Comparative method

29: 408: 5926: 3195: 3122:. While it does not invalidate the Neogrammarians' axiom that "sound laws have no exceptions", the gradual application of the very sound laws shows that they do not always apply to all lexical items at the same time. Hock notes, "While it probably is true in the long run every word has its own history, it is not justified to conclude as some linguists have, that therefore the Neogrammarian position on the nature of linguistic change is falsified". 5918: 510:, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the 3769:"The reason for this similarity and the cause of this intermixture was their close neighboring in the land and their genealogical closeness, since Terah the father of Abraham was Syrian, and Laban was Syrian. Ishmael and Kedar were Arabized from the Time of Division, the time of the confounding at Babel, and Abraham and Isaac and Jacob (peace be upon them) retained the Holy Tongue from the original Adam." 3214:, the maximum geographical extension of a linguistic change as it propagated through the speaker population. These circles, which represent successive historical events of propagation, typically intersect. Each language in the family differs as to which isoglosses it belongs to: which innovations it reflects. The tree model presumes that all the circles should be nested and never crosscut, but studies in 3243:

doubtfull whether the Danes and the Swedes could not, in general, understand each other tolerably well... nor is it possible to say if the twenty ways of pronouncing the sounds, belonging to the Chinese characters, ought or ought not to be considered as so many languages or dialects.... But,... the languages so nearly allied must stand next to each other in a systematic order…

2911:' fundamental assumption that "sound laws have no exceptions". When it was initially proposed, critics of the Neogrammarians proposed an alternate position that summarised by the maxim "each word has its own history". Several types of change actually alter words in irregular ways. Unless identified, they may hide or distort laws and cause false perceptions of relationship. 3170: 330:, which Russian was not affected by. The fact that English and German share this innovation is seen as evidence of English and German's more recent common ancestor—since the innovation actually took place within that common ancestor, before English and German diverged into separate languages. On the other hand, 3273:. A change in one language of a family may spread to neighboring languages, and multiple waves of change are communicated like waves across language and dialect boundaries, each with its own randomly delimited range. If a language is divided into an inventory of features, each with its own time and range ( 4139:"Superficially, however, the Piraha pronouns don't look much like the Tupi–Guarani pronouns; so this proposal will not be convincing without some additional information about the phonology of Piraha that shows how the phonetic realizations of the Tupi–Guarani forms align with the Piraha phonemic system." 1151:() is like the six Polynesian forms because of borrowing from Tongan into English, not because of a genetic similarity. That problem can usually be overcome by using basic vocabulary, such as kinship terms, numbers, body parts and pronouns. Nonetheless, even basic vocabulary can be sometimes borrowed. 2889:

is not, in fact, historical; it provides evidence of linguistic relationships to which we may give a historical interpretation.... has probably made historical linguists less prone to equate the idealizations required by the method with historical reality.... Provided we keep apart, the Comparative

3233:

The tree model features nodes that are presumed to be distinct proto-languages existing independently in distinct regions during distinct historical times. The reconstruction of unattested proto-languages lends itself to that illusion since they cannot be verified, and the linguist is free to select

2939:. At first sight, borrowed words may mislead the investigator into seeing a genetic relationship, although they can more easily be identified with information on the historical stages of both the donor and receiver languages. Inherently, words that were borrowed from a common source (such as English 711:

This step involves making lists of words that are likely cognates among the languages being compared. If there is a regularly-recurring match between the phonetic structure of basic words with similar meanings, a genetic kinship can probably then be established. For example, linguists looking at the

3289:

can cut across well-established linguistic boundaries at first created considerable attention and controversy. And it became fashionable to oppose a wave theory to a tree theory.... Today, however, it is quite evident that the phenomena referred to by these two terms are complementary aspects of

3242:

It is not, however, very easy to say what the definition should be that should constitute a separate language, but it seems most natural to call those languages distinct, of which the one cannot be understood by common persons in the habit of speaking the other.... Still, however, it may remain

2881:, becoming known as "Kossinna's Law". Kossinna asserted that cultures represent ethnic groups, including their languages, but his law was rejected after World War II. The fall of Kossinna's Law removed the temporal and spatial framework previously applied to many proto-languages. Fox concludes: 225:

In some cases, this reconstruction can only be partial, generally because the compared languages are too scarcely attested, the temporal distance between them and their proto-language is too deep, or their internal evolution render many of the sound laws obscure to researchers. In such case, a

68:

in which the internal development of a single language is inferred by the analysis of features within that language. Ordinarily, both methods are used together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages; to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language; to discover the development of

112:

side by side with its really existent derived languages. Besides the advantages offered by such a plan, in setting immediately before the eyes of the student the final results of the investigation in a more concrete form, and thereby rendering easier his insight into the nature of particular

3263:

It is not so much that the comparative method 'assumes' no variation; rather, it is just that there is nothing built into the comparative method which would allow it to address variation directly.... This assumption of uniformity is a reasonable idealization; it does no more damage to the

403:

compared the phonology and morphology of Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic but attributed the resemblance to the Biblical story of Babel, with Abraham, Isaac and Joseph retaining Adam's language, with other languages at various removes becoming more altered from the original Hebrew.

2809:. The plain voiceless and voiced aspirated series would thus be replaced by just voiceless and voiced, with aspiration being a non-distinctive quality of both. That example of the application of linguistic typology to linguistic reconstruction has become known as the 237:

is defined as transmission across the generations: children learn a language from the parents' generation and, after being influenced by their peers, transmit it to the next generation, and so on. For example, a continuous chain of speakers across the centuries links

2894:

Proto-languages can be verified in many historical instances, such as Latin. Although no longer a law, settlement-archaeology is known to be essentially valid for some cultures that straddle history and prehistory, such as the Celtic Iron Age (mainly Celtic) and

3268:

Different dialects, as they evolve into separate languages, remain in contact with and influence one another. Even after they are considered distinct, languages near one another continue to influence one another and often share grammatical, phonological, and

2776:

An earlier voiceless aspirated row was removed on grounds of insufficient evidence. Since the mid-20th century, a number of linguists have argued that this phonology is implausible and that it is extremely unlikely for a language to have a voiced aspirated

2230:

Although all five correspondence sets overlap with one another in various places, they are not in complementary distribution and so Bloomfield recognised that a different cluster must be reconstructed for each set. His reconstructions were, respectively,

639:

in 1878 that "sound laws have no exceptions". That idea is fundamental to the modern comparative method since it necessarily assumes regular correspondences between sounds in related languages and thus regular sound changes from the proto-language. The

2841:

The limitations of the comparative method were recognized by the very linguists who developed it, but it is still seen as a valuable tool. In the case of Indo-European, the method seemed at least a partial validation of the centuries-old search for an

3118:, acknowledge that even a systematic sound change is applied at first inconsistently, with the percentage of its occurrence in a person's speech dependent on various social factors. The sound change seems to gradually spread in a process known as 3455:

was developed in the 1870s as an alternative to the tree model to represent the historical patterns of language diversification. Both the tree-based and the wave-based representations are compatible with the comparative method.

2279:

Typology assists in deciding what reconstruction best fits the data. For example, the voicing of voiceless stops between vowels is common, but the devoicing of voiced stops in that environment is rare. If a correspondence

3069:

is the sporadic change of a feature to be like another feature in the same or a different language. It may affect a single word or be generalized to an entire class of features, such as a verb paradigm. An example is the

358:, Romans were aware of the similarities between Greek and Latin, but did not study them systematically. They sometimes explained them mythologically, as the result of Rome being a Greek colony speaking a debased dialect. 2363:, but they probably instead went through several intermediate steps before they arrived at the later forms. It is not phonetic similarity that matters for the comparative method but rather regular sound correspondences. 3396:. Since reconstruction involves many such choices, some linguists prefer to view the reconstructed features as abstract representations of sound correspondences, rather than as objects with a historical time and place. 652:

was then by far the most well-studied language family. Linguists working with other families soon followed suit, and the comparative method quickly became the established method for uncovering linguistic relationships.

3218:

and historical linguistics show that assumption to be usually wrong and suggest that the wave-based approach may be more realistic than the tree model. A genealogical family in which isoglosses intersect is called a

207:

The ultimate proof of genetic relationship, and to many linguists' minds the only real proof, lies in a successful reconstruction of the ancestral forms from which the semantically corresponding cognates can be

423:

proto-language, which he called "Scythian", unrelated to Hebrew but ancestral to Germanic, Greek, Romance, Persian, Sanskrit, Slavic, Celtic and Baltic languages. The Scythian theory was further developed by

1222:

in the same position. That is visible in multiple cognate sets: the words glossed as 'one', 'three', 'man' and 'taboo' all show the relationship. The situation is called a "regular correspondence" between

1646:

This stage of the comparative method, therefore, involves examining the correspondence sets discovered in step 2 and seeing which of them apply only in certain contexts. If two (or more) sets apply in

1431:

If there are many regular correspondence sets of this kind (the more, the better), a common origin becomes a virtual certainty, particularly if some of the correspondences are non-trivial or unusual.

2606:. However, languages generally maintain symmetry in their phonemic inventories. In this case, a linguist might attempt to investigate the possibilities that either what was earlier reconstructed as 3392:), but in the absence of any evidence or other reason to postulate a more complicated development, the preference of a simpler explanation is justified by the principle of parsimony, also known as 1214:

The next step involves determining the regular sound-correspondences exhibited by the lists of potential cognates. For example, in the Polynesian data above, it is apparent that words that contain

117:, there is, I think, another of no less importance gained by it, namely that it shows the baselessness of the assumption that the non-Indian Indo-European languages were derived from Old-Indian ( 3399:

The existence of proto-languages and the validity of the comparative method is verifiable if the reconstruction can be matched to a known language, which may be known only as a shadow in the

3264:

understanding of the language than, say, modern reference grammars do which concentrate on a language's general structure, typically leaving out consideration of regional or social variation.

