1484:. It also has concurrent jurisdiction with the superior trial courts of the provinces to hear civil lawsuits brought against the federal government. The Federal Court also has jurisdiction to determine inter-jurisdictional legal actions between the federal government and a province, or between different provinces, provided the province in question has passed corresponding legislation granting the Federal Court jurisdiction over the dispute. The Federal Court have the power to review decisions, orders, and other administrative actions of most federal boards, commissions, and tribunals. That means most federal government administrative decisions can be challenged in the Federal Court. Also with the Federal Court, the system may refer back to questions of law, jurisdiction, or price to one of the federal courts at any stage of proceeding.
793:. The jurisdiction of the Federal Court and the Federal Court of Appeal is limited to cases where the subject matter is within federal jurisdiction and regulated by federal law, and where the administration of that law has been conferred upon the federal courts by a statute passed by Parliament. These matters include immigration and refugee law, navigation and shipping, intellectual property, federal taxation, some portions of competition law and certain aspects of national security, as well as the review of most federal administrative decisions. The federal courts and provincial and territorial courts share jurisdiction over civil actions against the federal government.
2068:
864:
Court of a particular province may also have a limited civil jurisdiction, over small claims and some family law matters. The exact scope of the jurisdiction of the
Provincial Court will depend on the laws enacted by the particular province. Provincial Courts in this sense are courts of limited statutory jurisdiction, sometimes referred to as "inferior courts". As courts of limited jurisdiction, their decisions are potentially subject to judicial review by the superior courts via the prerogative writs, but in most cases there are now well-established statutory rights of appeal instead.
1025:. As well, litigants could appeal directly from the provincial courts of appeal directly to the Judicial Committee, by-passing the Supreme Court entirely. There was a provision in the 1875 Act which attempted to limit appeals to the Judicial Committee. That clause resulted in the Governor General reserving the bill for consideration by the Queen-in-Council. After much debate between Canadian and British officials, royal assent was granted on the understanding the clause did not in fact affect the royal prerogative to hear appeals, exercised through the Judicial Committee.
5841:
2391:
655:
1531:, which had a similar jurisdiction over tax disputes. At first, there were no separate judges for the Exchequer Court. The judges of the Supreme Court of Canada were also appointed to the Exchequer Court. Individual judges of the Supreme Court would sit as a judge of the Exchequer Court, with an appeal lying to the Supreme Court. The Exchequer Court did not have any jurisdiction to review the actions of federal administrative agencies; this function was fulfilled by the provincial superior trial courts.
2010:
2048:, every accused has the right to be tried in the official language of their choice, either English or French. This is a broader right than the right to use their own language. It means that the judge, the Crown prosecutor and the court clerks also use that language in the court proceedings. As a result, every court of criminal jurisdiction in Canada, whether federal, provincial or territorial, must have the institutional capacity to provide trials in either language.
2303:" or "My Lady," but in other provinces are referred to as "Your Honour". Judges of inferior courts are always traditionally referred to in person as "Your Honour". The practice varies across jurisdictions, with some superior court judges preferring the titles "Mister Justice" or "Madam Justice" to "Lordship". Judges of the Supreme Court of Canada and of the federal-level courts prefer the use of "Mister/Madam (Chief) Justice". Justices of the Peace are addressed as "
43:
667:
818:
5853:
2144:
2164:
1176:. They also hear appeals from the lower trial court and decide upon petitions for judicial review of decisions of administrative agencies such as labour relations boards, human rights tribunals and licensing authorities. Superior trial court judges establish and interpret legal precedents in civil and criminal law. The judges sitting on these courts, like those of the appellate courts, are appointed and paid by the federal government.
2260:
860:. This head of power gives the provinces the power to regulate "... the Constitution, Maintenance, and Organization of Provincial Courts, both of Civil and of Criminal Jurisdiction, and including Procedure in Civil Matters in those Courts". All courts created by a province, from the small claims court or municipal by-law court, up to the provincial court of appeal, are "provincial courts" in this general sense.
967:
1044:
Judicial
Committee, but the hearing of the appeal was delayed by the outbreak of World War II. In 1946, the Judicial Committee finally heard the appeal and upheld the decision of the majority of the Supreme Court, clearing the way for Parliament to enact legislation to end all appeals to the Judicial Committee, whether from the Supreme Court or from the provincial courts of appeal.
