have originally been a nominalized verb form.
416:
Consonant phonemes reconstructed from compatible sets of sound correspondences in Ehret (1995) and Orel and Stolbova (1995), according to
1765:
if PAA was originally ergative-aligned, it is unclear why both the attested ancient languages and modern AA languages predominantly have
3004:
affixes ("verbal extensions") can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic, which show the following range of meanings in the branches:
2193:'who'. Carsten Peust has suggested a common PAA origin for the prefix in forming nouns of place and instrument, but proposes that the
7543:
Peust, Carsten (2012). "On the Subgrouping of Afro-Asiatic, or: How to use an unrooted phylogenetic tree in historical linguistics".
1627:
Chadic includes syllables beginning with vowels as well as initial and final consonant clusters. Christopher Ehret argues that all
624:
6861:
Blažek, Václav (2019). "The Afroasiatic Personal Pronouns: A Textbook Example of a Suppletive Paradigm". In Kim, Ronald I. (ed.).
3594:
is also cognate is hotly debated due to the irregular correspondence of /t/ to /ṯ/ and /ḫ/, and the lack of a third radical (-n).
223:
There are nonetheless some items of agreement and reconstructed vocabulary. Most scholars agree that Proto-Afroasiatic nouns had
3669:
On the basis of the same consonant correspondences, ɬ is reconstructed by Ehret, while tɬ is reconstructed by Orel and Stolbova.
3660:
Items in brackets are only found in Ehret but are argued to be compatible with Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions by Ratcliffe.
1917:
form of vowel-changing plural likely goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic, many of the templates found in the branches likely do not.
1896:
Afroasiatic languages today clearly distinguish singular and plural. One of the first features of Proto-Afroasiatic proposed by
1782:
2940:'you are/were heard' makes a common origin more likely. Andréas Stauder proposes a vocalization of the Proto-Egyptian form as
200:
are a conservative, faithful representation of PAA morphology. This is particularly important for the question of whether the
7954:
7900:
7873:
7779:
7575:
7401:
7251:
7188:
7118:
Güldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Güldemann, Tom (ed.).
7070:
7043:
6972:
6870:
6829:
2158:
is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns. For PAA, its shape has variously been reconstructed as
643:
Consonant correspondences in Afroasiatic compatible between the reconstructions of Ehret (1995) and Orel and Stolbova (1995)
153:, the putative homeland of Proto-Afroasiatic speakers, the majority of scholars agree that it was located within a region of
7965:
7305:
Kossmann, Maarten; Suchard, Benjamin D. (2018). "A Reconstruction of the System of Verb Aspects in Proto-Berbero-Semitic".
3510:
The following cognate sets from 6–8 are also commonly accepted, although each contains inconsistent sound correspondences:
6963:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt (2012). "Typological outline of the Afroasiatic phylum". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
1631:
in PAA took the shape CV (with a possible alternate form VC) and CVC, with suffixes often giving the syllabic shape CVCC.
1806:
argues that there was no gender distinction in the plural, as this feature is found only in Semitic and Berber (see also
7411:
Meyer, Ronny; Wolff, H. Ekkehard (2019). "Afroasiatic Linguistic Features and Typologies". In Wolff, H. Ekkehard (ed.).
3171:
languages. The Semitic, Chadic, and Berber branches likewise show evidence for different branch-internal roots for two;
1486:
Igor Diakonoff, Viktor Porkhomovksy and Olga Stolbova proposed in 1987 that Proto-Afroasiatic had a two vowel system of
2105:
and is sometimes used to reconstruct a Proto-Afroasiatic locative case. Diakonoff also believed he could reconstruct a
1259:
3111:. In Semitic and Berber, all three morphemes appear as prefixes (with -t- originally an infix in Semitic). In Omotic,
2640:
Most morphological reconstruction for PAA has focused on the verb, with categories found in Semitic languages such as
2197:
prefix used in agent nouns and participles is actually a post-PAA development, derived from the interrogative pronoun
1814:
argues against the consensus that grammatical gender existed in Proto-Afroasiatic, arguing that its development is an
8009:
7854:
7835:
7812:
7752:
7729:
7702:
7533:
7514:
7495:
7476:
7428:
7380:
7361:
7224:
7135:
7008:
6953:
6933:
6889:
2805:
perfective given the parallels between Semitic, Cushitic, and Berber; he suggests that it may have originally been a
17:
2174:. In the daughter languages, it is attested with a wide variety of meanings and functions, such as forming deverbal
1262:. In particular, Rössler argued that, since the hieroglyph conventionally transcribed as <ʿ> and described as
7947:
5000 Jahre semitohamitische Sprachen in Asien und Afrika / 5000 Years of Semitohamitic Languages in Asia and Africa
3134:
Additional verbal extensions, with a wide range of meanings, have been reconstructed by Ehret and Vladimir Orel.
2762:
for third person masculine and third person plural; the form of the first person singular is unclear, but may be
2516:, Afroasiatic languages in all branches but Omotic attest a series of third person agreement markers in the form
1766:
8089:
8048:
Zaborski, Andrzej (1987). "Basic Numerals in Cushitic". In Jungraithmayr, Herrmann; Mueller, Walter W. (eds.).
2182:
is the only prefix in the AA phylum that clearly goes back to the proto-language rather than possibly being an
1778:
184:
has not yet been possible. In addition to more traditional proposed consonant correspondences, there is also a
7505:
Nichols, Johanna (2003). "Diversity and Stability in Language". In Joseph, Brian D; Janda, Richard D. (eds.).
2817:
Semitic, Berber, and possibly Cushitic all include an imperfective verb stem that includes an apophonic vowel
3635:
1757:
196:, or its syllable structure. At the same time, scholars disagree to whether and to what extent the classical
7712:
Satzinger, Helmut (2004). "Statuses and Cases of the Afroasiatic Personal Pronoun". In Takács, Gábor (ed.).
2955:
perfective. This theory has been rejected or questioned by Andréas Stauder, Kouwenberg, and Chris Reintges.
1278:
in Proto-Afroasiatic, which later became *ʕ in Egyptian. Rössler's ideas have come to dominate the field of
1638:
weight and argues for the possibility of an extra-syllabic consonant at the end of a root (CVC-C or CV:C).
412:
sound correspondences, while an additional eighteen rely on more or less the same sound correspondences.
1737:
1713:
7053:
Goldenberg, Gideon (2005). "Semitic Triradicalism and the Biradical Question". In Khan, Geoffrey (ed.).
6991:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (2020). "Contact and Afroasiatic Languages". In Hickey, Raymond (ed.).
8094:
7676:
Rubin, Aaron D. (2004). "AN OUTLINE OF COMPARATIVE EGYPTO-SEMITIC MORPHOLOGY". In Takács, Gábor (ed.).
7564:
Porkhomovsky, Victor (2020). "Afro-Asiatic Overview". In Vossen, Rainer; Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (eds.).
6982:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (2012). "Introduction". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
3151:
Afroasiatic languages' numerals derive transparently from counting on fingers (e.g., Cushitic/Omotic
2661:
1932:
1928:
1920:
Several Afroasiatic languages of the Semitic, Chadic, and Cushitic branches attest pluralization via
232:
161:
2833:
verb form that has come to replace an original PAA imperfective form. Rainer Voigt accepts that the
8084:
7945:
Voigt, Rainer (2019). "The Pre- and Suffix Conjugations of Semitohamitic". In Voigt, Rainer (ed.).
3088:
affixes to those found in other branches has been criticized as weak or rejected by some scholars.
3001:
2746:
Assuming a PAA origin, the prefixes can be reconstructed as agreeing with the forms of the "bound"
2058:, found on some masculine nouns, may also be evidence of this system. Some evidence for nominative
1716:) system of morphology, in which the root consists of consonants alone and vowels are inserted via
1680:
1282:
without, however, achieving general acceptance. Orin Gensler argues that Rössler's sound change is
2281:. This latter form is attested among the Semitic languages and may have been dialectal in origin.
1475:. Some of the difficulty in reconstruction is likely related to the use of vowel changes known as
321:
resemblances. Moreover, at least some cognates are likely to have been altered irregularly due to
3252:
8019:
Wolff, H. Ekkehard (2022). "Proto-Chadic reconstruction and Afroasiatic vowel system typology".
1908:
was inserted between the two final consonants of the root, possibly replacing another vowel via
1777:
Proto-Afroasiatic word order has not yet been established. Igor Diakonoff proposed that PAA had
6908:
Diakonoff, Igor M. (1992). "Proto-Afrasian and Old Akkadian: A study in historical phonetics".
3443:; however the reconstructed Chadic form is uncertain and the sound correspondences problematic.
3147:
3038:
2920:
2797:
forms. In those branches with an apophonic imperfective, the perfective stem often has a vowel
2342:
1913:
623:
An earlier, larger reconstruction from 1992 by Orel, Stolbova and other collaborators from the
99:
7771:
6819:
1360:
Reconstructed PAA vocabulary items demonstrating different reconstructed vowels, according to
7790:
7740:
7391:
7080:
Gragg, Gene (2019). "Semitic and Afro-Asiatic". In Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Na‘ama (eds.).
6815:
2794:
2311:
similar to that argued by Satzinger. An example of one such process is the use of the prefix
2303:
form of "we", which Igor Diakonoff and Václav Blažek reconstruct also for Proto-Afroasiatic.
138:
48:
7290:
Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary.
6926:
Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): vowels, tone, consonants, and vocabulary
2919:
in Egyptian. N. J. C. Kouwenberg argues that the stative likely began as a conjugation for
2595:'what?'. The PAA origin of this form is also accepted by Takács, but he reconstructs it as
2316:
1480:
1271:
394:
354:
150:
59:
7373:
Selected Comparative-Historical Afrasian Linguistic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff
2025:
8:
8066:
3168:
1283:
632:
398:
326:
244:
165:
8036:
7933:
7643:
7635:
7606:
7434:
7332:
7141:
7106:
7014:
3701:
3104:
2767:
1826:
1799:
1749:
1635:
1555:
317:
303:, with the evolution of Chadic (and likely also Omotic) serving as pertinent examples.
228:
224:
201:
181:
2532:(feminine) alone of this set. Additionally, Omotic attests a masculine agreement form
2512:, only some of which are likely to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. As first noticed by
8040:
8005:
7950:
7896:
7869:
7850:
7831:
7808:
7775:
7748:
7725:
7698:
7647:
7610:
7571:
7529:
7510:
7491:
7472:
7438:
7424:
7397:
7376:
7357:
7336:
7247:
7220:
7184:
7145:
7131:
7066:
7039:
7018:
7004:
6968:
6949:
6929:
6921:
6885:
6866:
6825:
1811:
334:
322:
264:
240:
217:
197:
173:
7937:
7556:
7171:
Hodge, Carleton T. (1971). "Afroasiatic: An Overview". In Hodge, Carleton T. (ed.).
8062:
8057:
Zaborski, Andrzej (2011). "Biradicalism". In Edzard, Lutz; de Jong, Rudolf (eds.).
8028:
7988:
7923:
7888:
7767:
7717:
7681:
7664:
7627:
7618:
Ratcliffe, Robert R. (1996). "Drift and Noun Plural Reduplication in Afroasiatic".
7598:
7552:
7455:
7416:
7349:
7322:
7314:
7279:
7274:
7262:
7239:
7176:
7123:
7122:. The World of Linguistics, Volume 11. Berlin: De Mouton Gruyter. pp. 58–444.
7098:
7058:
7031:
6996:
3256:
2778:
2649:
2528:(plural), which probably derive from Proto-Afroasiatic determiners; Omotic attests
2513:
2126:
2080:
1897:
1495:
1296:
Proposed radically different Egyptian-Semitic consonant correspondences by Rössler
1267:
300:
213:
154:
142:
104:
7741:"Did Proto-Afroasiatic have Marked Nominative or Nominative-Accusative Alignment?"
1785:(SOV word order). Both sets of scholars argue that this area needs more research.
296:
164:
of Proto-Afroasiatic is problematic and has not progressed to the degree found in
7153:
Hayward, Richard J. (2000). "Afroasiatic". In Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek (eds.).
3272:
3051:', 'middle', and other functions. It is unclear whether the affix was originally
2973:
2830:
2790:
2645:
2106:
2041:
2037:
2029:
1822:
argue that Omotic has lost grammatical gender despite originally having had it.
1745:
1741:
338:
177:
169:
2205:
entirely; Takács instead suggests that a connection to the Egyptian preposition
7883:
Takács, Gábor (2011). "Semitic-Egyptian Relations". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.).
7762:
Shay, Erin (2014). "Afroasiatic". In Lieber, Rochelle; Štekauer, Pavol (eds.).
7000:
3164:
3100:
3034:
3016:
2178:, place nouns, instrument nouns, as well as participles. Erin Shay argues that
1881:
1623:
1566:), as supported by Berber and Chadic data, and then developing further vowels.