5127: 342:, which English has lost. However, that similarity between German and Russian is not evidence that German is more closely related to Russian than to English but means only that the 186:

Every linguistic fact is part of a whole in which everything is connected to everything else. One detail must not be linked to another detail, but one linguistic system to another.

551:

developed the principle of regular sound-changes to explain his observations of similarities between individual words in the Germanic languages and their cognates in Greek and

5040: 1643:. Following the change, the accent shifted to initial position. Verner solved the puzzle by comparing the Germanic voicing pattern with Greek and Sanskrit accent patterns. 5516: 5890: 531:

The comparative method developed out of attempts to reconstruct the proto-language mentioned by Jones, which he did not name but subsequent linguists have labelled

3247:

The assumption of uniformity in a proto-language, implicit in the comparative method, is problematic. Even small language communities always have differences in

2370:, the reconstruction of a proto-phoneme should require as few sound changes as possible to arrive at the modern reflexes in the daughter languages. For example, 334:

from the parent language are not sufficient evidence of a sub-group. For example, German and Russian both retain from Proto-Indo-European a contrast between the

2508:

That argument assumes the languages other than Arapaho to be at least partly independent of one another. If they all formed a common subgroup, the development

64:

from a shared ancestor and then extrapolating backwards to infer the properties of that ancestor. The comparative method may be contrasted with the method of

178:(along with their underlying sound laws) can then be postulated to explain the correspondences between the attested forms, which eventually allows for the 385:...), they showed little interest in comparing, studying, or just documenting them. Comparison between languages really began after classical antiquity. 687: 2975:. A false proto-language over the area may be reconstructed for them or may be taken to be a third language serving as a source of diffused features. 543:

in 1816. He did not attempt a reconstruction but demonstrated that Greek, Latin and Sanskrit shared a common structure and a common lexicon. In 1808,

425: 326:

that differentiate them from the parent language. For instance, English and German both exhibit the effects of a collection of sound changes known as

5104: 1654:: "some sound changes, particularly conditioned sound changes, can result in a proto-sound being associated with more than one correspondence set". 5509: 315:, but Russian does not. Therefore, English and German are considered to belong to a subgroup of Indo-European that Russian does not belong to, the 5861: 2861:

The archaeologists followed suit and attempted to find archaeological evidence of a culture or cultures that could be presumed to have spoken a

703:, who are both authors of introductory texts in historical linguistics. This abbreviated summary is based on their concepts of how to proceed. 5469: 5428: 5330:

A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin Languages, translated from the third German edition

3259:

is spoken by only several hundred people but has at least two different dialects, one spoken by men and one by women. Campbell points out:

5116: 346:

in question, the loss of the accusative/dative distinction, happened more recently in English than the divergence of English from German.

5929: 5900: 5502: 2791:

provided a potential solution and argued that the series that are traditionally reconstructed as plain voiced should be reconstructed as

2019:

conditions the change), and the sets are complementary. They can, therefore, be assumed to reflect a single proto-phoneme (in this case

3277:), they do not all coincide. History and prehistory may not offer a time and place for a distinct coincidence, as may be the case for 5448: 60:

is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with

5895: 1289:

at the beginning of a word, and whatever sporadic matches can be observed are due either to chance (as in the above example) or to

631:

in the late 19th century led them to conclude that all sound changes were ultimately regular, resulting in the famous statement by

69:

phonological, morphological and other linguistic systems and to confirm or to refute hypothesised relationships between languages.

4058: 3358:

Examples of strikingly complicated and even circular developments are indeed known to have occurred (such as Proto-Indo-European

2983: 5190: 3130:

The comparative method cannot recover aspects of a language that were not inherited in its daughter idioms. For instance, the

272:. Having a large component of vocabulary from a certain origin is not sufficient to establish relatedness; for example, heavy 5291: 5248: 5034: 4978: 4876: 4594: 4559: 3588: 547:

first stated the importance of using the eldest possible form of a language when trying to prove its relationships; in 1818,

203:

Relation is considered to be "established beyond a reasonable doubt" if a reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible.

4748:

Young, Thomas (1855), "Languages, From the Supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. V, 1824", in Leitch, John (ed.),

3773: 695:

There is no fixed set of steps to be followed in the application of the comparative method, but some steps are suggested by

2296:, with a development to the voiced form in the second language. The opposite reconstruction would represent a rare type. 544: 3006:

Sporadic changes, such as irregular inflections, compounding and abbreviation, do not follow any laws. For example, the

1483:

Second, it was found that sometimes sound changes occurred in contexts that were later lost. For instance, in Sanskrit

182:

of a proto-language by the methodical comparison of "linguistic facts" within a generalized system of correspondences.

61: 2070:

used the reflexes of the clusters in four of the daughter languages to reconstruct the following correspondence sets:

5229: 3795: 5449:"Everything you ever wanted to know about Proto-Indo-European (and the comparative method), but were afraid to ask!" 4867:; Dixon, R. M. W. (1999), "Other small families and isolates", in Dixon, R. M. W.; Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (eds.), 4256:

The asterisk (*) indicates that the sound is inferred/reconstructed, rather than historically documented or attested

579:

Both Rask and Grimm were unable to explain apparent exceptions to the sound laws that they had discovered. Although

307:

but is more closely related to the former than to the latter. Although all three languages share a common ancestor,

5953: 5836: 4141:"Pronoun borrowing" Sarah G. Thomason & Daniel L. Everett University of Michigan & University of Manchester 1907: 5018: 5948: 2788: 669: 5678: 1231:

in the other Polynesian languages. Similarly, a regular correspondence can be seen between Hawaiian and Rapanui

447:

Another early systematic attempt to prove the relationship between two languages on the basis of similarity of

419:

first described a rigorous methodology for historical linguistic comparisons and proposed the existence of an

2899:(mainly Greek). None of those models can be or have been completely rejected, but none is sufficient alone. 5885: 645: 109: 20: 5093: 4204: 3103: 3098: 3092: 3087: 3083: 2806: 2799: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2731: 2726: 2703: 2698: 2359: 2341: 2215: 2190: 2183: 2167: 1999: 1988: 1132: 1127: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1092: 1087: 1082: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1019: 1005: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 960: 955: 942: 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 897: 892: 879: 874: 869: 864: 859: 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 683: 679: 603:

could depend on other factors within the same word (such as neighbouring phonemes and the position of the

2960: 2923:

from other languages in various contexts. Loanwords imitate the form of the donor language, as in Finnic

480: 163:, etc.), and if they are sufficiently numerous, regular, and systematic that they cannot be dismissed as 3234:

whatever definite times and places seems best. Right from the outset of Indo-European studies, however,

1461:

evolved into an unaspirated one, but only if a second aspirate occurred later in the same word; this is

104:, originally published in 1861. Here is Schleicher's explanation of why he offered reconstructed forms: 5784: 5774: 2667: 2055:. If more evidence along those lines were given, one might conclude that an alteration of the original 1647: 1439:

During the late 18th to late 19th century, two major developments improved the method's effectiveness.

416: 5683: 5648: 5560: 3177:

language family spoken throughout the southern and western United States and Mexico. Families are in

292:, but Persian remains a member of the Indo-Iranian family and is not considered "related" to Arabic. 179: 5415: 5169: 5094:"In Further Defence of a Non-Phonological Account for Sanskrit Root-Initial Aspiration Alternations" 4752:, vol. III, Hieroglyphical Essays and Correspondence, &c., London: John Murray, p. 480 4078: 3828:"The Third Anniversary Discourse delivered 2 February 1786 By the President [on the Hindus]" 3827: 5759: 5610: 4997: 3235: 3199: 3055: 2982:, a wider region sharing features that appear to be related but are diffusional. For instance, the 2963:, when features are adopted by contiguous languages over a geographical area. The borrowing may be 1303:, both ultimately of Greek origin). However, English and Latin exhibit a regular correspondence of 1281:

since a large set of English and Latin non-borrowed cognates cannot be assembled such that English

700: 45: 5476: 5395: 394: 5868: 5843: 5565: 5545: 5526: 3476: 3464: 3459:

By contrast, some approaches are incompatible with the comparative method, including contentious

2825: 1524: 649: 536: 420: 114: 65: 4427:

Tabain, Marija; Garellek, Marc; Hellwig, Birgit; Gregory, Adele; Beare, Richard (1 March 2022).

2633:

Even a symmetrical system can be typologically suspicious. For example, here is the traditional

2271:

are arbitrary symbols, rather than attempts to guess the phonetic value of the proto-phonemes).

5693: 5410: 5356: 5164: 4889:; Dixon, R. M. W. (2001), "Introduction", in Dixon, R. M. W.; Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (eds.), 4073: 3481: 3138:, resulting in an impossibility to fully reconstruct such a feature via systematic comparison. 2896: 2742: 1455: 665: 573: 560: 503: 476: 5124:

Let's Talk about Trees: Genetic Relationships of Languages and Their Phylogenic Representation

4140: 432:(1713), who made early forays to reconstruct the primitive common language. In 1710 and 1723, 5769: 5673: 5668: 5663: 3278: 3225: 3174: 716:

might come up with a list similar to the following (their actual list would be much longer):

628: 548: 518:, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the 468: 247: 81: 73: 5117:"Freeing the Comparative Method from the tree model: A framework for Historical Glottometry" 2907:

The foundation of the comparative method, and of comparative linguistics in general, is the

16:

Technique for studying the historical development of languages, based on language comparison

5653: 5627: 5570: 4886: 4864: 4734:

This diagram is based partly on the one found in Fox 1995:128, and Johannes Schmidt, 1872.