1657:. The reviewing court may be required to show some deference to the tribunal if the tribunal possesses some highly specialized expertise or knowledge that the court does not have. The degree of deference will also depend on such factors as the specific wording of the legislation creating the tribunal. Tribunals whose enabling legislation contains a
1749:. However, the Supreme Court of Canada has held that the principle of judicial independence is a foundational structural component of the Constitution of Canada and applies to all judges and courts, without an express written guarantee of judicial independence. The Supreme Court relied in part on the preamble to the
2121:
In some jurisdictions, the client sits with the general public, behind counsel's table, rather than beside his or her lawyer at counsel's table. The accused in a criminal trial sits in the prisoners box often located on the side wall opposite the jury, or in the middle of the courtroom. However it is
1167:
The superior trial courts of the provinces and territories have inherent jurisdiction over civil and criminal matters, except where that jurisdiction is limited by statute. Though statutes grant authority over small claims, some family claims, and almost all criminal matters to provincial courts, the
1013:
gives the federal
Parliament the power to create a "General Court of Appeal for Canada". Following Confederation, the Conservative government of Sir John A. Macdonald proposed the creation of a Supreme Court and introduced two bills in successive sessions of Parliament to trigger public debate on the
851:
The first is the term "provincial court", which has two quite different meanings, depending on context. The first, and most general meaning, is that a provincial court is a court established by the legislature of a province, under its constitutional authority over the administration of justice in the
1697:
does not apply to tribunals. In other words, a tribunal adjudicator could legally make a decision that differs from a past decision, on the same subject and issues, delivered by the highest court in the land. Because a tribunal is not bound by legal precedent, established by itself or by a reviewing
1511:
for damages. Lastly, the Tax Court's powers are also limited by the statutes that impose the tax in dispute. The Tax Court is not empowered to make decisions on the basis that they will yield a fair result. Rather, the Tax Court can only make decisions based on its interpretation of the legislation.
1282:
court, usually called a
Provincial (or Territorial) Court, to hear certain types of cases. For historical reasons, these courts are sometimes referred to as "inferior courts", indicating their position in the judicial hierarchy as subject to the superior courts. The term is not a commentary on their
1269:
Most provinces and territories have special courts dealing with small claims. The value of such claims varies between $ 15,000 and $ 50,000. Some are divisions of superior courts, while in other provinces they are lower courts or divisions of lower courts. Parties often represent themselves, without
2133:
motions (or interlocutory applications) in civil cases. In some jurisdictions, Masters may grant final orders in specific types of cases, such as the administration of estates, foreclosures and bankruptcy proceedings. In the
Federal Court, a Associate Justice holds a similar positions to that of a
2084:
The judicial function of the Royal
Prerogative is performed in trust and in the King's name by officers of His Majesty's court, who enjoy the privilege granted conditionally by the sovereign to be free from criminal and civil liability for unsworn statements made within the court. This dispensation
1925:
Judges in Canada are appointed by either the federal government, the provincial governments, or the territorial governments, depending on the court. Judges of the
Supreme Court of Canada, the federal courts, and the provincial and territorial superior appellate and trial courts are appointed by the
1885:
of the superior courts is more than just what is conferred by statute. Following the principles of
English common law, because the superior courts derive their authority from the Constitution, they can hear any matter unless there is a federal or provincial statute that says otherwise or that gives
1677:
As with courts, lawyers routinely appear in tribunals as representatives of their clients. A person does not require a lawyer to appear before an administrative tribunal. Indeed, many of these tribunals are specifically designed to be more representative to unrepresented litigants than courts. Some
1673:
Appearing before some administrative tribunals may feel like appearing in court, but the tribunal's procedure is relatively less formal than that of a court, and more importantly, the rules of evidence are not as strictly observed, so that some evidence that would be inadmissible in a court hearing
1550:
In 2003, Parliament passed legislation which divided the
Federal Court into two courts. The Federal Court – Trial Division became the Federal Court of Canada, while the Federal Court – Appeal Division became the Federal Court of Appeal. The jurisdiction of the two new courts is essentially the same
1043:
to the
Supreme Court of Canada, asking whether the federal Parliament could terminate all appeals to the Judicial Committee. By a 4–2 decision, the Supreme Court held that the proposal was within the powers of the federal Parliament and would be constitutional. The question was then appealed to the
1028:
The question of the power of Parliament to abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee eventually was tested in the courts. In 1926, the Judicial Committee ruled that the Canadian Parliament lacked the jurisdiction to extinguish appeals to the Judicial Committee, as the right of appeal was founded in
1838:
The relationship between these two aspects of judicial independence is that an individual judge may enjoy the essential conditions of judicial independence but if the court or tribunal over which the judge presides is not independent of the other branches of government, in what is essential to its
1649:
