735:
443:
By the time Huxley wrote, a long-standing debate was largely settled over the fundamental unit of life: was it the cell or was it protoplasm? By the late 1860s, the debate was largely settled in favor of protoplasm. The cell was a container for protoplasm, the fundamental and universal material
500:
of different shapes and sizes are suspended in solution. It may exist in two interchangeable states which are more liquid-like sol state and more solid-like gel state which is like jelly. The constituent molecules are free to move in sol state, while in gel state, the constituent molecules are
463:, when it seemed that cytoplasm was a homogeneous fluid and the existence of most sub-cellular compartments, or how cells maintain their shape, was unknown. Today, it is known that the cell contents are structurally very complex and contain multiple
621:. They are living as long as they are part of protoplasm. They are not able to perform functions of life independently. The composition of protoplasm is inconsistent and continuous changes take place in it.
402:(1869) later referred to it as the "physical basis of life" and considered that the property of life resulted from the distribution of molecules within this substance. The protoplasm became an "
104:
was called "protoplasm," but the nucleus also is composed of protoplasm, or living substance in its broader sense. The current consensus is to avoid this ambiguity by employing
812:
Beneden, E. van (1875). La maturation de l'oeuf, la fécondation et les premières de développement embryonnaire des
Mammiferes d'après les recherches faites chez le lapin.
1208:
Schütt, F. (1895). Die
Peridineen der Plankton Expedition. Ergebnisse der Plankton-Expedition des Humbold-Stiftung, Bd IV, p. 1–27, Lipsius & Tischer, Kiel.
636:
The cells respond to various stimuli like temperature, light, chemicals, gravitation, pricking, electric shocks and others because of properties of protoplasm.
1607:
Satir, P. (2005), "Tour of organelles through the electron microscope: A reprinting of Keith R. Porter's classic Harvey
Lecture with a new introduction",
757:
Cammack, Richard; Teresa Atwood; Attwood, Teresa K.; Campbell, Peter Scott; Parish, Howard I.; Smith, Tony; Vella, Frank; Stirling, John (2006),
1653:
374:, "primordial utricle") to refer to the "tough, slimy, granular, semi-fluid" substance within plant cells, to distinguish this from the
455:
The idea that protoplasm of eukaryotes is simply divisible into a ground substance called "cytoplasm" and a structural body called the
139:
Besides "protoplasm", many other related terms and distinctions were used for the cell contents over time. These were as follows:
1297:
Lardy, H. A. 1965. On the direction of pyridine nucleotide oxidation-reduction reactions in gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis. In:
1565:
Lazcano, A.; Capone, S.; Walde, P.; Seebach, D.; Ishikawa, T.; Caputo, R. (2008), "What Is Life? A Brief
Historical Overview",
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685:
894:
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795:
Strasburger, E. (1882). Ueber den
Theilungsvorgang der Zellkerne und das Verhältnis der Kernteilung zur Zellteilung.
1361:
Esau's Plant
Anatomy: Meristems, Cells, and Tissues of the Plant Body: Their Structure, Function, and Development
847:
1439:
1421:
Brain, R.M. "Protoplasmania: Huxley, Haeckel, and the
Vibratory Organism in Fin de Siècle Visual Cultures", in
406:". Its composition, however, was mysterious and there was much controversy over what sort of substance it was.
485:
1247:
Bargmann, W. (1956). Über einige
Probleme und Ergebnisse des elektronen-mikroskopischen Studiums der Zelle.
100:(e.g., Strasburger, 1882). For Sharp (1921), "According to the older usage the extra-nuclear portion of the
1676:
444:
substance of life. Huxley's principal contribution was to establish protoplasm as incompatible with a
363:
981:
863:
Parker, J. 1972. Protoplasmic resistance to water deficits, p. 125-176. In: Kozlowski, T. T. (ed.),
756:
1130:
1113:
1058:
960:
938:
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817:
800:
195:
1408:
1095:
696:
569:
and many others which are identified in protoplasm of different cells. They form compounds, like
468:
1279:
Textbook of histology and microscopic anatomy of the human body, including microscopic technique
943:Übersicht der Arbeiten und Veränderungen der schlesischen Gesellschaft für vaterländische Kultur
530:
497:
185:
1671:
1301:, edited by B. Chance, R. Estabrook, and J. R. Williamson. New York: Academic, 1965, p. 245,
1108:
Kupffer, K. W. 1875. Ueber
Differenzierung des Protoplasmas an den Zellen tierischer Gewebe.