3340: 2579: 2381: 2371: 2367: 2328: 2093: 2079: 1640: 1470: 1183: 713: 604: 148: 5452: 3630:"From cumulative to separative exponence in inflection: Reversing the morphological cycle" 8: 5804: 5643: 2995: 2986:, before it was recognised, suggested several false classifications of such languages as 2828:

and so on. The full reconstruction of an unrecorded protolanguage is an open-ended task.

2796: 2683: 2634: 2529: 2388: 2300: 1935: 1688: 1013: 532: 355: 308: 4107: 2816:

The reconstruction of proto-sounds logically precedes the reconstruction of grammatical

80:

in the late 19th–early 20th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars

5921: 5905: 5764: 5729: 5714: 5585: 5313: 5218: 5213: 5182: 5126:, Senri Ethnological Studies, 98, Ōsaka: National Museum of Ethnology, pp. 59–89, 5068: 4931: 4911: 4458: 4099: 3752: 3665: 3657: 3412: 3336: 3270: 2866: 2803: 2784: 2409: 2312: 2100: 2067: 1636: 1462: 1203: 1175: 584: 569: 511: 464: 400: 316: 289: 5051:

Goddard, Ives (1974). "An Outline of the Historical Phonology of Arapaho and Atsina".

3252: 1191: 591:

made a methodological breakthrough in 1875, when he identified a pattern now known as

568:(published 1819–1837 in four volumes), which attempted to show the development of the 456: 167:, then it must be assumed that they descend from a single parent language called the ' 5917: 5819: 5809: 5739: 5688: 5638: 5494: 5325: 5287: 5244: 5225: 5080: 5072: 5030: 4974: 4872: 4600: 4590: 4565: 4555: 4462: 4450: 3744: 3669: 3649: 3584: 3220: 3135: 3119: 2873:, 1926. Childe was a philologist turned archaeologist. Those views culminated in the 1658: 1632: 1492: 1477: 1198:

of South America, which has been controversially claimed to have borrowed all of its

1077: 580: 382: 370: 269: 213: 144: 97: 37: 5475:. Department of Linguistics, University of California, Santa Barbara. Archived from 4103: 3150:) of language evolution, in which daughter languages are seen as branching from the 2890:

Method can continue to be used in the reconstruction of earlier stages of languages.

887: 5814: 5794: 5754: 5744: 5719: 5658: 5633: 5605: 5590: 5555: 5550: 5420: 5368: 5186: 5174: 5149: 5060: 4923: 4440: 4393: 4091: 4083: 3641: 3486: 3460: 3408: 3404: 3393: 3332: 3300: 3159: 3131: 3071: 3007: 2987: 2810: 2739: 2711: 2653: 2646: 2416: 2063: 2015:

occurs elsewhere, the difference is caused by different environments (being before

1928: 1921: 1681: 1674: 1251: 1187: 1171: 1152: 950: 519: 515: 472: 433: 378: 374: 366: 304: 296: 281: 257: 152: 1311:(in which "A : B" means "A corresponds to B"), as in the following examples: 5749: 5724: 5580: 5270: 5258: 5201: 4968: 3799: 3777: 3770: 3378: 2951:) do share a genetic relationship, although limited to the history of this word. 2878: 2660: 2402: 2332: 1942: 1695: 1621: 1515:. The situation could be reconstructed only because the original distribution of 1484: 1195: 1162: 824: 761: 636: 592: 339: 300: 261: 191: 5206:

Phonetic Data Analysis: An Introduction to Fieldwork and Instrumental Techniques

3415:, and the shape of the loans matches the forms that have been reconstructed for 1639:

underwent a change that was determined by the position of the old Indo-European

1434: 502:, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the 361:

Even though grammarians of Antiquity had access to other languages around them (

295:

However, it is possible for languages to have different degrees of relatedness.

5799: 5595: 5424: 4445: 4428: 4182: 3997: 3491: 3416: 3367: 3299:

The reconstruction of unknown proto-languages is inherently subjective. In the

3151: 2862: 2855: 2792: 2603: 2587: 2024: 1458: 624: 460: 429: 362: 327: 312: 253: 168: 93: 77: 28: 4039: 288:

of Modern Persian to be from Arabic than from the direct ancestor of Persian,

40:

based on the comparative method. The family tree has been rendered here as an

5942: 5734: 5709: 4964: 4952: 4899: 4604: 4569: 4454: 3748: 3653: 3115: 3066: 2991: 2908: 2778: 2395: 1447: 1179: 1144: 696: 632: 164: 41: 5141:

Lexikon der älteren germanischen Lehnwörter in den ostseefinnischen Sprachen

5103:. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Department of Linguistics: 246–260. 4891:

Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics

1473: 322:

The division of related languages into subgroups is accomplished by finding

5779: 5600: 5373: 5139:

Kylstra, A. D.; Sirkka-Liisa, Hahmo; Hofstra, Tette; Nikkilä, Osmo (1996).

3496: 3215: 3207: 3079: 2931:('king'), with possible adaptations to the local phonology, as in Japanese 2086: 407: 239: 175: 147:. If those correspondences cannot be rationally explained as the result of 135:

The aim of the comparative method is to highlight and interpret systematic

72:

The comparative method emerged in the early 19th century with the birth of

5178: 5022: 4584: 4549: 3792: 3645: 3281:, for which the proto-language is only a concept. However, Hock observes: 3169: 1442:

First, it was found that many sound changes are conditioned by a specific

5789: 5575: 5382: 2847: 2674: 2591: 2519: 1657:

For example, the following potential cognate list can be established for

1625: 588: 555: 335: 89: 85: 53: 4095: 3756: 3732: 3661: 3629: 5396:"Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns" 5317: 4957:

American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America

4087: 3452: 3203: 2979: 2851: 2821: 540: 441: 285: 160: 33: 4935: 3771:

Introduction of Risalat Yehuda Ibn Quraysh – مقدمة رسالة يهوذا بن قريش

3251:, whether they are based on area, gender, class or other factors. The 1266:(both with the same meaning), has no probative value. English initial 5361:

Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society

4212: 3467:

considered by most historical linguists to be flawed and unreliable.

3335:, the second spread out more widely and developed into all the other 3194: 3155: 2964: 2846:, the original language. The others were presumed to be ordered in a 2843: 2813:. It has a large number of proponents but is not generally accepted. 2481:

is reconstructed, it is necessary to assume five separate changes of

596: 484: 437: 140: 136: 102:

Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen

5277:. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5143:(in German). Vol. Band II: K-O. Amsterdam, Atlanta: Rodopi B.V. 4893:, Oxford Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1–22 3339:

tribes. It is also possible that the nearest common ancestor of the

92:(1785–1863). The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a 5301: 5064: 4927: 3400: 3286: 3274: 3211: 2978:

Several areal features and other influences may converge to form a

2968: 2920: 2817: 1466: 1451: 1290: 1140: 675: 595:, the first sound-law based on comparative evidence showing that a 499: 459:

in 1770, when he attempted to demonstrate the relationship between

273: 156: 118: 5101:

Proceedings of the Fifth Eastern States Conference on Linguistics

3308: 3248: 3163: 3146:

The comparative method is used to construct a tree model (German

2525: 2289: 1651: 1199: 600: 452: 448: 108:

In the present work an attempt is made to set forth the inferred

76:, then took a definite scientific approach with the works of the 644:

led to the application of the comparative method to reconstruct

5023:"Trees, Waves and Linkages: Models of Language Diversification" 5011:

Linguistic Reconstruction: An Introduction to Theory and Method

3323:

in those positions split into two branches, one that preserved

3256: 2972: 2493:

is reconstructed, it is necessary to assume only one change of

1218:

in most of the languages listed have cognates in Hawaiian with

311:, English and German also share a more recent common ancestor, 277: 5087:(2nd revised and updated ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 4914:(December 1925). "On the Sound-System of Central Algonquian". 572:

from a common origin, which was the first systematic study of

5304:(Autumn 1974). "The Grassmann's Law Ordering Pseudoparadox". 4736:

Die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der indogermanischen Sprachen

3154:, gradually growing more distant from it through accumulated 2820:(word-forming affixes and inflectional endings), patterns of 2781:) series without a corresponding voiceless aspirated series. 1662: 1528: 1435:

Step 3, discover which sets are in complementary distribution

1258: 507: 488: 265: 5451:. University of Texas Department of Classics. Archived from 4426: 2524:

In the final step, the linguist checks to see how the proto-

5891:

Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences

4057:

Nevins, Andrew; Pesetsky, David; Rodrigues, Cilene (2009).

1147:

can skew or obscure the correct data. For example, English

706: 3319:. It is conceivable that a Proto-Algonquian language with 1174:

borrowed the pronouns "they", "them", and "their(s)" from

5470:"Week 3:Comparative method and linguistic reconstruction" 5332:. Translated by Bendall, Herbert. London: Trübner and Co. 4586:

Linguistic historiography : projects & prospects

3560: 3189: 2445:

The simplest reconstruction for this set would be either

4429:"Voicing in Qaqet: Prenasalization and language contact" 3331:

instead, and while the first branch developed only into

2836: 1209: 4056: 3597: 3114:

Those who study contemporary language changes, such as

583:

explained one of the anomalies with the publication of

5524: 2520:

Step 5, examine the reconstructed system typologically

2327:

in Armenian. Similarly, in Bearlake, a dialect of the

2319:. Several other cognates demonstrate a regular change 4687: 3294: 2516:

would have to be assumed to have occurred only once.