as this section will be violated where an adjudicative function is the sole or central aspect of a tribunal, and where that power broadly conforms to one that was exercised by superior courts at the time of Confederation. This has not significantly affected the ability of provincial governments to
1432:
Parliament's ability to grant jurisdiction to federal courts is limited to matters which are governed by existing federal laws. The Federal Court has concurrent jurisdiction with the provincial superior courts over claims against the federal government, and review of the constitutional validity of
1265:
Many of these courts have specialized branches that deal only with certain matters such as family law or, in the case of Ontario, a Divisional Court which only appeals and judicial reviews of administrative tribunals and whose decisions have greater binding authority than those from the "regular"
1069:
of the old supreme courts of the provinces. Their function is to hear appeals from decisions rendered by the trial courts and to deliver references when requested by a provincial or territorial government as the Supreme Court of Canada does for the federal government. These appellate courts do not
1910:
and is defined and limited by the terms of the statute. A statutory court cannot try cases in areas of law that are not mentioned or suggested in the statute. In this sense, statutory courts are similar to non-judicial adjudicative bodies such as administrative tribunals, boards, and commissions,
1705:
does not apply to tribunals, their adjudicators will likely nonetheless find a prior court decision on a similar subject to be highly persuasive and will likely follow the courts in order to ensure consistency in the law and to prevent the embarrassment of having their decisions overturned by the
1621:
Known in Canada as simply "tribunals", these are quasi-judicial adjudicative bodies, which means that they hear evidence and render decisions like courts, but are not necessarily presided over by judges. Instead, the adjudicators may be experts in the subject matter handled by the tribunal (e.g.,
1290:
Appeals from these courts are heard either by the superior trial court of the province or territory or by the provincial or territorial court of appeal. In criminal cases, this depends on the seriousness of the offence. Preliminary hearings are normally held in provincial courts prior to the case
2251:
In superior courts, lawyers wear black robes, black waistcoats, and white neck tabs, like barristers in the United Kingdom, but they do not wear wigs. Business attire is appropriate when appearing before judges of superior courts sitting in chambers and before judges of provincial or territorial
2032:. This constitutional guarantee applies to the Supreme Court of Canada, the Federal Court of Appeal, the Federal Court, the Tax Court of Canada and the Court Martial Appeal Court. Parliament has expanded on that constitutional guarantee to ensure the federal courts are institutionally bilingual.
1795:
clarified that salary review commission recommendations are not binding, and departures from advisory recommendations may be justified so long as "rational" reasons are provided. After the previous decision in 1997, substantial increases in salaries were recommended by some judicial compensation
1526:
The first federal court was the Exchequer Court of Canada, created in 1875 at the same time as the Supreme Court of Canada. The Exchequer Court was a trial court, with a limited jurisdiction over civil actions brought against the federal government, tax disputes under federal tax laws, admiralty
863:
However, there is a more limited meaning to the term. In most provinces, the "Provincial Court" is the term used to refer to a specific court created by the province which is the main criminal court, having jurisdiction over most criminal offences except for the most serious ones. The Provincial
4025:
provides a searchable database containing nearly all new and many older decisions emanating from all Canadian courts and most Canadian tribunals, as well as most federal and provincial statutes and numerous legal journals and texts. Decisions of individual courts are also provided through that
2035:
The right to use either language in the provincial and territorial courts varies. The Constitution guarantees the right to use either French or English in the courts of Quebec, Manitoba, and New Brunswick. There is a statutory right to use either English or French in the courts of Ontario, the
1606:
The decisions of the courts martial can be appealed to the Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada which, in contrast, exists outside the military and is made up of civilian judges. This appellate court is the successor of the Court Martial Appeal Board which was created in 1950, presided over by
1538:
which abolished the Exchequer Court and created a new court, the Federal Court of Canada. The jurisdiction of the Federal Court was significantly greater than the Exchequer Court, as it received the power to review decisions of federal administrative officials and tribunals. That Court had two
867:
To distinguish between the two meanings of the term, capitalization is used. A reference to a "provincial court" normally is a reference to the broad meaning of the term, any court created by the province. A reference to "Provincial Court" normally is referring to the specific court of limited
1455:
judges of the Federal Court of Appeal, and vice versa, although it is rare that a judge of one court will sit as a member of the other. The Federal Court of Appeal is a travelling court. The judges of the Court sit in panels of three, and hear cases in English and in French in 18 cities, from
1685:
What tribunals all have in common is that they are created by statute, their adjudicators are usually appointed by government, and they focus on very particular and specialized areas of law. Because some subjects (e.g., immigration) fall within federal jurisdiction while others (e.g., liquor
1607:
civilian judges and lawyers, and was the first ever civilian-based adjudicating body with authority to review decisions by a military court. The Court Martial Appeal Court is made up of civilian judges from the Federal Court, Federal Court of Appeal, and the superior courts of the provinces.