643:
639:
426:
325:
1523:
Geison, Gerald (1969), "The
Protoplasmic Theory of Life and the Vitalist-Mechanist Debate",
867:. Vol. III. Plant responses and control of water balance. Academic Press, New York, p. 144,
1451:
1647:
1609:
The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology
1226:
1077:, publiés par l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique).
8:
1282:
656:
460:
459:
reflects the more primitive knowledge of cell structure that preceded the development of
403:
399:
1455:
1181:
782:
1590:
1548:
410:
105:
1238:
Munson, J. P., 1899 The Ovarian Egg of Limulus. Athenaeum Press, Boston, Massachusetts
939:Über die Analogien in den Strukturelementen des thierischen und pflanzichen Organismus
739:
452:
through the creation of synthetic "protoplasm" in the laboratory were not successful.
1626:
1582:
1540:
1387:
1197:
829:
Flemming, W. (1878). Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Zelle und ihrer Lebenserscheinungen.
762:
534:
1552:
173:
168:
1616:
1594:
1574:
1532:
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502:
430:
209:
25:
1209:
1036:
Vines, S. H. (1877). An account of Prof. Strasburger's observation on protoplasm.
291:
89:, amino acids, and macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, etc.
1426:
1364:
1348:
1330:
1315:
1302:
1265:
1146:
1125:
Velten, W. 1876. Die physikalische Beschaffenhoit des pflanzlichon Protoplasmas.
1078:
1041:
1006:
868:
82:
1425:, F. Brauer and Larson, B. University Presses of New England, 2009, pp. 92-123,
719:
714:
449:
86:
78:
700:
471:.the word protoplasm is mainly divided in to two parts cytoplasm and nucleus.
1665:
1491:
529:
the material inside the plasma membrane is the bacterial cytoplasm, while in
367:
533:
the region outside the plasma membrane but inside the outer membrane is the
1630:
1586:
1578:
590:
574:
514:
456:
429:(1880) for the entire cell, excluding the cell wall, and some authors like
391:
304:
1544:
1467:
1564:
522:
506:
489:
418:
149:
113:
97:
734:
362:, and was originally used in religious contexts. It was used in 1839 by
1621:
848:
Caryoneme alternative to chromosome and a new caryological nomenclature
614:
610:
602:
558:
526:
422:
270:
249:
241:
225:
213:
101:
1463:
518:
510:
493:
464:
375:
280:
219:
199:
180:
144:
109:
93:
1386:. New Delhi: Evergreen Publications (India) Ltd. 2020. p. 1.3.
1536:
666:
661:
646:. It helps in even distribution of various materials in the cells.)
606:
550:
445:
414:
379:
1363:. 3rd.ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: Hoboken, New.Jersey, p. 16,
1646:
1053:
Cienkowski, L. 1863. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Myxomyceten.
618:
582:
566:
437:
396:
all living cells are made of a living substance called Protoplasm
387:
334:
128:
117:
1110:
Schriften des Naturwissenschaft, Vereins für Schleswig-Holstein
690:
562:
554:
546:
1194:
Untersuchungen über mikroskopische Schäume und das Protoplasma
394:
in 1861 proposed the "Protoplasm Doctrine" which states that
1423:
The Art of Evolution: Darwin, Darwinisms, and Visual Cultures
901:(Rome) 43: 101–140. (Table 3, "-plasma derivatives", p. 118).
586:
570:
61:
976:
Dujardin, F. 1835. Recherches sur les organisms inférieurs.
43:
37:
16:
Alternative term for cytoplasm or cytoplasm and nucleoplasm
1071:
Recherches sur la composition et la signification de l'œuf
1262:
Lehrbuch der Histologie und der mikroskopischen Anatomie.
598:
594:
578:
96:(e.g., Mohl, 1846), but for others, it also includes the
55:
440:", later redefined to refer to the liquid inside cells.