2274: 539:

that were then known was made by the German linguist

535:(PIE). The first professional comparison between the 4394:"Vocabulary Words in the Algonquian Language Family" 3173:

An example of the Tree Model, used to represent the

2335:, there has been a sound change of Proto-Athabaskan 2288:

between vowels is found in two languages, the proto-

674:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see 3581:

Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction

2062:A more complex case involves consonant clusters in 1650:, they can be assumed to reflect a single original 1541:vowel that caused the consonant shift in Sanskrit: 5217: 5004:(2nd ed.). Auckland: Oxford University Press. 4551:Studies in Germanic, Indo-European and Indo-Uralic 3609: 3285:The discovery in the late nineteenth century that 3102:under influence of the word for "ten" in Russian, 4717:The diagram is based on the hierarchical list in 1285:repeatedly and consistently corresponds to Latin 226:relation is considered plausible, but uncertain. 196:La méthode comparative en linguistique historique 5940: 5350:(4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5027:The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics 4871:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 341–384, 4391: 3427:'beautiful' match the Germanic reconstructions * 3411:have borrowed many words from an early stage of 1876: 1828: 1780: 1732: 688:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters 5862:Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages 5355:Thomason, Sarah G.; Everett, Daniel L. (2005). 5339:Studies in the Indo-European System of Numerals 4165: 4163: 2059:took place because of a different environment. 1499:-like sounds) whenever the following vowel was 1155:, for example, borrowed the word for "mother", 5282:Pukui, Mary Kawena; Elbert, Samuel H. (1986). 5220:Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics 2902: 1523:could be recovered from the evidence of other 1507:. Subsequent to this change, all instances of 5510: 5241:An Introduction to the Languages of the World 5122:, in Kikusawa, Ritsuko; Reid, Laurie (eds.), 5053:International Journal of American Linguistics 4817:, p. 62 for KAUNIS, p. 122 for KUNINGAS. 3830:. Eliohs Electronic Library of Historiography 3826:Jones, Sir William. Abbattista, Guido (ed.). 1867: 1858: 1819: 1810: 1771: 1762: 1723: 1714: 1156: 268:and therefore belong to the same family, the 5092:Janda, Richard D.; Joseph, Brian D. (1989). 5025:, in Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn (eds.), 4750:Miscellaneous works of the late Thomas Young 4160: 3943: 3941: 2871:The Aryans: a study of Indo-European origins 1885: 1837: 1789: 1741: 1165: 5901:Russian State University for the Humanities 3202:has been proposed as an alternative to the 3185:. Not all branches and languages are shown. 2046: 2040: 2034: 2028: 1532: 1417: 1405: 1393: 1381: 1369: 1294: 1261: 5517: 5503: 5393: 5345: 5336: 5324: 5243:. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. 5115:Kalyan, Siva; François, Alexandre (2018), 4987: 4973:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: The MIT Press. 4910: 4885: 4863: 4762: 4669: 4629: 4617: 4511: 4487: 4367: 4363: 4351: 4127: 3968: 3908: 3896: 3884: 3872: 3860: 3848: 3813: 3554: 3530: 3206:for representing language change. In this 3078:. The word, by regular sound changes from 2374:exhibit the following correspondence set: 2299:However, unusual sound changes occur. The 614: 526: 5414: 5372: 5348:Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics 5286:. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 5200: 5168: 5002:An Introduction to Historical Linguistics 4766: 4547: 4444: 4392:Redish, Laura; Lewis, Orrin (1998–2009). 4077: 3938: 3125: 1580: Velars replaced by palatals before 1161:, from Proto-Germanic *aiþį̄ (compare to 349: 5896:Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics 5354: 4963: 4951: 4942: 4842: 4778: 4722: 4641: 4379: 4339: 4326: 4314: 4123: 4026: 3960: 3920: 3787: 3785: 3706: 3193: 3168: 3034:by regular sound changes from the Latin 707:Step 1, assemble potential cognate lists 406: 27: 5257: 5212: 5196:from the original on 21 September 2017. 5138: 5050: 5029:, London: Routledge, pp. 161–189, 4996: 4970:Historical Linguistics: An Introduction 4814: 4693: 4582: 4414: 4150: 4148: 4059:"Pirahã Exceptionality: a Reassessment" 3967:, pp. 88–89 using sources such as 3964: 3932: 3809: 3807: 3793:The genesis of polyphyletic linguistics 3730: 3627: 3603: 3578: 3566: 3542: 3515: 3343:used some other sound instead, such as 2984:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area 1899:They evidence two correspondence sets, 5941: 5269: 5263:La Méthode Comparative en Linguistique 5238: 5133:from the original on 29 September 2022 5110:from the original on 6 September 2006. 4898: 4846: 4718: 4705: 4665: 4653: 4523: 4499: 4475: 4302: 4290: 4228: 4169: 4154: 4014: 3984: 3947: 3733:"Aeolism: Latin as a Dialect of Greek" 3718: 3694: 3682: 3190:The presumption of a well-defined node 3109: 2959:Borrowing on a larger scale occurs in 2532:. For example, a hypothetical system, 467:. That work was later extended to all 395:Uralic languages § Uralic studies 5498: 5381: 5281: 5275:The Languages of Native North America 5147: 5091: 5046:from the original on 4 September 2014 4904:Comparative Indo-European Linguistics 4747: 4721:, pp. 539–540 and on the map in 4244: 3972: 3782: 3210:, each circle represents a "wave" or 2837:The history of historical linguistics 1250:Mere phonetic similarity, as between 1210:Step 2, establish correspondence sets 5389:. New York: Oxford University Press. 5085:Principles of Historical Linguistics 5079: 5013:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4992:. Tonga: Government Printing Office. 4959:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4802: 4681: 4145: 3804: 3615: 3583:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 3. 3526: 3524: 3446: 2473:occurs in five of the languages and 2007:where the other languages also have 1190:. An extreme case is represented by 678:. For the distinction between , 440:, introducing among others the term 218:Principles of Historical Linguistics 143:correspondences between two or more 88:(1846–1896), and the German scholar 5446: 5403:Journal of Language Contact – Varia 5300: 5008: 4945:Compendium of the World's Languages 4790: 4535: 4338:The table is modified from that in 4240: 4215:form of the word later attested as 3001: 2307:, for example, is reconstructed as 1631:1875, provides a similar case: the 436:first formulated the regularity of 411:Title page of Sajnovic's 1770 work. 13: 5467: 4947:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge. 4396:. Native Languages of the Americas 3403:of another language. For example, 3295:Subjectivity of the reconstruction 3090:. It is believed that the initial 2954: 2877:, or "settlement-archaeology", of 2275:Step 4, reconstruct proto-phonemes 1607: The attested Sanskrit form: 522:might be added to the same family. 415:In publications of 1647 and 1654, 299:, for example, is related to both 242:to all of its modern descendants. 44:without overlapping subareas. The 14: 5965: 5440: 5346:Szemerényi, Oswald J. L. (1996). 5337:Szemerényi, Oswald J. L. (1960). 3825: 3521: 3141: 1906: 564:, used the comparative method in 5925: 5924: 5916: 5837:Journal of Language Relationship 5434:from the original on 9 May 2008. 2831: 2027:). The original Latin words are 1537:, "and", preserves the original 619:Similar discoveries made by the 475:. However, the origin of modern 252:if they descended from the same 4988:Churchward, C. Maxwell (1959). 4836: 4820: 4808: 4796: 4784: 4772: 4756: 4741: 4728: 4711: 4699: 4675: 4659: 4647: 4635: 4623: 4611: 4576: 4541: 4529: 4517: 4505: 4493: 4481: 4469: 4420: 4408: 4385: 4373: 4357: 4345: 4332: 4320: 4308: 4296: 4284: 4259: 4250: 4234: 4222: 4193: 4175: 4133: 4117: 4050: 4032: 4020: 4008: 3990: 3978: 3953: 3926: 3914: 3902: 3890: 3878: 3866: 3854: 3842: 3819: 3763: 3724: 3712: 3700: 3688: 3676: 1561: Pre-Sanskrit "and" 1491:-like sounds) were replaced by 670:International Phonetic Alphabet 399:In the 9th or 10th century AD, 110:Indo-European original language 3621: 3572: 3548: 3536: 3509: 3347:, which eventually mutated to 656: 491:, who in 1786 made his famous 388: 229: 32:Linguistic map representing a 1: 4856: 3579:Fortson, Benjamin W. (2011). 3303:example above, the choice of 1628: 324:shared linguistic innovations 130: 125: 5886:Evolution of Human Languages 5394:Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2009). 