628:
390:
193:
134:
89:
8032:
7928:
7911:
7721:
7685:
7631:
7602:
7420:
7318:
7243:
7180:
7127:
7062:
7035:
3099:
affixes have been explained as originating in pronominal/deictic expresses or
2758:
for second person plural and singular and feminine third person singular, and
2211:
needs further consideration, while Zaborski argues for a connection to a verb
8078:
7459:
3588:, but with an unexplained sound correspondence of /ḫ/ to /ṯ/. Whether Berber
3143:
3048:
3026:
2977:
2641:
2183:
2122:
2070:
2048:
1921:
1901:
1819:
1803:
1761:
1689:
1499:
402:
342:
146:
7892:
7678:
Egyptian and Semito-Hamitic (Afro-Asiatic) Studies in Memoriam Werner Vycich
7162:
Hetzron, Robert (2009). "Afroasiatic Languages". In Comrie, Bernard (ed.).
3030:
2952:
1652:
1584:
94:
84:
79:
7847:
Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian. Volume 1: A Phonological Introduction
7668:
7353:
7089:
Greenberg, Joseph A. (1952). "The Afro-Asiatic (Hemito-Semitic) Present".
2257:. In Egyptian, it forms adjectives and nouns from nouns and prepositions.
2062:
may also exist from the Omotic branch. By the evidence of Semitic, in the
7992:
7714:
Egyptian and Semito-Hamitic (Afro-Asiatic) Studies in Memoriam W. Vycichl
2806:
2110:
1502:. Christopher Ehret has proposed a five vowel system with long and short
236:
7446:
Orel, Vladimir (1994). "On Hamito-Semitic Morphology and Morphonology".
7826:. In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
7215:. In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
6814:
Allati, Abdelaziz (2012). "From Proto-Berber to Proto-Afroasiatic". In
3705:
2981:
2665:
2509:
2308:
2254:
2175:
2090:
1885:
1721:
1279:
386:
189:
7639:
7327:
7110:
7823:
3012:
2989:
2985:
2300:
2021:
1802:
is widely agreed to have been present in Proto-Afroasiatic. However,
1628:
1576:
382:
378:
370:
269:
7586:
7212:
2235:) branches, with possible relict traces in Berber. A related suffix
1927:
In addition to a singular and plural, Egyptian and Semitic attest a
1865:
including Omotic, perhaps marked originally by an opposition of PAA
7976:
7199:
7102:
3754:
2536:, while Chadic and Cushitic show a gender- and number-neutral form
1909:
1815:
1717:
1476:
1258:
and was first proposed by Semiticist Otto Rössler on the basis of
6016:
6014:
5927:
5867:
5819:
3843:
2660:
There is little agreement about which tenses, aspects, or moods (
2585:
2584:. Only the Semitic reflexes of this root have separate forms for
2089:. Scholars debate whether these are vestigial cases or adverbial
374:
313:
260:
5387:
4508:
4506:
4504:
4502:
4358:
4356:
4354:
4058:
4056:
4054:
4052:
4050:
3989:
3987:
1860:
on nouns. Marijn van Putten has reconstructed a feminine ending
1494:, with the later realized as or depending on its contact with
8050:
Proceedings of the Fourth International Hamito-Semitic Congress
6388:
6386:
5759:
5632:
5630:
5628:
2786:
2781:
proposed that the perfective ("past") stem of PAA had the form
2669:
619:
Orel and Stolbova: ts, dz, tsʼ, tʃ, dʒ, tʼ, ɬ, tɬʼ, ʁ, χ, q, qʼ
252:
7967:
A Concatenative Analysis of Diachronic Afro-Asiatic Morphology
6346:
6344:
6011:
5903:
4339:
4250:
4248:
4011:
3607:
3576:
3550:
3519:
6529:
6527:
6473:
6067:
6065:
5647:
5645:
4499:
4351:
4047:
3984:
3697:
3195:
3190:
2976:
is widespread in Afroasiatic, often accompanied by consonant
2241:
occurs in Arabic and possibly Egyptian, as suggested by e.g.
635:
includes also *pʼ, *tɬ, *ʃ, *kx⁽ʷ⁾, *gɣ⁽ʷ⁾, *kxʼ⁽ʷ⁾, *x⁽ʷ⁾.
405:
192:; there is no agreement about PAA's vowels, the existence of
6383:
6299:
6200:
5749:
5747:
5625:
5601:
5255:
5132:
4905:
4689:
4687:
4685:
4683:
4617:
4329:
4327:
4325:
4323:
4146:
4122:
1931:, the endings of which can be reconstructed respectively as
1756:
Igor Diakonoff instead argued that Proto-Afroasiatic was an
616:
Ehret: pʼ, ʃ, ts, z, dz, tʃ, dʒ, tʼ, sʼ, tlʼ, dɮ, ɣ⁽ʷ⁾, x⁽ʷ⁾
7204:
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages
6757:
6755:
6701:
6667:
6665:
6461:
6398:
6373:
6371:
6356:
6341:
6331:
6329:
6316:
6314:
6287:
6125:
6026:
5717:
5550:
5526:
5420:
5418:
5416:
5414:
5315:
5303:
5197:
5195:
5055:
5028:
4704:
4702:
4245:
4112:
4110:
4083:
3999:
3809:
3807:
3318:
The following cognates are discussed for the numerals 2–4:
2847:
2770:
must have happened in Proto-Afroasiatic itself or earlier.
2069:
Old Akkadian and Palaeosyrian have two additional cases, a
7587:"The feminine endings *-ay and *-āy in Semitic and Berber"
6689:
6650:
6614:
6524:
6251:
6239:
6062:
5987:
5939:
5891:
5843:
5831:
5642:
5613:
5363:
5091:
5004:
4944:
4803:
4605:
4542:
4530:
4175:
4173:
4035:
3972:
3906:
3896:
3894:
3794:
3792:
3779:
3777:
3775:
3773:
3394:
2223:
The term "nisba" refers to a suffix found in the Semitic (
40:
Proto-Hamito-Semitic, Proto-Semito-Hamitic, Proto-Afrasian
7263:"Comparative Afroasiatic and General Genetic Linguistics"
6742:
6740:
6514:
6512:
6449:
6227:
6217:
6215:
6188:
6142:
6140:
6089:
5975:
5771:
5744:
5454:
5430:
5375:
5351:
5339:
5279:
5156:
4982:
4980:
4978:
4976:
4791:
4680:
4489:
4487:
4320:
4284:
3696:
Two of the same vowel in a row indicates a long vowel. A
3163:
Afroasiatic and points to parallels in the Indo-European
2611:
2224:
2020:
There is widespread agreement that Proto-Afroasiatic had
149:. Although no consensus exists as to the location of the
27:
Reconstructed ancestor of the Afroasiatic language family
8021:
Brill's Journal of Afroasiatic Languages and Linguistics
8002:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
7828:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
7805:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
7695:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
7526:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
7217:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
6946:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
6882:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
6752:
6677:
6662:
6592:
6590:
6575:
6425:
6415:
6413:
6368:
6326:
6311:
6275:
6263:
6152:
6113:
5669:
5591:
5589:
5514:
5411:
5291:
5231:
5192:
5180:
5144:
5079:
5045:
5043:
5016:
4893:
4871:
4869:
4755:
4743:
4699:
4595:
4593:
4472:
4134:
4107:
4073:
4071:
4023:
3933:
3804:
3687:
i̭=IPA , <ṷ> = IPA , V = vowel of unknown quality.
3620:
3589:
3501:
3481:
3475:
3437:
3426:
3400:
3381:
3357:
3295:
3276:
3266:
3260:
3232:
2606:
Diakonoff also reconstructs an interrogative adjective,
2540:: both likely go back to a Proto-Afroasiatic determiner
1873:(feminine), as also found in the second person singular
1736:
Hans-Jürgen Sasse proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic was a
239:
with at least two cases. Proto-Afroasiatic may have had
6995:(2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 571–591.
6077:
6050:
5879:
5807:
5783:
5734:
5732:
5219:
5122:
5120:
5118:
4992:
4963:
4961:
4959:
4934:
4932:
4779:
4733:
4731:
4729:
4670:
4668:
4629:
4578:
4554:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4443:
4392:
4368:
4296:
4170:
3960:
3950:
3948:
3891:
3789:
3770:
3059:(as in Semitic and Egyptian). It is also possible that
1744:
is only used to mark the subject of a verb, whereas an
7912:"Layers of the oldest Egyptian lexicon VIII: Numerals"
7620:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
7591:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
7307:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
7236:
Egyptian-Coptic Linguistics in Typological Perspective
7028:
Egyptian-Coptic Linguistics in Typological Perspective
6791:
6779:
6767:
6737:
6725:
6713:
6638:
6509:
6437:
6212:
6137:
6038:
5951:
5855:
5442:
5399:
5327:
5207:
5103:
5067:
4973:
4844:
4842:
4653:
4484:
4433:
4431:
4197:
4185:
4158:
3923:
3921:
3881:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3862:
3860:
3858:
3606:
also has a traditional proposed cognate set: Egyptian
3463:
3420:
3344:
3282:
3220:
2984:. Reduplication and gemination also frequently encode
2941:
2935:
2840:
Central Semitic languages attest an imperfective form
2248:
2242:
2230:
2206:
2100:
2099:
has often been connected to the Egyptian postposition
6626:
6602:
6587:
6563:
6551:
6539:
6497:
6485:
6410:
6176:
6164:
5999:
5963:
5681:
5657:
5586:
5574:
5562:
5538:
5502:
5478:
5466:
5040:
4866:
4854:
4590:
4404:
4068:
3831:
3563:
3532:
2564:
The most common Afroasiatic interrogative pronoun is
1900:
was the existence of "internal-a plurals" (a type of
6101:
5915:
5795:
5729:
5705:
5693:
5490:
5267:
5243:
5168:
5115:
4956:
4929:
4917:
4881:
4767:
4726:
4714:
4665:
4641:
4518:
4455:
4416:
4260:
4233:
3945:
3678:
Ehret does not include Berber in his reconstruction.
2655:
1712:
Afroasiatic languages feature a "root-and-pattern" (
1683:
affixes, proposing as many as thirty-seven separate
1292:
that differ from the traditional understanding are:
7393:
Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar
4839:
4827:
4815:
4566:
4428:
4380:
4308:
4272:
4221:
4209:
4095:
3918:
3872:
3855:
3613:
3582:
3556:
3525:
3494:
3374:
3350:
3245:
3107:, a proposal which Andréas Stauder also extends to
2963:
2928:
2853:Proposed PAA suffix conjugation, reconstructed by
1947:
1940:
1884:argues that Afroasiatic languages show traces of a
1856:), the later of which was later ousted by feminine
1597:Permitted Proto-Afroasiatic syllables according to
205:
3819:
3717:Ehret only reconstructs one set of plural pronouns
7866:Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian. Volume 3: m-
2675:
2323:Proto-Afroasiatic personal pronouns according to
1646:
8076:
7885:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
7824:"Egyptian Morphology in Afroasiatic Perspective"
7415:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 246–325.
7288:Kortlandt, Frederik (1996). "Christopher Ehret.
6967:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 505–624.
2616:'where?'. Takács derives this particle from PAA
209:
8059:Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics
7304:
7206:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138–159.
6990:
6981:
6020:
5933:
5873:
5825:
5636:
4512:
4362:
4062:
3993:
3849:
2591:Ehret also reconstructs a second interrogative
2144:
1274:, it must itself have originally been a dental
401:. Disagreement exists about whether there were
7789:Schuh, Russell G. (2017). Newman, Paul (ed.).
7764:The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology
7055:Semitic Studies in Honour of Edward Ullendorff
2269:; he also suggests the existence of a variant
2094:
2084:
2074:
1707:
1546:; they further argued that the central vowels
7974:
7766:. Oxford University Press. pp. 573–590.
7747:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 11–22.
7570:. Oxford University Press. pp. 269–274.
7413:The Cambridge Handbook of African Linguistics
7157:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–98.
6479:
6467:
6350:
3071:In the modern languages, the meanings of the
2812:
2580:ultimately derived from a demonstrative stem
1962:Reconstructed Proto-Afroasiatic case endings
588:, Ehret gives its Egyptian correspondence as
306:
7563:
7466:
7346:The Akkadian Verb and Its Semitic Background
6986:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–17.
6942:
6392:
5393:
4254:
4089:
4005:
3226:
3172:
2236:
1287:
1253:
676:
7260:
7210:
7197:
6962:
6707:
6404:
6362:
6293:
6131:
6032:
5765:
5010:
4345:
4041:
4017:
3912:
3562:. A number of scholars also connect Berber
3538:
3301:
3184:
3179:
2384:*muni (inclusive), *na/*ni/*nu (exclusive)
1904:): a pluralizing morpheme in which a vowel
604:, Ehret gives its Arabic correspondence as
7410:
7343:
7166:(2 ed.). Routledge. pp. 545–550.
7052:
6848:Blažek, Václav (2017). "Omotic Numerals".
6821:Burning Issues in Afro-Asiatic Linguistics
6257:
6245:
6071:
5993:
5945:
5909:
5897:
5849:
5837:
5777:
5651:
5619:
5097:
4693:
4478:
4333:
4290:
3813:
3480:; some scholars also connect West Chadic *
3469:
3307:
2773:
2508:Afroasiatic languages attest a variety of
247:alignment. A deverbal derivational prefix
7927:
7738:
7711:
7654:
7617:
7326:
7287:
7278:
7261:Kaye, Alan S.; Daniels, Peter T. (1992).