1051:
which abolished all appeals to the Judicial Committee, making the Supreme Court of Canada the final court of appeal. However, cases which had been instituted in the lower courts prior to the amendment could still be appealed to the Judicial Committee. The last Canadian appeal to the Judicial
1986:
Judges may only be removed from office for specified reasons, such as infirmity or misconduct, and only where their continuing in office would undermine public confidence in the judge's impartiality, integrity or independence enough that that the judge is incapable of executing their role.
1966:
judges of the superior courts of the provinces hold office "during good behaviour, but shall be removable by the Governor General on Address of the Senate and House of Commons". To protect the principle of judicial independence, Parliament has, by statute, delegated authority to investigate
907:
is a court of inherent jurisdiction. Historically, these courts are the descendants of the royal superior courts in England. The decisions of a superior court are not subject to review unless a statute specifically provides for review or appeal. The term is not limited to trial courts. The
1299:
who did not necessarily have formal legal training. However, today all judges are legally trained, although justices of the peace may not be. Many inferior courts have specialized functions, such as hearing only criminal law matters, youth matters, family law matters, small claims matters,
804:
The federal government appoints and pays for both the judges of the federal courts and the judges of the superior appellate and trial level courts of each province. The provincial governments are responsible for appointing judges of the lower provincial courts. Although not judicial courts
1785:
The issue at stake was whether provincial legislatures' measures reducing salaries of provincial court judges were constitutionally valid. The majority held that provinces are constitutionally obliged to establish judicial compensation commissions. The effect of this decision was that the
1507:. The Tax Court has the jurisdiction to hear appeals under various statutes. However, as a federal court, it lacks the power to deal with disputes relating to provincial income taxes and provincial sales taxes, and has no jurisdiction to grant any relief where a taxpayer wishes to sue the
2224:
Historically, the Crown was said to be the source of justice, with the king personally dispensing justice, a concept that survives in the phrase "the King on the Bench". As a result, in some courtrooms there may be symbols of the Crown, such as a picture of the monarch or the royal
944:
programs. The Superior Court in Toronto has a Commercial List created in 1991, a team of judges who have experience in managing complex commercial litigation. The Superior Court in Montreal has a Commercial Division. The Court of the King's Bench of Alberta has a Commercial List.
915:
The difference between the two terms is also indicated by capitalization. The term "superior court" is used to mean the general sense of the term, while "Superior Court" is used to refer to specific courts in provinces which use that term to designate their superior trial courts.
1686:
licensing and workers' compensation) are within provincial jurisdiction, some tribunals are created by federal law while others are created by provincial law. There are both federal and provincial tribunals for some subjects, such as unionized labour and human rights.
1674:
may be allowed in a tribunal hearing, if relevant to the proceeding. While relevant evidence is admissible, evidence which the adjudicator determines to have questionable reliability, or is otherwise questionable, is most likely to be afforded little or no weight.
1554:
Although the federal courts can be said to have the same prestige as the superior courts from the provinces and territories, they lack the "inherent jurisdiction" (to be explained later) possessed by superior courts such as the Ontario Superior Court of Justice.
1709:
Among the federal tribunals, there is a small group of tribunals whose decisions must be appealed directly to the Federal Court of Appeal rather than to the Federal Court Trial Division. These so-called "super tribunals" are listed in subsection 28(1) of the
2117:
Evidence and documents are not passed directly to the judge, but instead passed to the judge through the court clerk. The clerk, referred to as "Mister/Madam Clerk" or "Mister/Madam Registrar", also wears a robe and sits in front of the judge and faces the
1903:, the federal courts, the various appellate courts from the provinces and territories, and the numerous low-level provincial courts are statutory courts whose decision-making power is granted by either the federal parliament or a provincial legislature.
1911:
which are created and given limited power by legislation. The practical implication of this is that a statutory court cannot provide a type of legal remedy or relief that is not expressly or implicitly referred to in its enabling or empowering statute.
2270:
Judges dress in robes similar to the robes of barristers. Judges of some courts adorn their robes with coloured sashes. For example, Federal Court Judges' robes are adorned with a gold sash, and Tax Court of Canada Judges' robes with a purple sash.