5150:"Transmission and diffusion" 5017: 4943:Campbell, George L. (2000). 4906:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 4826: 4548:Kortlandt, Frederik (2010). 3959:This table is modified from 3463:and even more controversial 3022:('miracle') would have been 2914: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2730: 2725: 2722: 2719: 2716: 2702: 2697: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2602:, there is no corresponding 2438: 2435: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2223: 2220: 2213: 2210: 2198: 2195: 2188: 2181: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 1986: 1983: 1980: 1977: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1956: 1892: 1883: 1874: 1865: 1856: 1844: 1835: 1826: 1817: 1808: 1796: 1787: 1778: 1769: 1760: 1748: 1739: 1730: 1721: 1712: 1599: 1572: 1553: 1415: 1403: 1391: 1379: 1367: 1351: 1344: 1337: 1330: 1323: 1186:borrowed their numbers from 1131: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1106: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1068: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1004: 999: 994: 989: 984: 979: 974: 969: 964: 959: 954: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 878: 873: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 815: 810: 805: 800: 795: 790: 785: 780: 775: 770: 765: 21:Comparative (disambiguation) 7: 5239:Lyovin, Anatole V. (1997). 4589:. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. 3470: 3327:and one that changed it to 3054:changed places by sporadic 2903:The Neogrammarian principle 2345:. It is very unlikely that 48:allows overlapping regions. 10: 5970: 5425:10.1163/000000009792497788 4831:Kalyan & François 2018 4583:Koerner, E. F. K. (1999). 4446:10.1016/j.wocn.2022.101138 3731:Stevens, Benjamin (2006). 3181:, individual languages in 3061: 2505:would be most economical. 1648:complementary distribution 1360: 1316: 471:in 1799 by his countryman 455:was made by the Hungarian 417:Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn 392: 18: 5914: 5878: 5853: 5828: 5702: 5619: 5561:Linguistic reconstruction 5533: 4265:More accurately, earlier 3373:> Proto-West-Germanic 2947:, ultimately from Arabic 2586:, and although it has an 609:conditioning environments 5879:Institutions and schools 5760:Vladislav Illich-Svitych 5341:. Heidelberg: C. Winter. 4887:Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 4865:Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 4126:, pp. 8–12 in pdf; 3502: 3362:> Pre-Proto-Germanic 2477:in only one of them, if 2311:, which is reflected in 642:Neogrammarian hypothesis 623:(usually translated as " 607:), which are now called 506:, more copious than the 479:is often traced back to 5954:Comparative linguistics 5869:The Languages of Africa 5566:Internal reconstruction 5546:Etymological dictionary 5527:comparative linguistics 5148:Labov, William (2007). 5114: 4869:The Amazonian Languages 4830: 3963:, pp. 168–169 and 3477:Comparative linguistics 3465:mass lexical comparison 2927:, from Proto-Germanic * 2885:The Comparative Method 2530:typological constraints 1525:Indo-European languages 1446:. For example, in both 1166: 666:phonetic transcriptions 615:Neo-grammarian approach 558:, better known for his 537:Indo-European languages 527:Comparative linguistics 284:has caused more of the 115:Indo-European languages 66:internal reconstruction 5949:Historical linguistics 5387:Historical Linguistics 5374:10.3765/bls.v27i1.1107 3628:Igartua, Iván (2015). 3482:Historical linguistics 3292: 3266: 3245: 3230: 3186: 3126:Non-inherited features 2897:Mycenaean civilization 2892: 2349:changed directly into 2051:, all with an initial 2047: 2041: 2035: 2029: 1886: 1877: 1868: 1859: 1838: 1829: 1820: 1811: 1790: 1781: 1772: 1763: 1742: 1733: 1724: 1715: 1533: 1465:, first described for 1418: 1406: 1394: 1382: 1370: 1295: 1262: 1157: 663:This article contains 524: 477:historical linguistics 412: 350:Origin and development 223: 201: 174:A sequence of regular 123: 49: 5770:Alexis Manaster Ramer 5224:. London: Routledge. 5179:10.1353/lan.2007.0082 5009:Fox, Anthony (1995). 4554:. Amsterdam: Rodopi. 4366:, p. 28; citing 3737:The Classical Journal 3721:, pp. 22, 27–29. 3646:10.1353/lan.2015.0032 3351:in one branch and to 3290:linguistic change.... 3283: 3261: 3240: 3197: 3172: 2883: 2292:is more likely to be 1661:, which descend from 629:University of Leipzig 549:Rasmus Christian Rask 496: 469:Finno-Ugric languages 410: 205: 184: 149:linguistic universals 106: 74:Indo-European studies 31: 5611:Leipzig–Jakarta list 5571:Linguistic universal 5208:. Oxford: Blackwell. 4900:Beekes, Robert S. P. 4526:, pp. 4–5, 7–8. 4433:Journal of Phonetics 3798:26 July 2011 at the 3776:29 July 2009 at the 3341:Algonquian languages 3134:pattern was lost in 3086:, but it is in fact 2875:Siedlungsarchaologie 2469:are likely. Because 2372:Algonquian languages 2368:principle of economy 2066:. The Algonquianist 1893: to hunt 1527:. For instance, the 1293:(for example, Latin 1235:, Tongan and Samoan 1184:East Asian languages 749: octopus 19:For other uses, see 5805:Vitaly Shevoroshkin 5482:on 17 December 2008 5447:Hubbard, Kathleen. 5357:"Pronoun Borrowing" 5284:Hawaiian Dictionary 5214:Lehmann, Winfred P. 5019:François, Alexandre 4912:Bloomfield, Leonard 4738:. Weimar: H. Böhlau 4684:, pp. 446–447. 4514:, pp. 151–152. 4502:, pp. 109–113. 4305:, pp. 130–131. 4029:, pp. 65, 300. 3569:, pp. 2–7, 22. 3388:> Modern German 3271:lexical innovations 3110:Gradual application 3082:, should have been 2635:Proto-Indo-European 2329:Athabaskan language 2301:Proto-Indo-European 2003:occurs only before 1476:and promulgated by 1471:Sanskrit grammarian 646:Proto-Indo-European 533:Proto-Indo-European 356:classical antiquity 309:Proto-Indo-European 198:, 1966 , pp. 12–13. 165:chance similarities 100:(1821–1868) in his 5922:Linguistics portal 5906:Santa Fe Institute 5765:Frederik Kortlandt 5730:Aharon Dolgopolsky 5586:Origin of language 5541:Comparative method 5326:Schleicher, August 5306:Linguistic Inquiry 5265:. Honoré Champion. 5081:Hock, Hans Henrich 4781:, pp. 146–147 4088:10.1353/lan.0.0107 3935:, pp. 108–109 3923:, pp. 126–147 3231: 3187: 2867:Vere Gordon Childe 2785:Thomas Gamkrelidze 2313:Classical Armenian 2068:Leonard Bloomfield 1845: chain 1701: Gloss 1637:Germanic languages 1182:and various other 755: enter 752: canoe 746: taboo 731: three 570:Germanic languages 566:Deutsche Grammatik 545:Friedrich Schlegel 413: 401:Yehuda Ibn Quraysh 317:Germanic languages 290:Proto-Indo-Iranian 245:Two languages are 145:attested languages 58:comparative method 50: 5936: 5935: 5820:Alfredo Trombetti 5810:Georgiy Starostin 5740:Harold C. Fleming 5620:Language families 5468:Gordon, Matthew. 5455:on 5 October 2009 5293:978-0-8248-0703-0 5250:978-0-19-508116-9 5036:978-0-41552-789-7 4990:Tongan Dictionary 4980:978-0-262-53267-9 4878:978-0-521-57021-3 4596:978-90-272-8377-1 4561:978-90-420-3136-4 4538:, pp. 141–2. 4293:, pp. 60–61. 4201:⟨c⟩ 3791:George van Driem 3606:, pp. 12–13. 3590:978-1-4443-5968-8 3518:, pp. 31 ff. 3447:Additional models 3221:dialect continuum 3136:Romance languages 3120:lexical diffusion 2789:Vyacheslav Ivanov 2774: 2773: 2576: 2575: 2443: 2442: 2228: 2227: 2023:, spelled ⟨c⟩ in 1995: 1994: 1897: 1896: 1749: body 1659:Romance languages 1635:of consonants in 1619: 1618: 1511:were replaced by 1478:Hermann Grassmann 1429: 1428: 1243:, and Rarotongan 1138: 1137: 737: five 734: four 714:Polynesian family 581:Hermann Grassmann 576:language change. 