116:." The cytoplasm definition of Strasburger excluded the
1073:. F. Hayez, Bruxelles, 1870 (Extrait du tome XXXIV des
759:
Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology
366:
for the material of the animal embryo. Later, in 1846
1328:
Bynum, W. F., Browne, E. J. & Porter, R. (1981).
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
58:
46:
52:
49:
40:
34:
31:
85:. It is a mixture of small molecules such as ions,
28:
1014:
642:(the streaming movement of protoplasm is known as
92:In some definitions, it is a general term for the
1221:Seifriz, W. (1931). The structure of protoplasm.
996:. Paris: Librarie Encyclopedique de Roret. p. 26.
509:on heating. It occurs everywhere in the cell. In
331:kinoplasm/trophoplasm (Strasburger et at., 1912),
1663:
1347:Springer-Verlag: New York and Berlin, p. 30-31,
1345:The Vascular Cambium: Development and Structure.
633:It provides place where all life functions occur
895:Meiosis and mitosis: a terminological criticism
1522:
1437:
1319:. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press, p. 133.
1316:Plant Cell Biology: From Astronomy to Zoology
961:Ueber die Saftbewegung im Inneren der Zellen
889:
887:
885:
513:, the portion of protoplasm surrounding the
433:(1882) preferred that name instead of cell.
131:in the protoplasm concept is controversial.
1558:
994:Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes Infusoires
933:
931:
346:The word "protoplasm" comes from the Greek
237:inter-filar substance theory (Velten, 1876)
1516:
1431:
521:and the portion inside the nucleus as the
1620:
1606:
1600:
1127:Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Nat. Kl.
882:
752:
750:
311:phaneroplasm/cryptoplasm (Seifriz, 1931),
127:Like the nucleus, whether to include the
1440:"Some Physical Properties of Protoplasm"
1412:. New Haven, Conn., The College Courant.
1293:
1291:
1089:
1087:
928:
1040:, Lond., 1877, n. s., 17, pp. 124-132.
1011:4. Auflage. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann.
955:
953:
951:
540:
501:compactly arranged. Protoplasm becomes
1664:
1008:Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen.
747:
417:term "bioplasm", to contrast with the
202:, Pringsheim, 1854; Hofmeister, 1867),
1378:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1288:
1084:
234:paraplasm/protoplasm (Kupffer, 1875),
164:(primordial utricle, von Mohl, 1846),
1331:Dictionary of the history of science
1178:Zellsubstanz, Kern, und Zelltheilung
948:
761:, Oxford : Oxford University Press,
436:In 1965, Lardy introduced the term "
70:
13:
1369:
629:Some functions of protoplasm are:
545:There are about 30 elements, like
479:
370:redefined the term (also named as
314:cytoplasmic matrix (Munson, 1899;
14:
1688:
1639:
322:Protoplasma- oder Zelleinschlüsse
158:(Purkinje, 1840, von Mohl, 1846),
1099:. London: J. & A. Churchill.
1075:Mém. cour. des savants étrangers
733:
228:/protoplasm (van Beneden, 1870),
24:
1507:
1498:
1483:
1474:
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1161:
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1135:
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1102:
1063:
1047:
1030:
999:
986:
978:Annales des Sciences Naturelles
970:
916:
904:
873:
865:Water deficits and plant growth
857:
786:. New York: McGraw Hill, p. 25.
911:Grundriss der Naturphilosophie
840:
823:
806:
789:
774:
727:
707:
678:
474:
448:. Attempts to investigate the
300:(ground plasma, Schütt, 1895),
134:
1:
1334:. Princeton University Press.
923:Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie
738:The dictionary definition of
672:
222:/protoplasm (Hanstein, 1868),
1567:Chemistry & Biodiversity
1480:Bynum et al. (1981), p. 344.
1299:Control of energy metabolism
1167:Hanstein (1880), pp. 24, 39.
624:
276:paramitome (Flemming, 1882),
7:
1384:Candid ICSE Biology Class 9
1005:Kölliker, R. A. v. (1863).
879:Sharp (1921), p. 11, 32-34.