3456:
Provincial Court Judges’ Assn. of New Brunswick v. New Brunswick (Minister of Justice); Ontario Judges’ Assn. v. Ontario (Management Board); Bodner v. Alberta; Conférence des juges du Québec v. Quebec (Attorney General); Minc v. Quebec (Attorney
2287:
In most jurisdictions, when entering or leaving a courtroom when there is a judge seated inside, one should bow, while standing inside the court but near the doorway, in the direction of the seated judge. Many lawyers also bow when crossing the
1990:
The Council provides reports concerning the outcome of complaints and recommendations concerning removal from office to the federal Minister of Justice. To remove a judge from office, the House of Commons and Senate must both pass a resolution.
2092:, judges may comment upon the value of certain testimony or suggest the appropriate amount of damages in a civil case, although they are required to tell the jury that it is to make its own decision and is not bound to agree with the judge.
1851:
under no circumstances is it permissible for the judiciary — not only collectively through representative organizations, but also as individuals — to engage in negotiations over remuneration with the executive or representatives of the
1542:
The Exchequer Court and then the Federal Court initially had exclusive jurisdiction over claims against the federal government, but this jurisdiction was made concurrent with the provincial superior courts by amendments to the
1813:
financial security (ie, the right to salary of a provincial court judge is established by law, and there is no way in which the Executive can interfere with that right in a manner to affect the independence of the individual
1791:
937:). The term "Supreme Court" can be confusing as it could suggest a final appellate court, like the Supreme Court of Canada; each province has an appellate court with an appellate jurisdiction from the superior trial court.
1487:
In the aftermath of 9/11, Parliament enacted a number of laws to protect national security. The Federal Court has exclusive jurisdiction to determine many issues which arise under those laws relating to national security.
1756:
Judicial independence has two aspects: the autonomy and independence of judges from other branches of government, and immunity from legal consequences for actions which are taken in the performance of judicial functions.
1978:
outlines the justifiable grounds for removing a federally-appointed judge from office, and allows for complaints against those judges to be made to the Council by any person, including members of the public. The federal
3817:
1527:
matters, compensation for expropriation of private property by the federal Crown, negligence of federal public servants, and intellectual property, including patents and copyright. The name of the court came from the
800:
is the final court of appeal for all levels of court in Canada. Any legal issue, whether under the Constitution of Canada, federal law, or provincial law, potentially can be heard and determined by the Supreme Court.
2328:
Judges of inferior courts are referred to as "Judge " while judges of superior and federal courts are referred to as "Mister/Madam Justice ," except in Ontario, where all trial judges in referred to as "Mister/Madam
3850:
6425:
6395:
6300:
6140:
6110:
6015:
911:
The more limited sense is that "Superior Court" can be used to refer to the superior trial court of original jurisdiction in the Province. This terminology is used in the court systems of Ontario and Quebec.
1890:
to some other court or tribunal. The doctrine of inherent jurisdiction gives superior courts greater freedom than statutory courts to be flexible and creative in the delivering of legal remedies and relief.
1314:
Quebec also has a system of municipal courts that hear cases such as municipal and traffic infractions. Municipal courts in large cities such as Montreal and Quebec City may also hear minor criminal cases.
1300:"quasi-criminal" offences (i.e., violations of provincial statutes), or bylaw infractions. In some jurisdictions these courts serve as an appeal division from the decisions of administrative tribunals.
6420:
6135:
1155:
Each of these appellate courts is the highest court of its respective province or territory. The chief justice of each province or territory's court of appeal is styled the province or territory's
1036:, in 1933 the federal Parliament passed legislation again abolishing the right of appeal in criminal matters. In 1935, the Judicial Committee upheld the constitutional validity of that amendment.
1591:
are conducted and presided over by military personnel and exist for the prosecution of military personnel, as well as civilian personnel who accompany military personnel, accused of violating the
6400:
6115:
829:'s court system is a four-level hierarchy, as shown below from highest to lowest in terms of legal authority. Each court is bound by the rulings of the courts above them, under the principle of
1065:
These courts of appeal exist at the provincial and territorial levels. They are superior courts and were separately constituted in the early decades of the 20th century, replacing the former
2059:, a party or witness in any proceedings who does not understand or speak the language in which the proceedings are conducted or who is deaf has the right to the assistance of an interpreter.
1796:
commissions, and not all such recommendations were accepted by governments. A unanimous Court expressed a desire to avoid further disputes by clarifying the role of the commission process.
1779:, a majority of the Supreme Court of Canada held that the Constitution of Canada includes an unwritten constitutional principle of judicial independence, recognized by the preamble to the
6290:
6005:
2332:
A lawyer advocating in court typically uses "I" when referring to him or herself. The word "we" is not used, even if the lawyer is referring to him/herself and his/her client as a group.
1291:
being transferred to superior court for trial. These courts are created by provincial statute and only have the jurisdiction granted by statute. Accordingly, inferior courts do not have
1266:
branch of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice. Although some of these courts are named the "Supreme Court", they are not the highest courts in their respective province or territory.