500:Sanscrit language 481:Sir William Jones 332:shared retentions 270:Romance languages 254:ancestor language 214:Hans Henrich Hock 98:August Schleicher 38:Romance languages 5961: 5928: 5927: 5920: 5815:Sergei Starostin 5795:Martine Robbeets 5755:Murray Gell-Mann 5745:Joseph Greenberg 5720:Allan R. Bomhard 5606:Dolgopolsky list 5591:Paleolinguistics 5556:Lexicostatistics 5551:Glottochronology 5519: 5512: 5505: 5496: 5495: 5491: 5489: 5487: 5481: 5474: 5464: 5462: 5460: 5435: 5433: 5418: 5400: 5390: 5378: 5376: 5351: 5342: 5333: 5321: 5297: 5278: 5271:Mithun, Marianne 5266: 5259:Meillet, Antoine 5254: 5235: 5223: 5209: 5202:Ladefoged, Peter 5197: 5195: 5172: 5154: 5144: 5134: 5132: 5121: 5111: 5109: 5098: 5088: 5076: 5047: 5045: 5014: 5005: 4993: 4984: 4960: 4948: 4939: 4907: 4894: 4881: 4850: 4840: 4834: 4824: 4818: 4812: 4806: 4800: 4794: 4788: 4782: 4776: 4770: 4760: 4754: 4753: 4745: 4739: 4732: 4726: 4715: 4709: 4703: 4697: 4691: 4685: 4679: 4673: 4663: 4657: 4651: 4645: 4639: 4633: 4627: 4621: 4615: 4609: 4608: 4580: 4574: 4573: 4545: 4539: 4533: 4527: 4521: 4515: 4509: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4485: 4479: 4473: 4467: 4466: 4448: 4424: 4418: 4412: 4406: 4405: 4403: 4401: 4389: 4383: 4377: 4371: 4361: 4355: 4349: 4343: 4336: 4330: 4324: 4318: 4312: 4306: 4300: 4294: 4288: 4282: 4263: 4257: 4254: 4248: 4238: 4232: 4226: 4220: 4206: 4202: 4197: 4191: 4190: 4179: 4173: 4167: 4158: 4152: 4143: 4137: 4131: 4121: 4115: 4114: 4112: 4106:. Archived from 4081: 4063: 4054: 4048: 4047: 4036: 4030: 4024: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4005: 3994: 3988: 3982: 3976: 3971:for Tongan, and 3957: 3951: 3945: 3936: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3912: 3906: 3900: 3894: 3888: 3882: 3876: 3870: 3864: 3858: 3852: 3846: 3840: 3839: 3837: 3835: 3823: 3817: 3811: 3802: 3789: 3780: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3728: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3704: 3698: 3692: 3686: 3680: 3674: 3673: 3625: 3619: 3613: 3607: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3576: 3570: 3564: 3558: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3519: 3513: 3487:Lexicostatistics 3461:glottochronology 3405:Finnic languages 3301:Proto-Algonquian 3160:morpho-syntactic 3132:Latin declension 3105: 3100: 3094: 3089: 3085: 3002:Random mutations 2850:, which was the 2811:glottalic theory 2808: 2801: 2770: 2765: 2760: 2755: 2750: 2733: 2728: 2705: 2700: 2640: 2639: 2637:stop inventory: 2570: l 2563: ŋ 2560: n 2549: b 2544: k 2541: t 2538: p 2535: 2534: 2377: 2376: 2361: 2343: 2270: 2264: 2260: 2254: 2217: 2192: 2185: 2169: 2073: 2072: 2064:Proto-Algonquian 2050: 2044: 2038: 2032: 2001: 1990: 1915: 1914: 1910: 1889: 1880: 1871: 1862: 1841: 1832: 1823: 1814: 1797: raw 1793: 1784: 1775: 1766: 1745: 1736: 1727: 1718: 1668: 1667: 1630: 1624:, discovered by 1544: 1543: 1536: 1424: 1412: 1400: 1388: 1376: 1314: 1313: 1298: 1280: 1265: 1227:in Hawaiian and 1169: 1160: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1084: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1007: 1002: 997: 992: 987: 982: 977: 972: 967: 962: 957: 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 894: 881: 876: 871: 866: 861: 856: 851: 846: 841: 836: 831: 818: 813: 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 743: sea 740: man 728: two 725: one 719: 718: 685: 681: 554: 494: 473:Samuel Gyarmathi 434:Lambert ten Kate 221: 199: 153:language contact 84:(1787–1832) and 5969: 5968: 5964: 5963: 5962: 5960: 5959: 5958: 5939: 5938: 5937: 5932: 5910: 5874: 5849: 5824: 5785:Holger Pedersen 5775:Sergei Nikolaev 5750:Eugene Helimski 5725:Svetlana Burlak 5698: 5684:North Caucasian 5649:Elamo-Dravidian 5615: 5581:Mass comparison 5529: 5523: 5485: 5483: 5479: 5472: 5458: 5456: 5443: 5438: 5431: 5416:10.1.1.693.7117 5398: 5294: 5251: 5232: 5193: 5170:10.1.1.705.7860 5152: 5130: 5119: 5107: 5096: 5043: 5037: 4981: 4879: 4859: 4854: 4853: 4845:, p. 201; 4841: 4837: 4825: 4821: 4813: 4809: 4801: 4797: 4789: 4785: 4777: 4773: 4765:, p. 354; 4763:Aikhenvald 1999 4761: 4757: 4746: 4742: 4733: 4729: 4716: 4712: 4708:, pp. 7–8. 4704: 4700: 4692: 4688: 4680: 4676: 4670:Szemerényi 1996 4664: 4660: 4652: 4648: 4640: 4636: 4632:, pp. 2–3. 4630:Aikhenvald 2001 4628: 4624: 4618:Szemerényi 1996 4616: 4612: 4597: 4581: 4577: 4562: 4546: 4542: 4534: 4530: 4522: 4518: 4512:Szemerényi 1996 4510: 4506: 4498: 4494: 4488:Szemerényi 1996 4486: 4482: 4474: 4470: 4425: 4421: 4413: 4409: 4399: 4397: 4390: 4386: 4378: 4374: 4368:Szemerényi 1960 4364:Szemerényi 1996 4362: 4358: 4352:Bloomfield 1925 4350: 4346: 4337: 4333: 4325: 4321: 4313: 4309: 4301: 4297: 4289: 4285: 4264: 4260: 4255: 4251: 4243:, p. 591; 4239: 4235: 4227: 4223: 4200: 4198: 4194: 4181: 4180: 4176: 4168: 4161: 4153: 4146: 4138: 4134: 4128:Aikhenvald 1999 4122: 4118: 4113:on 4 June 2011. 4110: 4079:10.1.1.404.9474 4061: 4055: 4051: 4038: 4037: 4033: 4025: 4021: 4013: 4009: 3996: 3995: 3991: 3987:, pp. 3–5. 3983: 3979: 3969:Churchward 1959 3958: 3954: 3950:, pp. 2–3. 3946: 3939: 3931: 3927: 3919: 3915: 3909:Szemerényi 1996 3907: 3903: 3897:Szemerényi 1996 3895: 3891: 3887:, pp. 7–8. 3885:Szemerényi 1996 3883: 3879: 3873:Szemerényi 1996 3871: 3867: 3861:Szemerényi 1996 3859: 3855: 3849:Szemerényi 1996 3847: 3843: 3833: 3831: 3824: 3820: 3814:Szemerényi 1996 3812: 3805: 3800:Wayback Machine 3790: 3783: 3778:Wayback Machine 3768: 3764: 3729: 3725: 3717: 3713: 3705: 3701: 3693: 3689: 3685:, pp. 1–2. 3681: 3677: 3626: 3622: 3614: 3610: 3602: 3598: 3591: 3577: 3573: 3565: 3561: 3555:Schleicher 1874 3553: 3549: 3541: 3537: 3531:Szemerényi 1996 3529: 3522: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3473: 3449: 3379:Old High German 3297: 3253:Pirahã language 3192: 3144: 3128: 3112: 3064: 3018:('danger') and 3004: 2961:areal diffusion 2957: 2955:Areal diffusion 2935:, from English 2917: 2905: 2879:Gustaf Kossinna 2839: 2834: 2522: 2277: 2268: 2262: 2258: 2252: 2224: hk 2221: hk 2211: sk 2199: sk 2196: sk 2163: sk 2160: hk 2157: sk 2145: hk 2142: sk 2139: hk 2136: kk 2124: hk 2121: hk 2118: hk 2115: kk 1463:Grassmann's law 1437: 1275: 1212: 709: 693: 692: 691: 659: 637:Hermann Osthoff 621:Junggrammatiker 617: 585:Grassmann's law 552: 529: 492: 457:János Sajnovics 397: 391: 352: 340:accusative case 264:both come from 256:. For example, 232: 222: 220:, 1991, p. 567. 212: 200: 192:Antoine Meillet 190: 161:areal influence 133: 128: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5967: 5957: 5956: 5951: 5934: 5933: 5915: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5882: 5880: 5876: 5875: 5873: 5872: 5865: 5857: 5855: 5851: 5850: 5848: 5847: 5840: 5832: 5830: 5826: 5825: 5823: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5800:Merritt Ruhlen 5797: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5706: 5704: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5679:Dené–Caucasian 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5623: 5621: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5596:Proto-language 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5537: 5535: 5531: 5530: 5522: 5521: 5514: 5507: 5499: 5493: 5492: 5465: 5442: 5441:External links 5439: 5437: 5436: 5391: 5379: 5352: 5343: 5334: 5328:(1874–1877) . 5322: 5312:(4): 591–607. 5298: 5292: 5279: 5267: 5255: 5249: 5236: 5230: 5210: 5198: 5163:(2): 344–387. 5145: 5136: 5112: 5089: 5077: 5065:10.1086/465292 5048: 5035: 5015: 5006: 4998:Crowley, Terry 4994: 4985: 4979: 4965:Campbell, Lyle 4961: 4953:Campbell, Lyle 4949: 4940: 4928:10.2307/409540 4908: 4896: 4883: 4877: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4852: 4851: 4835: 4819: 4807: 4805:, p. 454. 4795: 4783: 4771: 4767:Ladefoged 2003 4755: 4740: 4727: 4725:, p. 358. 4710: 4698: 4686: 4674: 4668:, p. 55; 4658: 4646: 4634: 4622: 4610: 4595: 4575: 4560: 4540: 4528: 4516: 4504: 4492: 4490:, p. 143. 4480: 4478:, p. 124. 4468: 4419: 4407: 4384: 4382:, p. 113. 4372: 4356: 4344: 4342:, p. 141. 4331: 4319: 4317:, p. 136. 4307: 4295: 4283: 4258: 4249: 4233: 4231:, p. 128. 4221: 4192: 4187:Dictionary.com 4174: 4159: 4144: 4132: 4130:, p. 355. 4116: 4072:(2): 355–404. 4049: 4044:Dictionary.com 4031: 4019: 4007: 4002:Dictionary.com 3989: 3977: 3952: 3937: 3925: 3913: 3901: 3889: 3877: 3865: 3853: 3851:, pp. 5–6 3841: 3818: 3803: 3781: 3762: 3743:(2): 115–144. 3723: 3711: 3709:, p. 1341 3699: 3687: 3675: 3640:(3): 676–722. 3620: 3618:, p. 567. 3608: 3596: 3589: 3571: 3559: 3547: 3535: 3520: 3507: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3500: 3499: 3494: 3492:Proto-language 3489: 3484: 3479: 3472: 3469: 3448: 3445: 3443:'beautiful'). 3417:Proto-Germanic 3368:Proto-Germanic 3355:in the other. 