7117:
7088:
6907:
6898:
6320:
5861:
5789:
5753:
5723:
5436:
5424:
5357:
5345:
5321:
5297:
5285:
5237:
5085:
5034:
4998:
4950:
4911:
4899:
4809:
4785:
4749:
4708:
4635:
4623:
4611:
4548:
4374:
4302:
4164:
4152:
4128:
4116:
4029:
3939:
3900:
3798:
3783:
3238:
3208:has at least three proposed cognate sets:
1583:Other scholars argue that Proto-AA had a
417:
185:
8056:
8047:
7949:. Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. pp. 21–28.
7567:The Oxford Handbook of African Languages
7389:
7091:Journal of the American Oriental Society
7084:(2 ed.). Routledge. pp. 22–48.
6761:
6671:
6581:
6377:
6335:
6305:
6281:
5607:
5520:
5261:
5201:
5186:
5138:
4466:
4449:
3744:V stands for a vowel of unknown quality.
3735:V stands for a vowel of unknown quality.
2821:and gemination of the second consonant (
625:Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
7821:
7772:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199641642.013.0032
7504:
7467:Orel, Vladimir; Stolbova, Olga (1995).
7238:. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 289–322.
7233:
7161:
7152:
7120:The Languages and Linguistics of Africa
7030:. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 187–202.
7025:
6879:
6221:
6146:
6095:
6044:
5981:
5957:
5885:
5813:
5556:
5532:
5381:
5309:
5225:
5213:
5073:
5061:
5022:
4986:
4875:
4761:
4659:
4599:
4536:
4410:
4203:
4191:
4140:
4077:
3978:
3837:
2387:*muni (inclusive), *ḥina/u (exclusive)
1788:
1247:
204:in the language were originally mostly
14:
8077:
7999:
7963:
7909:
7882:
7863:
7844:
7692:
7584:
7507:The Handbook of Historical Linguistics
7488:Nominal and Verbal Plurality in Chadic
7485:
7469:Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary
6860:
6847:
6838:
6824:. Cambridge Scholars. pp. 62–74.
6813:
6797:
6785:
6773:
6746:
6731:
6719:
6695:
6683:
6656:
6644:
6620:
6596:
6533:
6518:
6443:
6431:
6206:
6182:
6158:
5675:
5663:
5595:
5580:
5496:
5448:
5405:
5369:
5333:
5126:
5109:
5049:
4923:
4860:
4797:
4647:
4584:
4560:
4524:
4422:
4398:
4239:
4215:
4179:
3966:
3954:
3885:
3866:
3708:^ over a vowel indicates falling tone.
2854:
2747:
2682:
2328:
2319:'to be' or a particle meaning 'self'.
1874:
1807:
1798:A system of sex-based male and female
1684:
1598:
145:), that is, between 16,000 and 10,000
8018:
7977:"The Word for 'One' in Proto-Semitic"
7970:(Thesis). University of Pennsylvania.
7944:
7802:
7788:
7675:
7542:
7523:
7370:
7170:
7079:
6920:
6863:Diachronic Perspectives of Suppletion
6632:
6608:
6569:
6557:
6545:
6503:
6491:
6455:
6419:
6233:
6194:
6170:
6107:
6083:
6056:
6005:
5969:
5921:
5801:
5738:
5711:
5699:
5687:
5568:
5544:
5508:
5484:
5472:
5460:
5273:
5249:
5174:
5162:
4967:
4938:
4887:
4848:
4833:
4773:
4737:
4720:
4674:
4493:
4437:
4386:
4314:
4278:
4266:
4227:
4101:
3927:
3825:
3067:were originally two separate affixes.
2324:
1793:
1591:
1361:
671:
608:, while Orel and Stolbova give it as
592:, while Orel and Stolbova give it as
8067:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0046
7887:. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 7–18.
7761:
7445:
6269:
6119:
5150:
4821:
4572:
2995:
2809:form that turned into a perfective.
2681:Proposed PAA prefix conjugation, by
2289:
2218:
393:) consonants, and that PAA included
8052:. John Benjamins. pp. 317–347.
7375:. Lincom Europa. pp. 275–289.
1880:In addition to grammatical gender,
1569:
259:, which may not have distinguished
24:
7745:Afroasiatic: Data and perspectives
7155:African Languages: An Introduction
6928:. University of California Press.
2934:'you are/were heard' and Egyptian
1688:alternative model was proposed by
600:; and though both reconstruct PAA
227:, at least two and possibly three
25:
8106:
7807:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 303–318.
7657:Journal of Historical Linguistics
7528:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 161–185.
7219:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 139–160.
6948:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 255–277.
6884:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 223–254.
6865:. Baar-Verlag. pp. 239–270.
3641:Proto-Afroasiatic reconstructions
3294:(Hans Mukarovsky): Proto-Chadic *
3155:'two' = 'index finger'; Semitic *
2656:Tenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs)
2559:
1731:
212:, as most fully displayed in the
7916:Journal of Language Relationship
7830:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 53–136.
6993:The Handbook of Language Contact
6910:Journal of Afroasiatic Languages
3747:
3738:
3729:
3720:
3711:
3700:ˇ over a vowel indicates rising
2964:Reduplicated and geminated verbs
2958:
2951:explains the development of the
1829:
231:(singular, plural, and possibly
8004:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 35–50.
7975:Wilson-Wright, Aren M. (2014).
7849:. Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill.
7697:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 19–34.
7557:10.11588/propylaeumdok.00002498
7509:. Blackwell. pp. 283–310.
7471:. Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill.
6806:
3690:
3681:
3672:
3663:
3654:
3055:(as in Berber and Cushitic) or
2576:'what?'. Diakonoff argued that
2008:Locative/terminative (disputed)
1767:nominative-accusative alignment
1641:
7280:10.1080/00437956.1992.12098319
3326:has three reconstructed roots:
3219:(Wolfgang Schenkel): Egyptian
2848:Stative ("suffix") conjugation
2568:, which Ehret reconstructs as
2503:
1956:
1783:subject–object–verb word order
1779:verb-subject-object word order
1647:Biradical and triradical roots
188:that has become popular among
13:
1:
7344:Kouwenberg, N. J. C. (2010).
7202:. In Woodard, In R.D. (ed.).
6843:. Masarykova univerzita Brně.
3764:
3636:Afroasiatic phonetic notation
2149:
1886:nominal classification system
1772:
1753:marked nominative alignment.
1270:but does co-occur with other
364:
281:
7294:Journal of African Languages
7213:"Proto-Semitic and Egyptian"
3608:
3577:
3564:
3551:
3533:
3520:
3239:"Rösslerian correspondences"
2544:, reconstructed by Ehret as
2277:and also reconstructs a form
2145:Derived nouns and adjectives
359:
7:
7716:. Brill. pp. 487–498.
7585:Putten, Marijn van (2018).
7164:The World's Major Languages
6899:Diakonoff, Igor M. (1988).
6021:Kossmann & Suchard 2018
5934:Kossmann & Suchard 2018
5874:Kossmann & Suchard 2018
5826:Kossmann & Suchard 2018
5637:Frajzyngier & Shay 2020
4513:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
4363:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
4063:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
3994:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
3850:Frajzyngier & Shay 2020
3629:
3300:, Oromo (Eastern Cushitic)
3137:
2284:
2063:
1708:Root-and-pattern-morphology
1260:consonant incompatibilities
348:
210:root-and-pattern morphology
74:Lower-order reconstructions
10:
8111:
7981:Journal of Semitic Studies
7739:Satzinger, Helmut (2018).
7211:Huehnergard, John (2023).
7198:Huehnergard, John (2004).
7001:10.1002/9781119485094.ch29
2813:Imperfective and long stem
2137:, and an ablative case in
352:
318:sound correspondence rules
307:Problems of reconstruction
8033:10.1163/18776930-01401004
7929:10.31826/jlr-2017-141-210
7822:Stauder, Andréas (2023).
7743:. In Tosco, Mauro (ed.).
7722:10.1163/9789047412236_036
7686:10.1163/9789047412236_035
7632:10.1017/S0041977X0003158X
7603:10.1017/S0041977X18000447
7421:10.1017/9781108283991.010
7390:Lipiński, Edward (2001).
7319:10.1017/S0041977X17001355
7244:10.1515/9783110346510.289
7181:10.1515/9783110869866-002
7175:. Mouton. pp. 9–26.
7128:10.1515/9783110421668-002
7063:10.1163/9789047415756_004
7036:10.1515/9783110346510.187
6984:The Afroasiatic Languages
6965:The Afroasiatic Languages
3127:appear as prefixes while
2907:
2899:
2893:
2882:
2871:
2860:
2754:for first person plural,
2727:
2718:
2713:
2710:
2699:
2688:
2496:
2482:
2468:
2465:
2459:
2437:
2425:
2403:
2391:
2369:
2357:
1994:
1891:
1354:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
493:
440:
437:
434:
431:
428:
425:
423:
275:
265:tenses, aspects, or moods
220:, and Cushitic branches.
166:Indo-European linguistics
73:
65:
54:
44:
39:
34:
7460:10.2143/ORB.37.0.2012773
7057:. Brill. pp. 7–25.
4255:Orel & Stolbova 1995
4090:Orel & Stolbova 1995
3647:
2635:
2133:, a "directive" case in
677:Orel & Stolbova 1995
180:) mean that determining
7893:10.1515/9783110251586.7
6839:Blažek, Václav (1999).
6405:Kaye & Daniels 1992
6363:Kaye & Daniels 1992
6294:Kaye & Daniels 1992
3621:
3615:
3590:
3584:
3558:
3527:
3502:
3496:
3482:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3439:
3428:
3421:
3401:
3395:
3382:
3376:
3358:
3352:
3345:
3308:
3296:
3283:
3277:
3267:
3261:
3253:Central Atlas Tamazight
3247:
3233:
3221:
3196:
3191:
2943:
2936:
2930:
2774:Short stem (perfective)
2612:
2301:inclusive and exclusive
2249:
2243:
2231:
2225:
2207:
2101:
2095:
2085:
2075:
1989:Accusative / Absolutive
1949:
1942:
1936:
1844:) and feminine endings
1760:language, in which the
1740:language, in which the
1266:never co-occurs with a
206:biradical or triradical
133:, is the reconstructed
7964:Wilson, David (2020).
7910:Takács, Gábor (2016).
7864:Takács, Gábor (2008).
7845:Takács, Gabór (1999).
7490:. Foris Publications.
7396:. Peeters Publishers.
6258:Meyer & Wolff 2019
5910:Meyer & Wolff 2019
5652:Meyer & Wolff 2019
5620:Meyer & Wolff 2019
5098:Meyer & Wolff 2019
4694:Meyer & Wolff 2019
4334:Meyer & Wolff 2019
4291:Meyer & Wolff 2019
3814:Meyer & Wolff 2019
3539:
3462:(Diakonoff): Egyptian
3306:, Kafa (North Omotic)
3302:
3281:, as well as Egyptian
3227:
3200:(both 'four' 'five').
3189:to the Greek cognates
3185:
3180:
2829:form was originally a
2347:Singular, independent
2237:
1374:Orel and Stolbova 1995
1288:
1254:
137:from which all modern
45:Reconstruction of
8090:Afroasiatic languages
7669:10.1075/jhl.2.2.04rat
7486:Newman, Paul (1990).
7354:10.1515/9781575066240
7173:Afroasiatic: A Survey
7082:The Semitic Languages
6209:, pp. 86, 91–92.
3159:'five' = 'handful').
3131:appears as a suffix.
1500:labialized consonants
1371:Diakonoff et al. 1987
1272:pharyngeal consonants
337:(2600–2000 BCE) with
182:sound correspondences
139:Afroasiatic languages
49:Afroasiatic languages
2676:"Prefix conjugation"
2353:Plural, independent
2024:. First proposed by
1789:Nouns and adjectives
1289:neuere Komparatistik
1255:neuere Komparatistik
1248:Neuere Komparatistik
399:laryngeal consonants
355:Afroasiatic homeland
151:Afroasiatic homeland
127:Proto-Semito-Hamitic
123:Proto-Hamito-Semitic
69:ca. 16,000–10,000 BC
60:Afroasiatic homeland
7792:A Chadic Cornucopia
6816:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad
6698:, pp. 127–129.
6659:, pp. 124–127.
6623:, pp. 123–124.
6536:, pp. 120–121.
6308:, pp. 317–318.
6272:, pp. 169–171.
6197:, pp. 243–244.
6122:, pp. 172–173.
5912:, pp. 267–268.
5768:, pp. 140–141.
5559:, pp. 317–318.
5535:, pp. 302–304.
5463:, pp. 435–436.
5396:, pp. 265–266.
5372:, pp. 255–256.
5264:, pp. 223–224.
5153:, pp. 589–590.
5141:, pp. 216–217.
5064:, pp. 225–226.
4800:, pp. 222–223.
4539:, pp. 81, 120.
4348:, pp. 514–516.
3981:, pp. 109–111.