1563:
Military courts in Canada include the summary trial hearing, court martial (including general court martial and standing court martial), and the Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada.
6390:
6105:
1959:
Federally appointed judges are eligible to serve on the bench until age 75. In some but not all provincial and territorial courts, appointed judges have tenure until age 70 instead.
6355:
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1861:
reductions through the erosion of judicial salaries by inflation, cannot take those salaries below a basic minimum level of remuneration which is required for the office of a judge.
1539:
divisions: the Federal Court – Trial Division, and the Federal Court – Appeal Division. Although the two divisions had different functions, they were all part of a single court.
2052:
1441:
The Federal Court of Appeal hears appeals from decisions rendered by the Federal Court, the Tax Court of Canada and a certain group of federal administrative tribunals like the
5515:
809:
also feed into the provincial/territorial and federal court hierarchies. This intricate interweaving of federal and provincial powers is typical of the Canadian constitution.
1817:
administrative independence (which is the control by the courts over the administrative decisions that bear directly and immediately on the exercise of the judicial function)
6410:
6125:
2122:
becoming increasingly common for accused persons to sit at counsel table with their lawyers or in the body of the courtroom, particularly when the accused is not in custody.
1002:, the court's opinion) on constitutional questions raised by the federal government. By law, three of the nine justices are appointed from Quebec because of Quebec's use of
6405:
6120:
2099:
provides a constitutional right to a jury trial for any person charged with a crime punishable by imprisonment for five years or more. This right has been expanded by the
530:
309:
3869:
6415:
6130:
1775:
1768:
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rather than litigation. For example, provincial human rights commissions routinely use mediation to resolve many human rights complaints without the need for a hearing.
5788:
5525:
3895:
6380:
6375:
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or the attorney general of a province may also request that the Council establish a hearing panel to consider whether a judge of a superior court should be removed.
1742:
280:
6360:
6075:
1409:
In addition to the Supreme Court of Canada, there are three civil courts created by the federal Parliament under its legislative authority under section 101 of the
6280:
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5995:
5970:
1998:, though on several occasions judges have resigned where it appeared likely that the Senate and House of Commons would pass a resolution seeking their dismissal.
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6235:
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4853:
1951:. Similar commissions are established by each province to recommend the salaries for provincially appointed judges, who are paid by the provincial governments.
1786:
Constitution requires salaries of provincial court judges to be protected in some manner, but this protection need not be identical to that of superior courts.
6345:
6340:
6060:
6055:
5891:
6285:
6000:
1714:
and some examples include the National Energy Board, Canadian International Trade Tribunal, the Competition Tribunal, the Canada Industrial Relations Board (
1698:
court, a tribunal is not a court even though it performs an important adjudicative function and contributes to the development of law like a court would do.
6335:
6260:
6050:
5975:
1971:. The Council includes the Chief Justice of Canada, and the chief justice and associate chief justices of each provincial and territorial superior court.
2355:" while the criminally prosecuted person is called the "accused" (not "defendant," the term used in civil proceedings). The prosecuting lawyer is called "
5743:
543:
182:
1980:
2001:
The rules for provincial and territorial judges are similar, but they can be removed under statutory authority of the relevant province or territory.
1661:
are entitled to a high degree of deference, although a recent decision of the Supreme Court of Canada has arguably lowered that degree of deference.
1018:
that established the Supreme Court. The 1875 Act built upon the proposals introduced by the Macdonald government, and passed with all-party support.
931:); and in Newfoundland and Labrador, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Yukon, and the Northwest Territories as the Supreme Court (
2370:
of Canadian court cases is often pronounced "and" (rather than "vee" or "versus" as in the U.S. or "against" in criminal proceedings as in England,
2028:. Either official language may be used by any person or in any pleading or process in or issuing from any court established by Parliament under the
1670:, which is part of Canada's constitution. The extent to which tribunals may use the Charter in their decisions is a source of ongoing legal debate.
5520:
4004:
3928:
2341:" is used. In British Columbia, lawyers should inform the Court of the title and pronouns that they, their clients, and other persons present use.
868:
statutory jurisdiction, created by the province. The term "Provincial Court" is used in the name of each such court, except for those of Alberta (
774:
over civil and criminal cases. Provincial and territorial lower courts try most criminal offences, small civil claims, and some family matters.
1503:, between taxpayers and the federal government. Also, for most people that live in Canada, it is the Tax Court's power to hear appeals under the
334:
258:
1848:
salaries of provincial courts may be varied, but only after undertaking an independent, effective, and objective process by an independent body;
4459:
2036:
Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Saskatchewan, and Yukon. There is a limited right to use French in oral submissions in the courts of Alberta.