3307:as the parent 3296: 3293: 3191: 3188: 3152:proto-language 3143: 3142:The tree model 3140: 3127: 3124: 3111: 3108: 3063: 3060: 3003: 3000: 2956: 2953: 2919:All languages 2916: 2913: 2909:Neogrammarians 2904: 2901: 2863:proto-language 2856:neogrammarians 2838: 2835: 2833: 2830: 2772: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2735: 2734: 2729: 2724: 2721: 2718: 2715: 2707: 2706: 2701: 2696: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2679: 2678: 2671: 2664: 2657: 2650: 2643: 2574: 2573: 2571: 2568: 2565: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2545: 2542: 2539: 2528:fit the known 2521: 2518: 2441: 2440: 2439: b 2437: 2436: m 2434: 2433: m 2431: 2430: m 2428: 2427: m 2425: 2424: m 2421: 2420: 2413: 2406: 2399: 2392: 2385: 2276: 2273: 2226: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2212: 2209: 2201: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2187: 2180: 2172: 2171: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2147: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2126: 2125: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2113: 2105: 2104: 2097: 2090: 2083: 2076: 1993: 1992: 1985: 1984: k 1982: 1981: k 1979: 1978: k 1976: 1968: 1967: 1966: k 1964: 1963: k 1961: 1960: k 1958: 1957: k 1955: 1947: 1946: 1939: 1932: 1925: 1918: 1895: 1894: 1891: 1882: 1873: 1864: 1855: 1847: 1846: 1843: 1834: 1825: 1816: 1807: 1799: 1798: 1795: 1786: 1777: 1768: 1759: 1751: 1750: 1747: 1738: 1729: 1720: 1711: 1703: 1702: 1699: 1692: 1685: 1678: 1671: 1617: 1616: 1605: 1598: 1590: 1589: 1578: 1571: 1563: 1562: 1559: 1552: 1436: 1433: 1427: 1426: 1414: 1402: 1390: 1378: 1366: 1358: 1357: 1350: 1343: 1336: 1329: 1322: 1211: 1208: 1196:Muran language 1145:false cognates 1136: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1073: 1072: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1009: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 958: 953: 946: 945: 940: 935: 930: 925: 920: 915: 910: 905: 900: 895: 890: 883: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 820: 819: 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 757: 756: 753: 750: 747: 744: 741: 738: 735: 732: 729: 726: 723: 708: 705: 686:⟩, see 662: 661: 660: 658: 655: 625:Neogrammarians 616: 613: 599:change in one 528: 525: 430:William Wotton 390: 387: 351: 348: 313:Proto-Germanic 231: 228: 210: 188: 180:reconstruction 169:proto-language 132: 129: 127: 124: 94:proto-language 78:Neogrammarians 62:common descent 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5966: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5931: 5923: 5919: 5913: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5881: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5866: 5864: 5863: 5859: 5858: 5856: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5844:Mother Tongue 5841: 5839: 5838: 5834: 5833: 5831: 5827: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5735:Vladimir Dybo 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5715:Václav Blažek 5713: 5711: 5710:John Bengtson 5708: 5707: 5705: 5701: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5629: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5618: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5520: 5515: 5513: 5508: 5506: 5501: 5500: 5497: 5478: 5471: 5466: 5454: 5450: 5445: 5444: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5397: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5353: 5349: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5302:Sag, Ivan. A. 5299: 5295: 5289: 5285: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5246: 5242: 5237: 5233: 5231:9780415082013 5227: 5222: 5221: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5151: 5146: 5142: 5137: 5129: 5125: 5118: 5113: 5106: 5102: 5095: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5059:(2): 102–16. 5058: 5054: 5049: 5042: 5038: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4986: 4982: 4976: 4972: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4922:(4): 130–56. 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4861: 4848: 4844: 4843:Campbell 2004 4839: 4832: 4828: 4827:François 2014 4823: 4816: 4811: 4804: 4799: 4793:, p. 129 4792: 4787: 4780: 4779:Campbell 2004 4775: 4769:, p. 14. 4768: 4764: 4759: 4751: 4744: 4737: 4731: 4724: 4723:Campbell 1997 4720: 4714: 4707: 4702: 4696:, p. 13. 4695: 4690: 4683: 4678: 4671: 4667: 4662: 4656:, p. 79. 4655: 4650: 4644:, p. 39. 4643: 4642:Campbell 2004 4638: 4631: 4626: 4620:, p. 23. 4619: 4614: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4592: 4588: 4587: 4579: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4557: 4553: 4552: 4544: 4537: 4532: 4525: 4520: 4513: 4508: 4501: 4496: 4489: 4484: 4477: 4472: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4416: 4411: 4395: 4388: 4381: 4380:Campbell 1997 4376: 4370:, p. 96. 4369: 4365: 4360: 4353: 4348: 4341: 4340:Campbell 2004 4335: 4329:, p. 26. 4328: 4327:Campbell 2004 4323: 4316: 4315:Campbell 2004 4311: 4304: 4299: 4292: 4287: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4262: 4253: 4246: 4242: 4237: 4230: 4225: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4178: 4172:, p. 127 4171: 4166: 4164: 4156: 4151: 4149: 4142: 4136: 4129: 4125: 4124:Thomason 2005 4120: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4060: 4053: 4045: 4041: 4035: 4028: 4027:Campbell 2004 4023: 4016: 4011: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3986: 3981: 3975:for Hawaiian. 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3961:Campbell 2004 3956: 3949: 3944: 3942: 3934: 3929: 3922: 3921:Campbell 2004 3917: 3911:, p. 20. 3910: 3905: 3899:, p. 19. 3898: 3893: 3886: 3881: 3874: 3869: 3862: 3857: 3850: 3845: 3829: 3822: 3815: 3810: 3808: 3801: 3797: 3794: 3788: 3786: 3779: 3775: 3772: 3766: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3720: 3715: 3708: 3707:Campbell 2000 3703: 3697:, p. 25. 3696: 3691: 3684: 3679: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3617: 3612: 3605: 3600: 3592: 3586: 3582: 3575: 3568: 3563: 3556: 3551: 3545:, p. 26. 3544: 3539: 3533:, p. 21. 3532: 3527: 3525: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3474: 3468: 3466: 3462: 3457: 3454: 3444: 3442: 3438: 3435:(> German 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3397: 3395: 3394:Occam's razor 3391: 3387: 3383: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3356: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3291: 3288: 3282: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3265: 3260: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3244: 3239: 3237: 3228: 3227: 3222: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3196: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3139: 3137: 3133: 3123: 3121: 3117: 3116:William Labov 3107: 3101: 3095: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3068: 3059: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 2999: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2976: 2974: 2970: 2969:morphological 2966: 2962: 2952: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2912: 2910: 2900: 2898: 2891: 2888: 2882: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2832:Complications 2829: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2814: 2812: 2805: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2780: 2779:breathy voice 2744: 2741: 2737: 2736: 2713: 2709: 2708: 2685: 2681: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2669: 2665: 2662: 2658: 2655: 2651: 2648: 2644: 2642: 2641: 2638: 2636: 2631: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2578:has only one 2572: 2569: 2567: 2566: 2562: 2559: 2557: 2556: 2553: 2551: 2548: 2547: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2536: 2533: 2531: 2527: 2517: 2515: 2511: 2506: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2411: 2407: 2404: 2400: 2397: 2393: 2390: 2386: 2383: 2379: 2378: 2375: 2373: 2369: 2364: 2362: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2272: 2267: 2257: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2207: 2203: 2202: 2178: 2174: 2173: 2153: 2149: 2148: 2132: 2128: 2127: 2111: 2107: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2095: 2091: 2088: 2084: 2081: 2077: 2075: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2065: 2060: 2058: 2054: 2049: 2043: 2037: 2031: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2011:, and French 2010: 2006: 2002: 1997:Since French 1974: 1970: 1969: 1953: 1949: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1937: 1933: 1930: 1926: 1923: 1919: 1917: 1916: 1913: 1912: 1909: 1902: 1888: 1879: 1870: 1861: 1853: 1849: 1848: 1840: 1831: 1822: 1813: 1805: 1801: 1800: 1792: 1783: 1774: 1765: 1757: 1753: 1752: 1744: 1735: 1726: 1717: 1709: 1705: 1704: 1700: 1697: 1693: 1690: 1686: 1683: 1679: 1676: 1672: 1670: 1669: 1666: 1664: 1660: 1655: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1627: 1623: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1603: 1596: 1592: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1569: 1565: 1564: 1560: 1557: 1550: 1546: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1481: 1479: 1475: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1440: 1432: 1423: 1421: 1411: 1409: 1399: 1397: 1387: 1385: 1375: 1373: 1364: 1359: 1355: 1348: 1341: 1334: 1327: 1320: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1273: 1269: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1253: 1248: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1221: 1217: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1079: 1075: 