650:
505:when it is heated. It also
290:(inter-alveolar substance,
10:
1693:
1444:Journal of Applied Physics
1409:The Physical Basis of Life
1281:. Philadelphia, Lea Bros.
341:
324:(protoplasmic or cellular
1145:. W. Engelmann, Leipzig.
1143:Osmotische Untersuchungen
814:Bull. Acad. Bel. Cl. Sci.
720:Dictionary.com Unabridged
484:Protoplasm is physically
446:vitalistic theory of life
421:of Huxley. In 1880, term
192:Hautschicht/Körnerschicht
1277:Szymonowicz, L. (1902).
1260:Szymonowicz, L. (1901).
783:Introduction To Cytology
469:biomolecular condensates
81:that is surrounded by a
1654:Encyclopædia Britannica
1158:Hanstein (1880), p. 45.
833:, 16: 302-436, p. 360,
697:Oxford University Press
467:, the cytoskeleton and
316:zytoplasmatische Matrix
231:bioplasm (Beale, 1872),
1657:(11th ed.). 1911.
1579:10.1002/cbdv.200890001
1438:Harvey, E. N. (1938),
1343:Larson, P. R. (1994).
893:Battaglia, E. (1985).
846:Battaglia, E. (2009).
531:Gram-negative bacteria
1489:Hanstein, J. (1880).
1176:Flemming, W. (1882).
1093:Beale, L. S. (1872).
1027:Wayne (2009), p. 134.
992:Dujardin, F. (1841).
816:40, 2 sèr.: 686-736,
780:Sharp, L. W. (1921).
693:UK English Dictionary
328:, Szymonowicz, 1901),
257:Enchylema/Hyaloplasma
1513:Wayne (2009), p. 15.
1504:Sharp (1921), p. 24.
1406:Huxley, T. H. 1869.
937:Purkinje J.E. 1840.
831:Arch. f. mikr. Anat.
541:Chemical composition
492:slimy, semifluid or
1456:1938JAP.....9...68H
1359:Evert, R. F. 2006.
1251:81 (28): 1109-1125.
1192:Bütschli, O. 1892.
1038:Quart. J. Micr. Sc.
959:von Mohl, H. 1846.
461:electron microscopy
77:) is the part of a
1677:1839 introductions
1648:"Protoplasm"
1622:10.1002/ar.a.20222
1264:Stuber, Würzburg.
1249:Dtsch. med. Wschr.
1180:. Vogel, Leipzig,
1112:, 1 (3), 229-242,
899:Annali di Botanica
657:Chemical evolution
372:Primordialschlauch
318:, Bergmann, 1956),
273:, Hanstein, 1882),
162:Primordialschlauch
1464:10.1063/1.1710397
1129:, 73: I 131-151,
1055:Jahrb. Wiss. Bot.
945:, Jahre 1839: 81.
768:978-0-19-852917-0
269:(small bodies or
259:(Hanstein, 1880),
253:(Hanstein, 1880),
1684:
1658:
1650:
1634:
1633:
1624:
1615:(2): 1184–1204,
1604:
1598:
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1555:
1520:
1514:
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1496:
1487:
1481:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1466:, archived from
1435:
1429:
1419:
1413:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1380:
1367:
1357:
1351:
1341:
1335:
1326:
1320:
1313:Wayne, R. 2009.
1311:
1305:
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1069:Van Beneden, E.
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1061:
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997:
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984:
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967:4: 73-78, 89-94.
957:
946:
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754:
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737:
731:
725:
724:
711:
705:
704:
703:on May 10, 2021.
699:. Archived from
682:
517:is known as the
431:Julius von Sachs
425:was proposed by
308:(Garnier, 1897),
288:Zwischensubstanz
245:(Pfeffer, 1877),
210:ground substance
108:'s (1882) terms
72:
68:
67:
64:
63:
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42:
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1492:Das Protoplasma
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684:
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482:
480:Physical nature
477:
404:epistemic thing
344:
284:(Nageli, 1884),
263:Kleinkörperchen
137:
87:monosaccharides
83:plasma membrane
27:
23:
17:
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11:
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475:Description
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551:hydrogen
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