1350:
253:
3800:
2106:
There are no juries in civil cases in the Federal Court or the courts of Quebec, but there are civil juries in the other nine provinces. Only
6179:
4434:
4305:
1948:
1344:
1105:
4813:
4280:
1099:
853:
756:
707:
404:
60:
1303:
In the province of Ontario, most municipal and provincial offences are dealt with in the Provincial Offences Court, established under the
4793:
4686:
4396:
3827:
763:
300:
2229:, while some courtrooms may display the provincial arms or a dedicated judicial arms. In the British Columbia courts as well as in the
1810:
security of tenure (ie, judges can only be removed for cause, after an inquiry in which he must be given a full opportunity to be heard)
1804:
It was held that the right to judicial independence was thus extended to provincial court judges in the following core characteristics:
5884:
4381:
4361:
4356:
4166:
2230:
1211:
1205:
414:
295:
3905:
3739:
4903:
4873:
4808:
4336:
1737:
The constitutional principle of judicial independence is protected for provincial superior court judges by sections 96 to 100 of the
1251:
1199:
4449:
4079:
2234:
1461:
1378:
843:
There are two terms used in describing the Canadian court structure which can be confusing for which clear definitions are useful.
275:
1842:
With respect to its applicability to protecting the financial security of judges' salaries, the following principles were stated:
6350:
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In four provinces (British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba and Ontario), the superior-level courts employ judicial officers known as
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Depending on its enabling legislation, a tribunal's decisions may be reviewed by a court through an appeal or a process called
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The Tax Court of Canada has a very specialized jurisdiction. It hears disputes over federal taxes, primarily under the federal
1650:
establish expert administrative tribunals, and there have been few challenges of this kind to administrative tribunal powers.
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Adjudicative functions which can be given to provincially appointed administrative tribunals are limited by section 96 of the
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In court, it is customary for opposing counsel to refer to one another as "my friend", or sometimes (usually in the case of
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which guarantees judicial tenure and salaries. It is also constitutionally protected for judges hearing criminal matters by
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law, liquor licensing law, etc.). Adjudicators hear arguments and receive evidence from parties before making a decision.
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1718:, federal labour board), the Copyright Board and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).
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In the Northwest Territories and Nunavut there is also a statutory right to use official aboriginal languages in court.
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seated below the bench. Documents and other forms are evidence is passed to the clerk before being handed to the judge.
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2363:"). Crown counsel in criminal proceedings are customarily addressed and referred to as "Mr. Crown" or "Madam Crown."
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The judge in court refers to a lawyer as "counsel" (not "counsellor"), or simply "Mr./Ms. ". In Quebec, the title "
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The second is the term "superior courts". This term also has two different meanings, one general and one specific.
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1934:. Judicial appointments to provincial courts of statutory jurisdiction are made by the provincial governments.
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The Federal Court exists primarily to review administrative decisions by federal government bodies such as the
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professionalism or expertise. In Nunavut, the functions of superior and territorial court are combined in the
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proposed court and its powers. Eventually, in 1875, the Liberal government of Alexander Mackenzie passed an
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the institutional or collective independence of the court or tribunal of which that judge is a member
1295:. These courts are usually the successors of older local courts presided over by lay magistrates and
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409:
263:
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2284:. Instead, a judge raises their voice (or stands up if necessary) to restore order in the courtroom.
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as the "General Court of Appeal for Canada". The Court consists of nine justices, which include the
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Signage for the supreme court in French and English. Either language may be used in federal courts.
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and constitutes a complete code of military law applicable to persons under military jurisdiction.
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Forms of address vary among courts. Judges of superior courts in some provinces are traditionally
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Trial judges typically take a passive role during trial; however, during their charge to the
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The judiciary is a separate and independent branch of government with constitutional status.
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and eight puisne justices. The court's duties include hearing appeals of decisions from the
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Provincial Court Judges' Association (New Brunswick) v New Brunswick (Minister of Justice),
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737:
728:
differing in levels of legal superiority and separated by jurisdiction. In the courts, the
613:
231:
55:
3221:
Norman M Fera, The Federal Court of Canada: A Critical Look at its Jurisdiction, 1974 6-1
2601:
2237:
is displayed for reasons of tradition. Many courts display Canadian and provincial flags.
2103:, which provides that any person charged with an indictable offence has a right to a jury.
1664:
Tribunals which have the power to decide questions of law may take into consideration the
8:
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835:. They are not bound by the rulings of other courts at the same level in the hierarchy.