3393:(Ehret): Cushitic *
3373:(Takács): *Semitic
3225:, Arabic (Semitic)
3173:Ehret et al. (2023)
3015:', 'factitive' or '
2968:The use of a vowel
2857:
2685:
2556:('this/that one').
2331:
2255:hypercoristic names
1963:
1758:ergative-absolutive
1728:Cushitic branches.
1601:
1556:syllabic consonants
1364:
1297:
644:
633:Alexander Militarev
420:
327:Proto-Indo-European
245:ergative-absolutive
229:grammatical numbers
7993:10.1093/jss/fgt032
6922:Ehret, Christopher
6901:Afrasian Languages
6480:Wilson-Wright 2014
6468:Wilson-Wright 2014
6458:, p. 235-236.
6351:Wilson-Wright 2014
6236:, p. 484-485.
5610:, p. 328-329.
5312:, p. 61, 120.
5165:, p. 341-342.
4914:, p. 309-310.
4626:, p. 59, 111.
4155:, p. 253-254.
4131:, p. 252-253.
4020:, p. 140-141.
3852:, p. 572-573.
3468:, Beja (Cushitic)
3419:(Ehret): Egyptian
2852:
2768:grammaticalization
2680:
2322:
2247:'craftsman', from
1961:
1800:grammatical gender
1794:Grammatical gender
1596:
1592:Syllable structure
1359:
1295:
642:
415:
225:grammatical gender
186:divergent proposal
8095:Upper Paleolithic
7956:978-3-89645-686-1
7902:978-3-11-018613-0
7875:978-90-04-16412-3
7781:978-0-19-964164-2
7577:978-0-19-960989-5
7403:978-90-429-0815-4
7253:978-3-11-034639-8
7190:978-90-279-1844-4
7072:978-90-47-41575-6
7045:978-3-11-034639-8
6974:978-0-521-86533-3
6872:978-3-935536-81-3
6831:978-1-4438-4070-5
6686:, pp. 65–66.
6434:, pp. 61–62.
6393:Ehret et al. 2023
6161:, pp. 96–97.
6098:, pp. 96–98.
6086:, pp. 26–27.
6059:, pp. 33–34.
5984:, pp. 94–95.
5876:, pp. 44–47.
5828:, pp. 47–49.
5726:, pp. 85–86.
5394:Ehret et al. 2023
5037:, pp. 64–65.
4812:, pp. 57–58.
4764:, pp. 69–70.
4614:, pp. 11–22.
4587:, pp. 21–22.
4563:, pp. 19–20.
4496:, pp. 27–34.
4401:, pp. 23–24.
4143:, pp. 94–95.
4006:Porkhomovsky 2020
3969:, pp. 63–64.
3757:of unknown value.
3537:, Hausa (Chadic)
3367:*tsîr(n)-/*cîr(n)
3084:and particularly
2996:Verbal extensions
2912:
2911:
2748:personal pronouns
2740:
2739:
2552:('this/that') or
2501:
2500:
2370:*(ʔ)ǎnn-/(ʔ)ǐnn-
2290:Personal pronouns
2026:Hans-Jürgen Sasse
2018:
2017:
1946:(nominative) and
1812:Christopher Ehret
1808:personal pronouns
1738:marked nominative
1685:verbal extensions
1621:
1620:
1461:
1460:
1352:
1351:
1245:
1244:
648:Proto-Afroasiatic
581:
580:
323:analogical change
241:marked nominative
198:Semitic languages
121:), also known as
115:Proto-Afroasiatic
112:
111:
35:Proto-Afroasiatic
18:Proto-Afroasiatic
16:(Redirected from
8102:
8070:
8053:
8044:
8015:
7996:
7971:
7960:
7941:
7931:
7906:
7879:
7860:
7841:
7818:
7799:
7797:
7785:
7758:
7735:
7708:
7689:
7672:
7651:
7614:
7581:
7560:
7539:
7520:
7501:
7482:
7463:
7442:
7407:
7386:
7367:
7340:
7330:
7301:
7284:
7282:
7257:
7230:
7207:
7194:
7167:
7158:
7149:
7114:
7085:
7076:
7049:
7022:
6987:
6978:
6959:
6939:
6917:
6904:
6895:
6876:
6857:
6850:Folia Orientalia
6844:
6835:
6801:
6795:
6789:
6783:
6777:
6771:
6765:
6759:
6750:
6744:
6735:
6729:
6723:
6717:
6711:
6708:Huehnergard 2023
6705:
6699:
6693:
6687:
6681:
6675:
6669:
6660:
6654:
6648:
6642:
6636:
6630:
6624:
6618:
6612:
6606:
6600:
6594:
6585:
6579:
6573:
6567:
6561:
6555:
6549:
6543:
6537:
6531:
6522:
6516:
6507:
6501:
6495:
6489:
6483:
6477:
6471:
6465:
6459:
6453:
6447:
6441:
6435:
6429:
6423:
6417:
6408:
6402:
6396:
6390:
6381:
6375:
6366:
6360:
6354:
6348:
6339:
6333:
6324:
6318:
6309:
6303:
6297:
6291:
6285:
6279:
6273:
6267:
6261:
6255:
6249:
6243:
6237:
6231:
6225:
6219:
6210:
6204:
6198:
6192:
6186:
6180:
6174:
6168:
6162:
6156:
6150:
6144:
6135:
6132:Huehnergard 2004
6129:
6123:
6117:
6111:
6105:
6099:
6093:
6087:
6081:
6075:
6069:
6060:
6054:
6048:
6042:
6036:
6033:Huehnergard 2023
6030:
6024:
6018:
6009:
6003:
5997:
5991:
5985:
5979:
5973:
5967:
5961:
5955:
5949:
5943:
5937:
5936:, p. 43-44.
5931:
5925:
5919:
5913:
5907:
5901:
5895:
5889:
5883:
5877:
5871:
5865:
5859:
5853:
5847:
5841:
5835:
5829:
5823:
5817:
5811:
5805:
5799:
5793:
5787:
5781:
5775:
5769:
5766:Huehnergard 2004
5763:
5757:
5751:
5742:
5736:
5727:
5721:
5715:
5709:
5703:
5697:
5691:
5685:
5679:
5678:, p. 71-72.
5673:
5667:
5661:
5655:
5649:
5640:
5634:
5623:
5617:
5611:
5605:
5599:
5593:
5584:
5578:
5572:
5566:
5560:
5554:
5548:
5542:
5536:
5530:
5524:
5518:
5512:
5506:
5500:
5494:
5488:
5482:
5476:
5470:
5464:
5458:
5452:
5446:
5440:
5434:
5428:
5422:
5409:
5403:
5397:
5391:
5385:
5384:, p. 64-65.
5379:
5373:
5367:
5361:
5355:
5349:
5343:
5337:
5331:
5325:
5324:, p. 70-71.
5319:
5313:
5307:
5301:
5295:
5289:
5283:
5277:
5271:
5265:
5259:
5253:
5247:
5241:
5235:
5229:
5223:
5217:
5211:
5205:
5199:
5190:
5184:
5178:
5172:
5166:
5160:
5154:
5148:
5142:
5136:
5130:
5124:
5113:
5107:
5101:
5095:
5089:
5083:
5077:
5071:
5065:
5059:
5053:
5047:
5038:
5032:
5026:
5025:, p. 73-74.
5020:
5014:
5011:Huehnergard 2004
5008:
5002:
4996:
4990:
4984:
4971:
4965:
4954:
4953:, p. 63-64.
4948:
4942:
4936:
4927:
4921:
4915:
4909:
4903:
4897:
4891:
4885:
4879:
4873:
4864:
4858:
4852:
4846:
4837:
4831:
4825:
4819:
4813:
4807:
4801:
4795:
4789:
4783:
4777:
4771:
4765:
4759:
4753:
4747:
4741:
4735:
4724:
4718:
4712:
4706:
4697:
4691:
4678:
4672:
4663:
4657:
4651:
4645:
4639:
4633:
4627:
4621:
4615:
4609:
4603:
4597:
4588:
4582:
4576:
4570:
4564:
4558:
4552:
4551:, p. 42-43.
4546:
4540:
4534:
4528:
4522:
4516:
4510:
4497:
4491:
4482:
4476:
4470:
4464:
4453:
4447:
4441:
4435:
4426:
4420:
4414:
4408:
4402:
4396:
4390:
4384:
4378:
4372:
4366:
4360:
4349:
4346:Frajzyngier 2012
4343:
4337:
4331:
4318:
4312:
4306:
4300:
4294:
4288:
4282:
4276:
4270:
4264:
4258:
4252:
4243:
4237:
4231:
4225:
4219:
4213:
4207:
4201:
4195:
4189:
4183:
4182:, p. 13-14.
4177:
4168:
4162:
4156:
4150:
4144:
4138:
4132:
4126:
4120:
4114:
4105:
4099:
4093:
4087:
4081:
4075:
4066:
4060:
4045:
4042:Huehnergard 2023
4039:
4033:
4027:
4021:
4018:Huehnergard 2023
4015:
4009:
4003:
3997:
3991:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3943:
3937:
3931:
3925:
3916:
3913:Huehnergard 2023
3910:
3904:
3898:
3889:
3883:
3870:
3864:
3853:
3847:
3841:
3835:
3829:
3823:
3817:
3811:
3802:
3796:
3787:
3781:
3758:
3751:
3745:
3742:
3736:
3733:
3727:
3724:
3718:
3715:
3709:
3694:
3688:
3685:
3679:
3676:
3670:
3667:
3661:
3658:
3624:
3618:
3611:
3593:
3587:
3581:, Proto-Semitic
3580:
3567:
3561:
3555:, Proto-Semitic
3554:
3542:
3536:
3530:
3524:, Proto-Semitic
3523:
3505:
3499:
3485:
3479:
3474:, North Omotic *
3473:
3467:
3442:
3435:
3425:, North Omotic *
3424:
3404:
3398:
3385:
3380:, Proto-Chadic *
3379:
3361:
3355:
3348:
3311:
3305:
3299:
3286:
3280:
3270:
3264:
3250:
3236:
3231:, Proto-Berber *
3230:
3224:
3199:
3194:
3188:
3183:
2946:
2939:
2933:
2858:
2851:
2779:Joseph Greenberg
2686:
2679:
2615:
2524:(feminine), and
2514:Joseph Greenberg
2435:*(ʔ)ânt/(ʔ)înt-
2401:*(ʔ)ânt/(ʔ)înt-
2332:
2321:
2252:
2246:
2240:
2234:
2229:) and Egyptian (
2228:
2210:
2127:comparative case
2104:
2098:
2088:
2078:
1964:
1960:
1952:
1945:
1933:Ancient Egyptian
1898:Joseph Greenberg
1869:(masculine) and
1714:nonconcatenative
1602:
1595:
1570:Tones and accent
1365:
1358:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1268:dental consonant
1257:
645:
641:
421:
414:
294:
290:
286:
283:
235:), as well as a
178:Omotic languages
155:Northeast Africa
105:Archaic Egyptian
32:
31:
21:
8110:
8109:
8105:
8104:
8103:
8101:
8100:
8099:
8085:Proto-languages
8075:
8074:
8073:
8012:
7957:
7903:
7876:
7857:
7838:
7815:
7798:. eScholarship.
7795:
7782:
7755:
7732:
7705:
7578:
7545:Lingua Aegyptia
7536:
7517:
7498:
7479:
7431:
7404:
7383:
7364:
7348:. Eisenbrauns.
7254:
7227:
7191:
7138:
7073:
7046:
7011:
6975:
6956:
6936:
6892:
6873:
6832:
6809:
6804:
6796:
6792:
6784:
6780:
6772:
6768:
6760:
6753:
6745:
6738:
6730:
6726:
6718:
6714:
6706:
6702:
6694:
6690:
6682:
6678:
6670:
6663:
6655:
6651:
6643:
6639:
6631:
6627:
6619:
6615:
6607:
6603:
6595:
6588:
6580:
6576:
6568:
6564:
6556:
6552:
6544:
6540:
6532:
6525:
6517:
6510:
6502:
6498:
6490:
6486:
6482:, pp. 6–7.
6478:
6474:
6466:
6462:
6454:
6450:
6442:
6438:
6430:
6426:
6418:
6411:
6403:
6399:
6391:
6384:
6376:
6369:
6361:
6357:
6349:
6342:
6334:
6327:
6319:
6312:
6304:
6300:
6292:
6288:
6280:
6276:
6268:
6264:
6256:
6252:
6246:Kouwenberg 2010
6244:
6240:
6232:
6228:
6220:
6213:
6205:
6201:
6193:
6189:
6181:
6177:
6169:
6165:
6157:
6153:
6145:
6138:
6130:
6126:
6118:
6114:
6106:
6102:
6094:
6090:
6082:
6078:
6072:Kouwenberg 2010
6070:
6063:
6055:
6051:
6043:
6039:
6031:
6027:
6019:
6012:
6004:
6000:
5994:Kouwenberg 2010
5992:
5988:
5980:
5976:
5968:
5964:
5956:
5952:
5946:Kouwenberg 2010
5944:
5940:
5932:
5928:
5920:
5916:
5908:
5904:
5898:Kouwenberg 2010
5896:
5892:
5884:
5880:
5872:
5868:
5860:
5856:
5850:Kouwenberg 2010
5848:
5844:
5838:Kouwenberg 2010
5836:
5832:
5824:
5820:
5812:
5808:
5800:
5796:
5788:
5784:
5778:Kouwenberg 2010
5776:
5772:
5764:
5760:
5752:
5745:
5737:
5730:
5722:
5718:
5710:
5706:
5698:
5694:
5686:
5682:
5674:
5670:
5662:
5658:
5650:
5643:
5635:
5626:
5618:
5614:
5606:
5602:
5594:
5587:
5579:
5575:
5567:
5563:
5555:
5551:
5543:
5539:
5531:
5527:
5519:
5515:
5507:
5503:
5495:
5491:
5483:
5479:
5471:
5467:
5459:
5455:
5447:
5443:
5435:
5431:
5423:
5412:
5404:
5400:
5392:
5388:
5380:
5376:
5368:
5364:
5356:
5352:
5344:
5340:
5336:, pp. 256.