1074: 1015: 1011: 1010: 952: 948: 947: 889: 885: 884: 826: 822: 821: 763: 759: 758: 754: 751: 748: 745: 742: 739: 736: 733: 730: 727: 724: 721: 720: 717: 715: 704: 702: 701:Terry Crowley 698: 697:Lyle Campbell 689: 677: 673: 671: 667: 654: 651: 650:Indo-European 647: 643: 638: 634: 633:Karl Brugmann 630: 626: 622: 612: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 577: 575: 571: 567: 563: 562: 557: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 523: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 495: 490: 486: 483:, an English 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 445: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 426:Andreas Jäger 422: 421:Indo-European 418: 409: 405: 402: 396: 386: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 359: 357: 347: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 320: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 293: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 249: 243: 241: 236: 227: 219: 215: 209: 204: 197: 193: 187: 183: 181: 177: 176:sound changes 172: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 122: 120: 116: 111: 105: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 70: 67: 63: 59: 55: 47: 43: 42:Euler diagram 39: 35: 30: 26: 22: 5867: 5860: 5842: 5835: 5780:Sorin Paliga 5694:Indo-Pacific 5626: 5601:Swadesh list 5540: 5484:. Retrieved 5477:the original 5457:. Retrieved 5453:the original 5409:(2): 40–67. 5406: 5402: 5386: 5383:Trask, R. L. 5364: 5360: 5347: 5338: 5329: 5309: 5305: 5283: 5274: 5262: 5240: 5219: 5205: 5160: 5156: 5140: 5123: 5100: 5084: 5056: 5052: 5026: 5010: 5001: 4989: 4969: 4956: 4944: 4919: 4915: 4903: 4890: 4868: 4849:, p. 8. 4838: 4822: 4815:Kylstra 1996 4810: 4798: 4786: 4774: 4758: 4749: 4743: 4735: 4730: 4713: 4701: 4694:Meillet 1966 4689: 4677: 4672:, p. 3. 4661: 4649: 4637: 4625: 4613: 4585: 4578: 4550: 4543: 4531: 4519: 4507: 4495: 4483: 4471: 4436: 4432: 4422: 4415:Goddard 1974 4410: 4398:. Retrieved 4387: 4375: 4359: 4347: 4334: 4322: 4310: 4298: 4286: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4252: 4236: 4224: 4216: 4208: 4195: 4186: 4177: 4157:, p. 2. 4135: 4119: 4108:the original 4096:1721.1/94631 4069: 4065: 4052: 4043: 4034: 4022: 4017:, p. 3. 4010: 4001: 3992: 3980: 3965:Crowley 1992 3955: 3933:Crowley 1992 3928: 3916: 3904: 3892: 3880: 3875:, p. 17 3868: 3856: 3844: 3832:. Retrieved 3821: 3816:, p. 6. 3765: 3740: 3736: 3726: 3714: 3702: 3690: 3678: 3637: 3633: 3623: 3611: 3604:Meillet 1966 3599: 3580: 3574: 3567:Meillet 1966 3562: 3557:, p. 8. 3550: 3543:Lehmann 1993 3538: 3516:Lehmann 1993 3511: 3497:Swadesh list 3458: 3450: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3398: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3374: 3370: 3363: 3359: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3304: 3298: 3284: 3279:Proto-Italic 3267: 3262: 3246: 3241: 3236:Thomas Young 3232: 3224: 3216:dialectology 3208:Venn diagram 3182: 3178: 3156:phonological 3147: 3145: 3129: 3113: 3097: 3091: 3080:Proto-Slavic 3075: 3065: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3005: 2977: 2965:phonological 2958: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2921:borrow words 2918: 2906: 2893: 2886: 2884: 2874: 2870: 2860: 2840: 2815: 2783: 2775: 2675:Palatovelars 2632: 2627: 2623: 2622:are in fact 2619: 2615: 2614:or that the 2611: 2607: 2604:labial nasal 2599: 2595: 2583: 2577: 2523: 2513: 2509: 2507: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2444: 2365: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2340: 2336: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2308: 2304: 2298: 2293: 2285: 2281: 2278: 2265: 2255: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2229: 2205: 2176: 2151: 2130: 2109: 2061: 2056: 2052: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 1998: 1996: 1972: 1951: 1904: 1900: 1898: 1851: 1803: 1755: 1707: 1656: 1645: 1622:Verner's Law 1620: 1612: 1608: 1601: 1594: 1585: 1581: 1574: 1567: 1555: 1548: 1538: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1488: 1482: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1430: 1419: 1407: 1395: 1383: 1371: 1362: 1353: 1349:ongue 1346: 1339: 1332: 1325: 1318: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1299:and English 1286: 1282: 1277: 1271: 1267: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1219: 1215: 1213: 1148: 1139: 710: 694: 682:and ⟨ 664: 641: 620: 618: 608: 597:phonological 593:Verner's law 578: 565: 559: 530: 497: 493:observation: 446: 414: 398: 360: 353: 343: 331: 323: 321: 294: 246: 244: 240:Vulgar Latin 234: 233: 224: 217: 206: 202: 195: 185: 173: 137:phonological 134: 107: 101: 71: 57: 51: 25: 5790:Ilia Peiros 5674:Sino-Uralic 5669:Indo-Uralic 5664:Ural-Altaic 5628:Proto-human 5576:Macrofamily 5525:Long-range 5486:22 December 5459:22 December 4847:Lyovin 1997 4719:Mithun 1999 4706:Lyovin 1997 4666:Beekes 1995 4654:Beekes 1995 4524:Lyovin 1997 4500:Beekes 1995 4476:Beekes 1995 4400:20 December 4303:Beekes 1995 4291:Beekes 1995 4229:Beekes 1995 4219:("tongue"). 4203:represents 4170:Beekes 1995 4155:Lyovin 1997 4015:Lyovin 1997 3985:Lyovin 1997 3948:Lyovin 1997 3863:, p. 7 3834:18 December 3719:Beekes 1995 3695:Beekes 1995 3683:Lyovin 1997 3423:'king' and 3175:Uto-Aztecan 3096:changed to 2943:and Basque 2848:family tree 2826:conjugation 2793:glottalized 2668:Labiovelars 2610:is in fact 2592:velar nasal 2580:voiced stop 2339:→ Bearlake 2094:Plains Cree 1626:Karl Verner 1611:has become 1356:ooth 657:Application 589:Karl Verner 561:Fairy Tales 556:Jacob Grimm 520:old Persian 485:philologist 428:(1686) and 389:Early works 336:dative case 328:Grimm's Law 248:genetically 230:Terminology 90:Jacob Grimm 86:Karl Verner 82:Rasmus Rask 54:linguistics 5943:Categories 5654:Eurasiatic 5367:: 301 ff. 4857:References 4439:: 101138. 4277:merged as 4245:Janda 1989 4199:In Latin, 3973:Pukui 1986 3453:wave model 3419:. Finnish 3337:Algonquian 3287:isoglosses 3275:isoglosses 3204:tree model 3200:Wave Model 3104:/dʲesʲatʲ/ 3088:/dʲevʲatʲ/ 3084:/nʲevʲatʲ/ 3056:metathesis 3046:, but the 3014:('word'), 2996:Vietnamese 2980:Sprachbund 2865:, such as 2852:tree model 2822:declension 2807:(pʼ,tʼ,kʼ) 2251:(in which 1936:Portuguese 1901:k : k 1689:Portuguese 1141:Borrowings 1014:Rarotongan 627:") at the 574:diachronic 541:Franz Bopp 487:living in 442:root vowel 438:sound laws 393:See also: 344:innovation 286:vocabulary 157:borrowings 131:Principles 126:Definition 46:wave model 34:tree model 5703:Linguists 5644:Nostratic 5411:CiteSeerX 5261:(1966) . 5165:CiteSeerX 5073:144253507 4803:Hock 1991 4682:Hock 1991 4605:742367480 4570:697534924 4463:247211541 4455:0095-4470 4213:Old Latin 4074:CiteSeerX 3749:0009-8353 3670:122591029 3654:0097-8507 3616:Hock 1991 3401:loanwords 3166:changes. 3148:Stammbaum 3074:word for 3044:mīrācŭlum 3040:perīcŭlum 2915:Borrowing 2844:Ursprache 2818:morphemes 2797:implosive 2795:: either 2743:aspirated 2684:Voiceless 2489:, but if 2410:Blackfoot 2303:word for 2247:(=), and 1905:k : 1480:in 1863. 1456:aspirated 1342:ow 1335:wo 1328:en 1291:borrowing 1272:regularly 1270:does not 1204:Nheengatu 587:in 1862, 465:Hungarian 274:borrowing 5930:Category 5829:Journals 5534:Concepts 5429:Archived 5385:(1996). 5273:(1999). 5216:(1993). 5204:(2003). 5191:Archived 5157:Language 5128:archived 5105:Archived 5083:(1991). 5041:archived 5021:(2014), 5000:(1992). 4967:(2004). 4955:(1997). 4916:Language 4902:(1995). 4791:Fox 1995 4536:Fox 1995 4241:Sag 1974 4104:15798043 4066:Language 3796:Archived 3774:Archived 3757:30038039 3662:24672169 3634:Language 3471:See also 3439:'king', 3429:kuningaz 3421:kuningas 3413:Germanic 3407:such as 3311:is only 3212:isogloss 3036:parabŏla 2929:kuningaz 2925:kuningas 2804:ejective 2588:alveolar 2526:phonemes 2284: : 2101:Menomini 2087:Meskwaki 2048:captiare 1860:cacciare 1493:palatals 1467:Sanskrit 1452:Sanskrit 1307: : 1296:diabolus 1239:, Maori 1200:pronouns 1078:Hawaiian 680:/ / 676:Help:IPA 514:and the 383:Parthian 379:Egyptian 371:Etruscan 338:and the 211:— 208:derived. 189:— 141:semantic 119:Sanskrit 5689:Austric 5639:Amerind 5318:4177844 5187:6255506 4183:"devil" 3998:"Taboo" 3433:skauniz 3409:Finnish 3333:Arapaho 3317:certain 3309:phoneme 3249:dialect 3226:linkage 3183:italics 3164:lexical 3072:Russian 3067:Analogy 3062:Analogy 3032:miraglo 3028:periglo 3024:parabla 3020:milagro 3016:peligro 3012:palabra 3008:Spanish 2988:Chinese 2973:lexical 2887:as such 2854:of the 2800:(ɓ,ɗ,ɠ) 2745: 2714: 2686: 2677: 2670: 2663: 2656: 2654:Dentals 2649: 2647:Labials 2501:and so 2453:. 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