5332:
5328:
5320:
5316:
5308:
5304:
5296:
5292:
5284:
5280:
5272:
5268:
5260:
5256:
5248:
5244:
5236:
5232:
5224:
5220:
5212:
5208:
5200:
5193:
5185:
5181:
5173:
5169:
5161:
5157:
5149:
5145:
5137:
5133:
5125:
5116:
5108:
5104:
5096:
5092:
5084:
5080:
5072:
5068:
5060:
5056:
5048:
5041:
5033:
5029:
5021:
5017:
5009:
5005:
4997:
4993:
4985:
4974:
4966:
4957:
4949:
4945:
4937:
4930:
4922:
4918:
4910:
4906:
4898:
4894:
4890:, pp. 311.
4886:
4882:
4874:
4867:
4859:
4855:
4847:
4840:
4832:
4828:
4820:
4816:
4808:
4804:
4796:
4792:
4784:
4780:
4772:
4768:
4760:
4756:
4748:
4744:
4736:
4727:
4719:
4715:
4707:
4700:
4692:
4681:
4673:
4666:
4658:
4654:
4646:
4642:
4634:
4630:
4622:
4618:
4610:
4606:
4598:
4591:
4583:
4579:
4571:
4567:
4559:
4555:
4547:
4543:
4535:
4531:
4523:
4519:
4511:
4500:
4492:
4485:
4479:Goldenberg 2005
4477:
4473:
4465:
4456:
4448:
4444:
4436:
4429:
4421:
4417:
4409:
4405:
4397:
4393:
4385:
4381:
4373:
4369:
4361:
4352:
4344:
4340:
4332:
4321:
4313:
4309:
4301:
4297:
4289:
4285:
4277:
4273:
4265:
4261:
4253:
4246:
4238:
4234:
4226:
4222:
4214:
4210:
4206:, pp. 188.
4202:
4198:
4194:, pp. 187.
4190:
4186:
4178:
4171:
4163:
4159:
4151:
4147:
4139:
4135:
4127:
4123:
4115:
4108:
4100:
4096:
4088:
4084:
4076:
4069:
4061:
4048:
4040:
4036:
4028:
4024:
4016:
4012:
4004:
4000:
3992:
3985:
3977:
3973:
3965:
3961:
3953:
3946:
3938:
3934:
3926:
3919:
3911:
3907:
3899:
3892:
3884:
3873:
3865:
3856:
3848:
3844:
3836:
3832:
3824:
3820:
3812:
3805:
3797:
3790:
3782:
3771:
3767:
3762:
3761:
3753:S stands for a
3752:
3748:
3743:
3739:
3734:
3730:
3725:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3695:
3691:
3686:
3682:
3677:
3673:
3668:
3664:
3659:
3655:
3650:
3632:
3432:
3140:
3105:grammaticalized
3101:auxiliary verbs
2998:
2974:pluractionality
2966:
2961:
2850:
2815:
2776:
2678:
2658:
2638:
2624:, a variant of
2562:
2506:
2378:*ʔya/*ʔyi/*ʔyu
2367:*(ʔ)ân-/(ʔ)în-
2292:
2287:
2221:
2152:
2147:
2064:dual and plural
1959:
1894:
1827:grammaticalized
1796:
1791:
1775:
1746:absolutive case
1742:nominative case
1734:
1710:
1649:
1644:
1594:
1572:
1357:
1336:*d, *ḏ, *z, *ḏ̣
1250:
1124:
1096:
1054:
1050:O/S: *ʕ, *ʔ, *h
1049:
1044:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1004:
988:
980:
972:
967:
954:
949:
944:
923:(O/S: also *š)
922:
917:
912:
879:
852:
825:
757:
429:alveolar/dental
385:) and that the
367:
362:
357:
351:
309:
292:
288:
285: 4000 BCE
284:
278:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8108:
8098:
8097:
8092:
8087:
8072:
8071:
8054:
8045:
8016:
8010:
7997:
7972:
7961:
7955:
7942:
7922:(2): 119–151.
7907:
7901:
7880:
7874:
7861:
7855:
7842:
7836:
7819:
7813:
7800:
7786:
7780:
7759:
7753:
7736:
7730:
7709:
7703:
7690:
7673:
7663:(2): 239–281.
7652:
7626:(2): 296–311.
7615:
7597:(2): 205–225.
7582:
7576:
7561:
7540:
7534:
7521:
7515:
7502:
7496:
7483:
7477:
7464:
7443:
7429:
7408:
7402:
7387:
7381:
7368:
7362:
7341:
7302:
7285:
7273:(3): 429–458.
7258:
7252:
7231:
7225:
7208:
7200:"Afro-Asiatic"
7195:
7189:
7168:
7159:
7150:
7136:
7115:
7103:10.2307/595321
7086:
7077:
7071:
7050:
7044:
7023:
7009:
6988:
6979:
6973:
6960:
6954:
6940:
6934:
6918:
6905:
6896:
6890:
6877:
6871:
6858:
6845:
6836:
6830:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6802:
6800:, p. 132.
6790:
6788:, p. 131.
6778:
6776:, p. 310.
6766:
6764:, p. 288.
6751:
6749:, p. 129.
6736:
6734:, p. 308.
6724:
6722:, p. 293.
6712:
6710:, p. 148.
6700:
6688:
6676:
6674:, p. 287.
6661:
6649:
6647:, p. 126.
6637:
6635:, p. 109.
6625:
6613:
6611:, p. 228.
6601:
6586:
6584:, p. 318.
6574:
6572:, p. 424.
6562:
6560:, p. 234.
6550:
6548:, p. 274.
6538:
6523:
6521:, p. 121.
6508:
6506:, p. 273.
6496:
6494:, p. 236.
6484:
6472:
6460:
6448:
6446:, p. 120.
6436:
6424:
6422:, p. 235.
6409:
6407:, p. 434.
6397:
6395:, p. 265.
6382:
6380:, p. 284.
6367:
6365:, p. 440.
6355:
6340:
6338:, p. 281.
6325:
6321:Diakonoff 1988
6310:
6298:
6296:, p. 439.
6286:
6284:, p. 317.
6274:
6262:
6260:, p. 309.
6250:
6248:, p. 375.
6238:
6226:
6211:
6199:
6187:
6175:
6173:, p. 310.
6163:
6151:
6136:
6134:, p. 141.
6124:
6112:
6100:
6088:
6076:
6074:, p. 191.
6061:
6049:
6037:
6035:, p. 149.
6025:
6010:
6008:, p. 174.
5998:
5996:, p. 193.
5986:
5974:
5972:, p. 237.
5962:
5950:
5948:, p. 589.
5938:
5926:
5914:
5902:
5900:, p. 282.
5890:
5888:, p. 104.
5878:
5866:
5862:Greenberg 1952
5854:
5852:, p. 130.
5842:
5840:, p. 129.
5830:
5818:
5816:, p. 119.
5806:
5794:
5790:Greenberg 1952
5782:
5770:
5758:
5756:, p. 315.
5754:Güldemann 2018
5743:
5728:
5724:Diakonoff 1988
5716:
5704:
5692:
5690:, p. 304.
5680:
5668:
5656:
5654:, p. 268.
5641:
5624:
5622:, p. 267.
5612:
5600:
5585:
5573:
5571:, p. 453.
5561:
5549:
5547:, p. 461.
5537:
5525:
5523:, p. 328.
5513:
5511:, p. 301.
5501:
5489:
5487:, p. 378.
5477:
5475:, p. 194.
5465:
5453:
5451:, p. 257.
5441:
5439:, p. 316.
5437:Güldemann 2018
5429:
5425:Diakonoff 1988
5410:
5408:, p. 255.
5398:
5386:
5374:
5362:
5360:, p. 492.
5358:Satzinger 2004
5350:
5348:, p. 490.
5346:Satzinger 2004
5338:
5326:
5322:Diakonoff 1988
5314:
5302:
5298:Diakonoff 1988
5290:
5288:, p. 487.
5286:Satzinger 2004
5278:
5266:
5254:
5242:
5238:Diakonoff 1988
5230:
5228:, p. 243.
5218:
5206:
5204:, p. 223.
5191:
5189:, p. 224.
5179:
5167:
5155:
5143:
5131:
5114:
5112:, p. 123.
5102:
5100:, p. 266.
5090:
5086:Diakonoff 1988
5078:
5066:
5054:
5039:
5035:Diakonoff 1988
5027:
5015:
5013:, p. 140.
5003:
4999:Diakonoff 1988
4991:
4989:, p. 225.
4972:
4970:, p. 243.
4955:
4951:Diakonoff 1988
4943:
4941:, p. 312.
4928:
4916:
4912:Ratcliffe 1996
4904:
4902:, p. 297.
4900:Ratcliffe 1996
4892:
4880:
4865:
4863:, p. 134.
4853:
4838:
4826:
4824:, p. 171.
4814:
4810:Diakonoff 1988
4802:
4790:
4786:Diakonoff 1988
4778:
4776:, p. 308.
4766:
4754:
4752:, p. 185.
4750:Kortlandt 1996
4742:
4740:, p. 487.
4725:
4723:, p. 435.
4713:
4711:, p. 319.
4709:Güldemann 2018
4698:
4696:, p. 269.
4679:
4677:, p. 242.
4664:
4662:, p. 549.
4652:
4640:
4636:Satzinger 2018
4628:
4624:Diakonoff 1988
4616:
4612:Satzinger 2018
4604:
4589:
4577:
4575:, p. 575.
4565:
4553:
4549:Diakonoff 1988
4541:
4529:
4517:
4498:
4483:
4471:
4454:
4452:, p. 436.
4442:
4427:
4415:
4403:
4391:
4379:
4375:Diakonoff 1988
4367:
4350:
4338:
4336:, p. 265.
4319:
4307:
4303:Diakonoff 1988
4295:
4293:, p. 264.
4283:
4271:
4269:, p. 275.
4259:
4257:, p. xxi.
4244:
4232:
4220:
4208:
4196:
4184:
4169:
4165:Diakonoff 1992
4157:
4153:Ratcliffe 2012
4145:
4133:
4129:Ratcliffe 2012
4121:
4119:, p. 253.
4117:Ratcliffe 2012
4106:
4094:
4092:, p. xvi.
4082:
4067:
4046:
4044:, p. 140.
4034:
4032:, p. 318.
4030:Güldemann 2018
4022:
4010:
4008:, p. 273.
3998:
3983:
3971:
3959:
3944:
3942:, p. 263.
3940:Ratcliffe 2012
3932:
3917:
3915:, p. 139.
3905:
3903:, p. 269.
3901:Ratcliffe 2012
3890:
3871:
3854:
3842:
3840:, p. 300.
3830:
3818:
3816:, p. 252.
3803:
3801:, p. 276.
3799:Ratcliffe 2012
3788:
3786:, p. 311.
3784:Güldemann 2018
3768:
3766:
3763:
3760:
3759:
3746:
3737:
3728:
3719:
3710:
3689:
3680:
3671:
3662:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3645:
3644:
3638:
3631:
3628:
3627:
3626:
3596:
3595:
3569:
3543:
3508:
3507:
3487:
3444:
3430:
3408:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3387:
3363:
3328:
3327:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3288:
3244:Proto-Semitic
3242:
3210:
3209:
3142:Unlike in the
3139:
3136:
3069:
3068:
3047:: 'passive', '
3042:
3020:
2997:
2994:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2910:
2909:
2906:
2902:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2890:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2869:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2849:
2846:
2814:
2811:
2775:
2772:
2738:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2729:
2726:
2723:
2720:
2716:
2715:
2712:
2708:
2707:
2704:
2701:
2697:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2677:
2674:
2657:
2654:
2637:
2634:
2561:
2560:Interrogatives
2558:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2489:
2485:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2457:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2440:
2439:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2427:
2423:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2372:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2355:
2354:
2351:
2350:Plural, bound
2348:
2345:
2339:
2336:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2220:
2217:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2022:case inflexion
2016:
2015:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1958:
1955:
1893:
1890:
1882:Igor Diakonoff
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1774:
1771:
1733:
1732:Case alignment
1730:
1709:
1706:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1624:Igor Diakonoff
1619:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1593:
1590:
1571:
1568:
1459:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1439:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1378:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1217:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1191:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1139:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1111:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1083:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1006:
1001:
998:
995:
991:
990:
985:
982:
977:
974:
973:(O/S: also *l)
969:
968:(O/S: also *ʕ)
964:
961:
957:
956:
951:
946:
941:
938:
935:
932:
929:
925:
924:
919:
918:(O/E: also *š)
914:
909:
906:
903:
900:
897:
893:
892:
889:
886:
883:
880:
876:
873:
870:
866:
865:
862:
859:
856:
853:
849:
846:
843:
839:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
822:
819:
816:
812:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
796:
793:
790:
786:
785:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
767:
764:
760:
759:
754:
751:
748:
745:
742:
739:
736:
732:
731:
728:
725:
722:
719:
716:
713:
710:
706:
705:
702:
699:
696:
693:
690:
687:
684:
680:
679:
674:
668:
667:
664:
663:Proto-Cushitic
661:
658:
655:
652:
649:
629:Igor Diakonoff
621:
620:
617:
579:
578:
576:
574:
572:
570:
567:
564:
561:
558:
554:
553:
551:
549:
546:
543:
540:
538:
535:
532:
528:
527:
525:
523:
521:
519:
516:
514:
512:
508:
507:
504:
501:
499:
497:
495:
492:
489:
486:
482:
481:
478:
476:
474:
471:
469:
467:
464:
461:
457:
456:
453:
450:
447:
443:
442:
439:
436:
433:
430:
427:
424:
418:Ratcliffe 2012
366:
363:
361:
358:
353:Main article:
350:
347:
308:
305:
277:
274:
162:reconstruction
135:proto-language
131:Proto-Afrasian
110:
109:
108:
107:
102:
97:
92:
90:Proto-Cushitic
87:
82:
75:
71:
70:
67:
63:
62:
56:
52:
51:
46:
42:
41:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8107:
8096:
8093:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8082:
8080:
8068:
8064:
8060:
8055:
8051:
8046:
8042:
8038:
8034:
8030:
8026:
8022:
8017:
8013:
8011:9781646022120
8007:
8003:
7998:
7994:
7990:
7986:
7982:
7978:
7973:
7969:
7968:
7962:
7958:
7952:
7948:
7943:
7939:
7935:
7930:
7925:
7921:
7917:
7913:
7908:
7904:
7898:
7894:
7890:
7886:
7881:
7877:
7871:
7867:
7862:
7858:
7856:90-04-11538-2
7852:
7848:
7843:
7839:
7837:9781646022120
7833:
7829:
7825:
7820:
7816:
7814:9781646022120
7810:
7806:
7801:
7794:
7793:
7787:
7783:
7777:
7773:
7769:
7765:
7760:
7756:
7754:9789027264572
7750:
7746:
7742:
7737:
7733:
7731:9789047412236
7727:
7723:
7719:
7715:
7710:
7706:
7704:9781646022120
7700:
7696:
7691:
7687:
7683:
7679:
7674:
7670:
7666:
7662:
7658:
7653:
7649:
7645:
7641:
7637:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7600:
7596:
7592:
7588:
7583:
7579:
7573:
7569:
7568:
7562:
7558:
7554:
7550:
7546:
7541:
7537:
7535:9781646022120
7531:
7527:
7522:
7518:
7516:0-631-19571-8
7512:
7508:
7503:
7499:
7497:90-6765-499-X
7493:
7489:
7484:
7480:
7478:90-04-10051-2
7474:
7470:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7449:
7444:
7440:
7436:
7432:
7430:9781108283991
7426:
7422:
7418:
7414:
7409:
7405:
7399:
7395:
7394:
7388:
7384:
7382:3-89586-857-4
7378:
7374:
7369:
7365:
7363:9781575066240
7359:
7355:
7351:
7347:
7342:
7338:
7334:
7329:
7324:
7320:
7316:
7312:
7308:
7303:
7299:
7295:
7291:
7286:
7281:
7276:
7272:
7268:
7264:
7259:
7255:
7249:
7245:
7241:
7237:
7232:
7228:
7226:9781646022120
7222:
7218:
7214:
7209:
7205:
7201:
7196:
7192:
7186:
7182:
7178:
7174:
7169:
7165:
7160:
7156:
7151:
7147:
7143:
7139:
7137:9783110421668
7133:
7129:
7125:
7121:
7116:
7112:
7108:
7104:
7100:
7096:
7092:
7087:
7083:
7078:
7074:
7068:
7064:
7060:
7056:
7051:
7047:
7041:
7037:
7033:
7029:
7024:
7020:
7016:
7012:
7010:9781119485094
7006:
7002:
6998:
6994:
6989:
6985:
6980:
6976:
6970:
6966:
6961:
6957:
6955:9781646022120
6951:
6947:
6941:
6937:
6935:0-520-09799-8
6931:
6927:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6911:
6906:
6902:
6897:
6893:
6891:9781646022120
6887:
6883:
6878:
6874:
6868:
6864:
6859:
6855:
6851:
6846:
6842:
6837:
6833:
6827:
6823:
6822:
6817:
6812:
6811:
6799:
6794:
6787:
6782:
6775:
6770:
6763:
6762:Lipiński 2001
6758:
6756:
6748:
6743:
6741:
6733:
6728:
6721:
6716:
6709:
6704:
6697:
6692:
6685:
6680:
6673:
6672:Lipiński 2001
6668:
6666:
6658:
6653:
6646:
6641:
6634:
6629:
6622:
6617:
6610:
6605:
6599:, p. 75.
6598:
6593:
6591:
6583:
6582:Zaborski 1987
6578:
6571:
6566:
6559:
6554:
6547:
6542:
6535:
6530:
6528:
6520:
6515:
6513:
6505:
6500:
6493:
6488:
6481:
6476:
6469:
6464:
6457:
6452:
6445:
6440:
6433:
6428:
6421:
6416:
6414:
6406:
6401:
6394:
6389:
6387:
6379:
6378:Lipiński 2001
6374:
6372:
6364:
6359:
6352:
6347:
6345:
6337:
6336:Lipiński 2001
6332:
6330:
6323:, p. 67.
6322:
6317:
6315:
6307:
6306:Zaborski 1987
6302:
6295:
6290:
6283:
6282:Zaborski 1987
6278:
6271:
6266:
6259:
6254:
6247:
6242:
6235:
6230:
6224:, p. 89.
6223:
6218:
6216:
6208:
6203:
6196:
6191:
6185:, p. 91.
6184:
6179:
6172:
6167:
6160:
6155:
6149:, p. 87.
6148:
6143:
6141:
6133:
6128:
6121:
6116:
6110:, p. 53.
6109:
6104:
6097:
6092:
6085:
6080:
6073:
6068:
6066:
6058:
6053:
6047:, p. 96.
6046:
6041:
6034:
6029:
6023:, p. 43.
6022:
6017:
6015:
6007:
6002:
5995:
5990:
5983:
5978:
5971:
5966:
5960:, p. 93.
5959:
5954:
5947:
5942:
5935:
5930:
5924:, p. 23.
5923:
5918:
5911:
5906:
5899:
5894:
5887:
5882:
5875:
5870:
5863:
5858:
5851:
5846:
5839:
5834:
5827:
5822:
5815:
5810:
5804:, p. 24.
5803:
5798:
5791:
5786:
5780:, p. 52.
5779:
5774:
5767:
5762:
5755:
5750:
5748:
5741:, p. 22.
5740:
5735:
5733:
5725:
5720:
5714:, p. 36.
5713:
5708:
5702:, p. 34.
5701:
5696:
5689:
5684:
5677:
5672:
5666:, p. 50.
5665:
5660:
5653:
5648:
5646:
5638:
5633:
5631:
5629:
5621:
5616:
5609:
5608:Lipiński 2001
5604:
5598:, p. 10.
5597:
5592:
5590:
5583:, p. 99.
5582:
5577:
5570:
5565:
5558:
5553:
5546:
5541:
5534:
5529:
5522:
5521:Lipiński 2001
5517:
5510:
5505:
5498:
5493:
5486:
5481:
5474:
5469:
5462:
5457:
5450:
5445:
5438:
5433:
5427:, p. 83.
5426:
5421:
5419:
5417:
5415:
5407:
5402:
5395:
5390:
5383:
5378:
5371:
5366:
5359:
5354:
5347:
5342:
5335:
5330:
5323:
5318:
5311:
5306:
5300:, p. 71.
5299:
5294:
5287:
5282:
5276:, p. 29.
5275:
5270:
5263:
5262:Lipiński 2001
5258:
5252:, p. 16.
5251:
5246:
5240:, p. 60.
5239:
5234:
5227:
5222:
5216:, p. 69.
5215:
5210:
5203:
5202:Lipiński 2001
5198:
5196:
5188:
5187:Lipiński 2001
5183:
5177:, p. 52.
5176:
5171:
5164:
5159:
5152:
5147:
5140:
5139:Lipiński 2001
5135:
5128:
5123:
5121:
5119:
5111:
5106:
5099:
5094:
5088:, p. 61.
5087:
5082:
5076:, p. 74.
5075:
5070:
5063:
5058:
5052:, p. 47.
5051:
5046:
5044:
5036:
5031:
5024:
5019:
5012:
5007:
5001:, p. 64.
5000:
4995:
4988:
4983:
4981:
4979:
4977:
4969:
4964:
4962:
4960:
4952:
4947:
4940:
4935:
4933:
4926:, p. 40.
4925:
4920:
4913:
4908:
4901:
4896:
4889:
4884:
4878:, p. 73.
4877:
4872:
4870:
4862:
4857:
4851:, p. 40.
4850:
4845:
4843:
4836:, p. 18.
4835:
4830:
4823:
4818:
4811:
4806:
4799:
4794:
4788:, p. 58.
4787:
4782:
4775:
4770:
4763:
4758:
4751:
4746:
4739:
4734:
4732:
4730:
4722:
4717:
4710:
4705:
4703:
4695:
4690:
4688:
4686:
4684:
4676:
4671:
4669:
4661:
4656:
4650:, p. 62.
4649:
4644:
4638:, p. 21.
4637:
4632:
4625:
4620:
4613:
4608:
4602:, p. 88.
4601:
4596:
4594:
4586:
4581:
4574:
4569:
4562:
4557:
4550:
4545:
4538:
4533:
4527:, p. 42.
4526:
4521:
4515:, p. 13.
4514:
4509:
4507:
4505:
4503:
4495:
4490:
4488:
4481:, p. 21.
4480:
4475:
4468:
4467:Zaborski 2011
4463:
4461:
4459:
4451:
4450:Lipiński 2001
4446:
4440:, p. 16.
4439:
4434:
4432:
4425:, p. 43.
4424:
4419:
4413:, p. 93.
4412:
4407:
4400:
4395:
4389:, p. 15.
4388:
4383:
4377:, p. 42.
4376:
4371:
4365:, p. 12.
4364:
4359:
4357:
4355:
4347:
4342:
4335:
4330:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4317:, p. 70.
4316:
4311:
4305:, p. 43.
4304:
4299:
4292:
4287:
4281:, p. 55.
4280:
4275:
4268:
4263:
4256:
4251:
4249:
4242:, p. 70.
4241:
4236:
4230:, p. 66.
4229:
4224:
4217:
4212:
4205:
4200:
4193:
4188:
4181:
4176:
4174:
4166:
4161:
4154:
4149:
4142:
4137:
4130:
4125:
4118:
4113:
4111:
4104:, p. 72.
4103:
4098:
4091:
4086:
4080:, p. 94.
4079:
4074:
4072:
4065:, p. 10.
4064:
4059:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4043:
4038:
4031:
4026:
4019:
4014:
4007:
4002:
3996:, p. 11.
3995:
3990:
3988:
3980:
3975:
3968:
3963:
3957:, p. 36.
3956:
3951:
3949:
3941:
3936:
3930:, p. 41.
3929:
3924:
3922:
3914:
3909:
3902:
3897:
3895:
3888:, p. 20.
3887:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3869:, p. 40.
3868:
3863:
3861:
3859:
3851:
3846:
3839:
3834:
3828:, p. 43.
3827:
3822:
3815:
3810:
3808:
3800:
3795:
3793:
3785:
3780:
3778:
3776:
3774:
3769:
3756:
3750:
3741:
3732:
3723:
3714:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3693:
3684:
3675:
3666:
3657:
3653:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3633:
3623:
3617:
3610:
3605:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3592:
3586:
3579:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3560:
3553:
3548:
3544:
3541:
3535:
3529:
3522:
3517:
3513:
3512:
3511:
3504:
3498:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3466:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3434:
3423:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3409:
3403:
3397:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3378:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3362:
3360:
3354:
3347:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3320:
3319:
3310:
3304:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3263:
3258:
3254:
3249:
3243:
3240:
3235:
3229:
3223:
3218:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3202:
3201:
3198:
3193:
3187:
3182:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3144:Indo-European
3135:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3103:which became
3102:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3074:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3049:anticausative
3046:
3043:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3021:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3003:
2993:
2991:
2988:, intensive,
2987:
2983:
2979:
2978:reduplication
2975:
2971:
2959:Derived verbs
2956:
2954:
2948:
2945:
2938:
2932:
2924:
2922:
2918:
2904:
2903:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2863:
2859:
2856:
2845:
2843:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2810:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2744:
2735:
2732:
2731:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2709:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2691:
2687:
2684:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2520:(masculine),
2519:
2515:
2511:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2434:
2431:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2417:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2400:
2397:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2383:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2304:
2302:
2296:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2258:
2256:
2251:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2216:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2185:
2184:areal feature
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2142:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2097:
2093:. The ending
2092:
2091:postpositions
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2050:
2046:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2013:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1954:
1951:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1925:
1923:
1922:reduplication
1918:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1902:broken plural
1899:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1830:demonstrative
1828:
1823:
1821:
1820:Lionel Bender
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1804:Russell Schuh
1801:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1770:
1768:
1763:
1762:ergative case
1759:
1754:
1751:
1750:citation form
1747:
1743:
1739:
1729:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1705:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1690:Georges Bohas
1686:
1682:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1654:
1653:Semitic roots
1639:
1637:
1632:
1630:
1625:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1603:
1600:
1589:
1586:
1581:
1578:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1293:
1290:
1285:
1284:typologically
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1108:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1058:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1020:
1018:(O/S: also h)
1015:
1010:
1007:
1002:
999:
996:
993:
992:
986:
983:
978:
975:
970:
965:
962:
959:
958:
952:
947:
942:
939:
936:
933:
930:
927:
926:
920:
915:
910:
907:
904:
901:
898:
895:
894:
890:
887:
884:
881:
877:
874:
871:
868:
867:
863:
860:
857:
854:
850:
847:
844:
841:
840:
836:
833:
830:
827:
823:
820:
817:
814:
813:
809:
806:
803:
800:
797:
794:
791:
788:
787:
783:
780:
777:
774:
771:
768:
765:
762:
761:
755:
752:
749:
746:
743:
740:
737:
734:
733:
729:
726:
723:
720:
717:
714:
711:
708:
707:
703:
700:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
682:
681:
678:
675:
673:
670:
669:
666:Proto-Omotic
651:Proto-Semitic
646:
640:
636:
634:
630:
626:
618:
615:
614:
613:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
577:
575:
573:
571:
568:
565:
562:
559:
556:
555:
552:
550:
547:
544:
541:
539:
536:
533:
530:
529:
526:
524:
522:
520:
517:
515:
513:
510:
509:
505:
502:
500:
498:
496:
490:
487:
484:
483:
479:
477:
475:
472:
470:
468:
465:
462:
459:
458:
454:
451:
448:
445:
444:
422:
419:
413:
409:
407:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
356:
346:
344:
343:Proto-Semitic
340:
336:
330:
328:
324:
319:
315:
304:
302:
301:areal contact
298:
297:Tom Güldemann
273:
271:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
221:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
202:lexical roots
199:
195:
191:
190:Egyptologists
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
106:
103:
101:
100:Proto-Semitic
98:
96:
93:
91:
88:
86:
83:
81:
78:
77:
76:
72:
68:
64:
61:
57:
53:
50:
47:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
8058:
8049:
8024:
8020:
8001:
7984:
7980:
7966:
7946:
7919:
7915:
7884:
7865:
7846:
7827:
7804:
7791:
7763:
7744:
7713:
7694:
7677:
7660:
7656:
7623:
7619:
7594:
7590:
7566:
7548:
7544:
7525:
7506:
7487:
7468:
7451:
7447:
7412:
7392:
7372:
7345:
7313:(1): 41–56.
7310:
7306:
7297:
7293:
7289:
7270:
7266:
7235:
7216:
7203:
7172:
7163:
7154:
7119:
7094:
7090:
7081:
7054:
7027:
6992:
6983:
6964:
6945:
6925:
6913:
6909:
6900:
6881:
6862:
6853:
6849:
6840:
6820:
6807:Bibliography
6793:
6781:
6769:
6727:
6715:
6703:
6691:
6679:
6652:
6640:
6628:
6616:
6604:
6577:
6565:
6553:
6541:
6499:
6487:
6475:
6470:, p. 6.
6463:
6451:
6439:
6427:
6400:
6358:
6353:, p. 5.
6301:
6289:
6277:
6265:
6253:
6241:
6229:
6222:Stauder 2023
6202:
6190:
6178:
6166:
6154:
6147:Stauder 2023
6127:
6115:
6103:
6096:Stauder 2023
6091:
6079:
6052:
6045:Stauder 2023
6040:
6028:
6001:
5989:
5982:Stauder 2023
5977:
5965:
5958:Stauder 2023
5953:
5941:
5929:
5917:
5905:
5893:
5886:Stauder 2023
5881:
5869:
5857:
5845:
5833:
5821:
5814:Hetzron 2009
5809:
5797:
5792:, p. 8.
5785:
5773:
5761:
5719:
5707:
5695:
5683:
5671:
5659:
5615:
5603:
5576:
5564:
5557:Idiatov 2015
5552:
5540:
5533:Idiatov 2015
5528:
5516:
5504:
5499:, p. 9.
5492:
5480:
5468:
5456:
5444:
5432:
5401:
5389:
5382:Stauder 2023
5377:
5365:
5353:
5341:
5329:
5317:
5310:Stauder 2023
5305:
5293:
5281:
5269:
5257:
5245:
5233:
5226:Stauder 2023
5221:
5214:Stauder 2023
5209:
5182:
5170:
5158:
5146:
5134:
5129:, p. 8.
5105:
5093:
5081:
5074:Stauder 2023
5069:
5062:Bubenik 2023
5057:
5030:
5023:Stauder 2023
5018:
5006:
4994:
4987:Bubenik 2023
4946:
4919:
4907:
4895:
4883:
4876:Stauder 2023
4856:
4829:
4817:
4805:
4793:
4781:
4769:
4762:Stauder 2023
4757:
4745:
4716:
4660:Hetzron 2009
4655:
4643:
4631:
4619:
4607:
4600:Hayward 2000
4580:
4568:
4556:
4544:
4537:Stauder 2023
4532:
4520:
4474:
4445:
4418:
4411:Hayward 2000
4406:
4394:
4382:
4370:
4341:
4310:
4298:
4286:
4274:
4262:
4235:
4223:
4218:, p. 9.
4211:
4204:Gensler 2015
4199:
4192:Gensler 2015
4187:
4167:, p. 6.
4160:
4148:
4141:Hayward 2000
4136:
4124:
4097:
4085:
4078:Hayward 2000
4037:
4025:
4013:
4001:
3979:Stauder 2023
3974:
3962:
3935:
3908:
3845:
3838:Nichols 2003
3833:
3821:
3749:
3740:
3731:
3722:
3713:
3692:
3683:
3674:
3665:
3656:
3643:(Wiktionary)
3603:
3597:
3572:
3546:
3518:: Egyptian
3515:
3509:
3490:
3460:*fVdS/*-fVrS
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3416:
3412:
3390:
3370:
3366:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3323:
3317:
3291:
3216:
3205:
3177:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3148:Austronesian
3141:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3096:
3092:
3090:
3085:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3070:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3044:
3039:detransitive
3037:' and other
3031:middle voice
3022:
3008:
3002:derivational
2999:
2969:
2967:
2953:West Semitic
2949:
2925:
2916:
2913:
2841:
2839:
2834:
2831:pluractional
2826:
2822:
2818:
2816:
2802:
2798:
2782:
2777:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2745:
2741:
2659:
2639:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2607:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2590:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2563:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2507:
2312:
2305:
2297:
2293:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2259:
2222:
2212:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2188:
2179:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2153:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2118:
2114:
2068:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2044:
2033:
2019:
1939:and Semitic
1926:
1919:
1912:. However,
1905:
1895:
1879:
1870:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1824:
1797:
1776:
1755:
1735:
1726:
1711:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1681:derivational
1678:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1650:
1642:Morphosyntax
1633:
1622:
1585:pitch accent
1582:
1573:
1563:
1559:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1491:
1487:
1485:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1462:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1348:*ṯ̣, *ʕ, *ḳ
1275:
1263:
1251:
1125:O/S: j, n, r
1097:O/S: j, n, r
1081:*h (E: *h1)
1055:(E: also 0)
989:(E: also 0)
660:Proto-Chadic
657:Proto-Berber
637:
622:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
582:
410:
408:consonants.
368:
335:Old Egyptian
331:
310:
291:BCE to 8,000
279:
256:
248:
222:
159:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
113:
95:Proto-Omotic
85:Proto-Chadic
80:Proto-Berber
29:
7987:(1): 1–13.
7551:: 221–251.
7454:: 162–175.
6798:Takács 2016
6786:Takács 2016
6774:Takács 1999
6747:Takács 2016
6732:Takács 1999
6720:Takács 1999
6696:Takács 2016
6684:Blažek 1999
6657:Takács 2016
6645:Takács 2016
6621:Takács 2016
6597:Blažek 2017
6534:Takács 2016
6519:Takács 2016
6444:Takács 2016
6432:Blažek 1999
6207:Wilson 2020
6183:Wilson 2020
6159:Wilson 2020
5676:Allati 2012
5664:Wilson 2020
5596:Takács 2011
5581:Takács 1999
5497:Takács 2008
5449:Blažek 2019
5406:Blažek 2019
5370:Blažek 2019
5334:Blažek 2019
5127:Takács 2008
5110:Wilson 2020
5050:Wilson 2020
4924:Wilson 2020
4861:Newman 1990
4798:Putten 2018
4648:Allati 2012
4585:Wilson 2020
4561:Wilson 2020
4525:Winand 2023
4423:Winand 2023
4399:Wilson 2020
4240:Allati 2012
4216:Takács 2011
4180:Takács 2011
3967:Allati 2012
3955:Winand 2023
3886:Sanker 2023
3867:Winand 2023
3575:: Egyptian
3549:: Egyptian
3493:: Semitic *
3343:* Egyptian
3335:*tsan-/*can
2855:Wilson 2020
2807:resultative
2683:Wilson 2020
2666:participial
2510:determiners
2504:Determiners
2488:Blažek (f)
2474:Blažek (m)
2329:Blažek 2019
2313:*ʔan-/*ʔin-
2176:agent nouns
2111:dative case
2081:terminative
1957:Case system
1914:Paul Newman
1599:Wilson 2020
1577:homophonous
1442:'hill/heap'
1396:*dîm-/*dâm-
1377:Ehret 1995
1045:O/S: *ʕ, *ʔ
981:(E: also 0)
758:O/S: *p/*f
455:labialized
391:glottalized
387:continuants
237:case system
8079:Categories
8027:: 61–100.
7328:1887/70770
7300:: 183–195.
7097:(1): 1–9.
6633:Ehret 1995
6609:Ehret 1995
6570:Ehret 1995
6558:Peust 2012
6546:Ehret 1995
6504:Ehret 1995
6492:Peust 2012
6456:Peust 2012
6420:Peust 2012
6234:Ehret 1995
6195:Peust 2012
6171:Souag 2023
6108:Ehret 1995
6084:Voigt 2019
6057:Gragg 2019
6006:Oréal 2023
5970:Peust 2012
5922:Voigt 2019
5802:Voigt 2019
5739:Voigt 2019
5712:Gragg 2019
5700:Gragg 2019
5688:Souag 2023
5569:Ehret 1995
5545:Rubin 2004
5509:Ehret 1995
5485:Ehret 1995
5473:Ehret 1995
5461:Schuh 2017
5274:Gragg 2019
5250:Ehret 1995
5175:Ehret 1995
5163:Peust 2012
4968:Peust 2012
4939:Souag 2023
4888:Souag 2023
4849:Gragg 2019
4834:Ehret 1995
4774:Souag 2023
4738:Ehret 1995
4721:Schuh 2017
4675:Peust 2012
4494:Ehret 1995
4438:Hodge 1971
4387:Ehret 1995
4315:Ehret 1995
4279:Ehret 1995
4267:Levin 2003
4228:Wolff 2022
4102:Ehret 1995
3928:Gragg 2019
3826:Gragg 2019
3765:References
3706:circumflex
3500:, Berber *
3458:(Takács),
3399:, Omotic *
3356:, Berber *
3349:, Semitic
3341:(Takács):
3041:functions;
2982:gemination
2842:*yi-qVtlu-
2835:*yV-qattVl
2827:*yV-qattVl
2823:*yV-qattVl
2750:in having
2670:gerundival
2469:*su, *usu
2466:*si, *isi
2341:Singular,
2325:Ehret 1995
2309:suppletion
2150:*mV-prefix
2107:comitative
2042:absolutive
2038:accusative
2030:nominative
1978:Nominative
1773:Word order
1722:gemination
1629:word stems
1362:Levin 2003
1342:*z, *ḏ, *ṯ
1333:*g, *ɣ, *ʕ
1280:Egyptology
672:Ehret 1995
627:including
511:affricates
485:fricatives
403:labialized
395:pharyngeal
383:affricates
379:fricatives
371:obstruents
365:Consonants
329:has been.
8061:. Brill.
8041:250140533
7868:. Brill.
7680:. Brill.
7648:161601661
7611:231795581
7439:166312358
7337:171681222
7146:133888593
7019:225371874
6270:Orel 1994
6120:Orel 1994
5151:Shay 2014
4822:Orel 1994
4573:Shay 2014
3619:, Berber
3612:, Semitc
3531:, Berber
3454:(Ehret),
3436:, Chadic
3369:(Ehret),
3337:(Ehret),
3275:(Omotic)
3259:(Berber)
3169:Tocharian
3073:*-n-/*-m-
3045:*-n-/*-m-
3035:reflexive
3017:denominal
3013:causative
2990:iterative
2986:causative
2921:predicate
2889:*-(ā)tVn
2593:*wa-/*wi-
2398:*ku, *ka
2215:'to be'.
2154:A prefix
1862:*-ay/*-āy
1542:(), and
1021:E: *h1, 0
438:laryngeal
360:Phonology
270:causative
7938:55439036
6924:(1995).
6903:. Nauka.
6856:: 63–86.
3755:sonorant
3704:, and a
3630:See also
3598:Lastly:
3585:ṯ(a)mān-
3192:tettares
3181:quattuor
3138:Numerals
2972:to mark
2931:samiʕ-ta
2878:*-(ā)nV
2864:Singular
2791:relative
2783:*yV-qtVl
2692:Singular
2632:'who?'.
2603:'who?'.
2364:*i, *yi
2338:Scholar
2285:Pronouns
2123:ablative
2083:case in
2071:locative
2049:genitive
2000:Genitive
1970:Singular
1910:apophony
1875:pronouns
1816:isogloss
1718:apophony
1477:apophony
1301:Egyptian
1043:E: *ʔ, 0
1023:O/S: *h
955:O/S: *š
945:O/S: *ĉ
913:(E: *s3)
654:Egyptian
441:glottal
375:plosives
349:Urheimat
314:Cognates
218:Egyptian
174:Cushitic
6818:(ed.).
3616:tiš(a)ʕ
3503:sammūs-
3417:*xaynz-
3377:ṯir/ṯər
3186:quinque
3097:*n-/*m-
3027:passive
2908:*-0/-t
2886:*-(ā)tV
2875:*-(ā)ku
2867:Plural
2795:ventive
2695:Plural
2586:animate
2497:*šinya
2483:*šunwa
2455:*tunya
2452:*kinya
2443:Blažek
2438:*kuuna
2421:*tunwa
2418:*kunwa
2409:Blažek
2404:*kuuna
2375:Blažek
2335:Number
2219:"Nisba"
2164:*ma(i)-
1973:Plural
1935:: *
1848:(later
1846:*-H/*-y
1836:(later
1834:*-y/*-w
1748:is the
1666:glitter
1456:*-tŭul-
1402:'build'
1382:'blood'
1345:*ṣ, *ḏ̣
1327:Semitic
1013:O/S: *ḥ
950:O/S: *s
557:liquids
449:lateral
446:central
432:palatal
261:animacy
214:Semitic
8039:
8008:
7953:
7936:
7899:
7872:
7853:
7834:
7811:
7778:
7751:
7728:
7701:
7646:
7640:619713
7638:
7609:
7574:
7532:
7513:
7494:
7475:
7437:
7427:
7400:
7379:
7360:
7335:
7250:
7223:
7187:
7144:
7134:
7111:595231
7109:
7069:
7042:
7017:
7007:
6971:
6952:
6932:
6916:(1–2).
6888:
6869:
6828:
3573:eight'
3547:seven'
3452:*fâzw-
3450:, PAA
3415:, PAA
3413:three'
3265:(fem.
3257:Zenati
3234:yīw-an
3000:Three
2944:CaCVC-
2937:sḏm.tj
2861:Person
2793:, and
2787:aorist
2760:*y/*i-
2689:Person
2650:person
2648:, and
2642:aspect
2608:*ayyV-
2494:*šiya
2480:*šuwa
2463:Ehret
2429:Ehret
2395:Ehret
2381:*ʔaku
2361:Ehret
2317:copula
2170:, and
2079:and a
2047:, and
2032:ending
1892:Number
1858:*-(a)t
1672:, and
1617:CV:-C
1518:, and
1496:labial
1481:umlaut
1471:, and
1436:*-pîr-
1416:*-bĭn-
1355:Vowels
1330:*ʔ, *d
1040:*ʔ, *h
1005:O/S: h
531:nasals
473:k g kʼ
426:labial
381:, and
339:Coptic
293:
289:
276:Dating
253:clitic
176:, and
170:Chadic
129:, and
55:Region
8037:S2CID
7934:S2CID
7796:(PDF)
7644:S2CID
7636:JSTOR
7607:S2CID
7448:Orbis
7435:S2CID
7333:S2CID
7142:S2CID
7107:JSTOR
7015:S2CID
3698:caron
3648:Notes
3614:*
3604:nine'
3583:*
3559:šabʕ-
3557:*
3540:šidda
3534:sdˁis
3528:šidṯ-
3526:*
3495:*
3491:five'
3471:faḍig
3448:four'
3438:*
3427:*
3391:*ɬâm-
3375:*
3351:*
3346:sn.wj
3303:tokko
3297:t-k-n
3273:Ometo
3248:ʕast-
3246:*
3197:pente
3165:Greek
3157:ḫams-
2942:*
2929:*
2736:*tV-
2728:*yV-
2714:*tV-
2706:*nV-
2646:voice
2636:Verbs
2426:2 f.
2392:2 m.
2343:bound
2271:*-uwa
2263:*-iya
2213:*VmV-
2121:, an
1948:*
1941:*
1937:-a(y)
1674:glade
1670:glaze
1662:gleam
1614:CVC-C
1451:*tül-
1431:*pir-
1426:*pi̭r
1422:'fly'
1411:*ben-
1391:*dam-
1123:E: r
1048:E: *ʕ
1011:E: *h
953:E: *l
948:E: *ɬ
943:E: *ɬ
756:E: *p
460:stops
452:plain
435:velar
406:velar
8006:ISBN
7951:ISBN
7897:ISBN
7870:ISBN
7851:ISBN
7832:ISBN
7809:ISBN
7776:ISBN
7749:ISBN
7726:ISBN
7699:ISBN
7572:ISBN
7530:ISBN
7511:ISBN
7492:ISBN
7473:ISBN
7425:ISBN
7398:ISBN
7377:ISBN
7358:ISBN
7267:WORD
7248:ISBN
7221:ISBN
7185:ISBN
7132:ISBN
7067:ISBN
7040:ISBN
7005:ISBN
6969:ISBN
6950:ISBN
6930:ISBN
6886:ISBN
6867:ISBN
6826:ISBN
3702:tone
3578:ḫmn-
3516:six'
3497:ḫams
3440:knɗ-
3433:ayz-
3422:ḫmt-
3402:lam-
3389:PAA
3365:PAA
3353:ṯin-
3333:PAA
3324:two'
3290:PAA
3284:ꜥfty
3278:ista
3255:and
3217:*whd
3215:PAA
3206:one'
3167:and
3153:*lam
3123:and
3115:and
3109:*-t-
3095:and
3091:The
3077:*-t-
3075:and
3065:*-m-
3063:and
3061:*-n-
3057:*-n-
3053:*-m-
3033:', '
3029:', '
3023:*-t-
3009:*-s-
2917:ʔan-
2900:*-0
2725:*yV-
2703:*ʔV-
2662:TAMs
2626:*ʔaw
2618:*ʔay
2597:*ʔaw
2554:*ha-
2546:*kaa
2491:*ši
2477:*šu
2449:*ti
2446:*ki
2432:*ki
2415:*ta
2412:*ku
2327:and
2279:-*ay
2275:-*iy
2244:ḥmww
2238:-āwi
2195:*mV-
2180:*mV-
2172:*-m-
2168:*mV-
2160:*ma-
2131:*-kV
2119:*-Vd
2115:*-dV
2011:*-is
2003:*-i
1995:-*ī
1984:-*ū
1967:Case
1929:dual
1854:*-āy
1850:*-āʔ
1842:*-Vw
1838:*-Vy
1658:glow
1636:mora
1562:and
1550:and
1490:and
1446:*tṷl
1406:*bVn
1368:Item
1307:j, r
1229:j, y
1095:E: n
1003:E: ḥ
891:*k'
631:and
602:*tlʼ
596:and
494:ɬ/tɬ
397:and
249:*mV-
233:dual
194:tone
160:The
58:See
8063:doi
8029:doi
7989:doi
7924:doi
7889:doi
7768:doi
7718:doi
7682:doi
7665:doi
7628:doi
7599:doi
7553:doi
7456:doi
7417:doi
7350:doi
7323:hdl
7315:doi
7275:doi
7240:doi
7177:doi
7124:doi
7099:doi
7059:doi
7032:doi
6997:doi
3622:tẓa
3609:psḏ
3591:tam
3552:sfḫ
3521:srs
3483:fīr
3477:Peč
3465:fd-
3456:*fṭ
3396:lam
3371:*čr
3359:sin
3339:*čn
3309:tok
3292:*tk
3271:),
3268:išt
3228:wḥd
3146:or
3093:*s-
3025:: '
3011:: '
2980:or
2894:3rd
2883:2nd
2872:1st
2764:*ʔ-
2756:*t-
2752:*n-
2719:3rd
2711:2nd
2700:1st
2668:or
2630:*wa
2622:*ya
2613:ʔay
2601:*wa
2582:*m-
2578:*mV
2574:*mi
2570:*ma
2566:*mV
2550:*h-
2542:*k-
2267:-*ī
2265:or
2250:ḥmt
2226:-iy
2203:*mā
2199:*mā
2191:*mā
2156:mV-
2139:*-p
2135:*-l
2129:in
2117:or
2113:in
2096:-iš
2086:-iš
2076:-um
2073:in
2052:*-i
2045:*-a
2040:or
2034:*-u
1992:*-a
1981:*-u
1950:-ay
1871:*-i
1867:*-u
1810:).
1696:or
1611:CVC
1608:CV:
1498:or
1386:*dṃ
1241:*y
1223:*y
1220:*y
1215:*w
1189:*n
1163:*m
1137:*r
1109:*l
1034:*ʿ
1031:*ʿ
1000:*ḥ
997:*ḥ
994:*ḥ
963:*ʾ
940:*c
934:*ŝ
931:*ĉ
902:*š
888:*k'
885:*k'
882:*k'
875:*k'
872:*ḳ
869:*k'
864:*k
837:*g
810:*t
784:*d
730:*p
704:*b
586:*tʼ
548:ŋʷ]
518:tʃʼ
503:ħ ʕ
466:t d
463:p b
257:*mV
243:or
143:kya
119:PAA
66:Era
8081::
8035:.
8025:14
8023:.
7985:59
7983:.
7979:.
7932:.
7920:14
7918:.
7914:.
7895:.
7774:.
7724:.
7659:.
7642:.
7634:.
7624:59
7622:.
7605:.
7595:81
7593:.
7589:.
7549:20
7547:.
7452:37
7450:.
7433:.
7423:.
7356:.
7331:.
7321:.
7311:81
7309:.
7298:17
7296:.
7271:43
7269:.
7265:.
7246:.
7183:.
7140:.
7130:.
7105:.
7095:72
7093:.
7065:.
7038:.
7013:.
7003:.
6912:.
6854:54
6852:.
6754:^
6739:^
6664:^
6589:^
6526:^
6511:^
6412:^
6385:^
6370:^
6343:^
6328:^
6313:^
6214:^
6139:^
6064:^
6013:^
5746:^
5731:^
5644:^
5627:^
5588:^
5413:^
5194:^
5117:^
5042:^
4975:^
4958:^
4931:^
4868:^
4841:^
4728:^
4701:^
4682:^
4667:^
4592:^
4501:^
4486:^
4457:^
4430:^
4353:^
4322:^
4247:^
4172:^
4109:^
4070:^
4049:^
3986:^
3947:^
3920:^
3893:^
3874:^
3857:^
3806:^
3791:^
3772:^
3565:sa
3383:čr
3262:iğ
3251:,
3222:wꜥ
3129:-t
3125:n-
3121:s-
3117:-t
3113:-s
3086:-t
3082:n-
2803:u-
2789:,
2652:.
2644:,
2572:,
2538:k-
2534:k-
2530:t-
2526:n-
2522:t-
2518:n-
2460:3
2358:1
2232:-j
2186:.
2166:,
2162:,
2141:.
2102:js
2060:-u
2056:-w
2036:,
2014:–
1943:-ā
1906:*a
1877:.
1769:.
1724:.
1700:.
1676:.
1668:,
1664:,
1660:,
1605:CV
1564:*ə
1560:*a
1552:*o
1548:*e
1544:*u
1540:*ü
1538:,
1536:*i
1534:,
1532:*o
1530:,
1528:*e
1526:,
1524:*a
1520:*u
1516:*i
1514:,
1512:*o
1510:,
1508:*e
1506:,
1504:*a
1492:*ə
1488:*a
1483:.
1473:*u
1469:*i
1467:,
1465:*a
1339:*b
1322:ḏ
1276:*d
1264:*ʕ
1238:*y
1235:*y
1232:*y
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