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397:
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Courtroom custom is largely based upon the British tradition, with a few modifications.
925:); in Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and New Brunswick, as the Court of King's Bench (
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79:
33:
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2648:
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Salaries of provincial superior courts are set by Parliament under section 100 of the
908:
provincial courts of appeal and the Federal Court of Appeal are also superior courts.
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The word "statutory" refers to the fact that these courts' powers are derived from a
1678:
tribunals are part of a comprehensive dispute-resolution system, which may emphasize
502:
166:
1792:
Provincial Court Judges' Assn of New Brunswick v New Brunswick (Minister of Justice)
1425:. There is also the military court system of courts martial, with an appeal to the
5819:
5696:
5646:
5641:
5225:
4954:
4908:
4054:
2152:
2107:
2017:
1658:
1368:
1229:
1006:; by convention, the other justices are divided among the other regions of Canada.
991:
789:. There are also the courts martial, for military offences, with an appeal to the
243:
209:
3780:
1947:, salaries for all federally appointed judges are based on recommendations of the
1278:
Each province and territory in Canada (other than Nunavut) also has an additional
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5579:
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the royal prerogative and could only be terminated by the Imperial Parliament.
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2009:
1476:
board and to hear lawsuits under the federal government's jurisdiction such as
904:
767:
580:
161:
4029:
2459:"Department of Justice - Department of Justice Canada - Canada's Court System"
6440:
6157:
5845:
5199:
5113:
4964:
4506:
3437:
Lori Sterling & Sean Hanley. "Judicial Independence Revisited" (2006) 34
2404:
2396:
2356:
2263:
2130:
1994:
No superior court judge has been removed from office under section 99 of the
1692:
1588:
1576:
will have little formal legal training and is generally the service member's
1156:
733:
659:
4131:
2537:"Courts and Other Bodies Under Federal Jurisdiction - Canada's Court System"
1273:
1172:
for divorce petitions, any civil claims, and criminal prosecutions for some
5636:
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4994:
2304:
2085:
extends from the notion in common law that the sovereign "can do no wrong".
1882:
1627:
1481:
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2375:
2246:
2076:
1731:
1473:
1279:
1169:
971:
224:
90:
666:
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3560:
2188: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1635:
1623:
1581:
1066:
106:
42:
3666:, R.S.C. 1985, c. 31 (4th Supp.), Part III, Administration of Justice.
817:
5467:
4094:
3620:
Department of Justice Canada – Canada's Court System – The Judiciary.
3501:
Reference re Remuneration of Judges of the Provincial Court (P.E.I.),
3486:
Reference re Remuneration of Judges of the Provincial Court (P.E.I.),
3471:
Reference re Remuneration of Judges of the Provincial Court (P.E.I.),
2352:
2300:
2289:
1877:
The superior courts from the provinces and territories are courts of
1706:
courts. The same is usually true for past decisions of the tribunal.
1679:
1457:
729:
72:
4084:
3381:
Reference re Remuneration of Judges of the Provincial Court (P.E.I.)
2163:
2143:
5721:
4959:
4144:
4074:
2371:
1857:
1573:
1491:
Appeals lie from the Federal Court to the Federal Court of Appeal.
1162:
1021:
Initially, decisions of the Supreme Court could be appealed to the
4069:
1839:
function, the judge cannot be said to be an independent tribunal.
919:
In Ontario and Quebec, this court is known as the Superior Court (
575:
5015:
4979:
4949:
3926:
3822:
2575:
Government of Canada, Department of Justice (September 7, 2016).
2535:
Government of Canada, Department of Justice (September 7, 2016).
2483:
Government of Canada, Department of Justice (September 7, 2016).
2111:
2095:
Jury trials are usually reserved for serious criminal cases. The
1907:
3826:. Senate. February 17, 2000. col. 1500–1510. Archived from
2259:
1823:
In addition, there are two dimensions of judicial independence:
1580:. In this respect, these hearings are similar to the former lay
4989:
4758:
4475:
4019:
3263:
Reference re Amendments to the Residential Tenancies Act (N.S.)
2649:"Court of King's Bench of Alberta, Area of the Law, Commercial"
2313:
in all levels of court, although some lawyers unofficially say
1730:
is a constitutional principle, and is necessary to protect the
952:, unlike the situation in the provinces and other territories.
826:
4064:
3858:(1 ed.), Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada, p. 17,
3406:(5th ed.). Toronto, ON: Irwin Law Inc. pp. 149-150.
3354:(5th ed.). Toronto, ON: Irwin Law Inc. pp. 146–151.
3283:(5th ed.). Toronto, ON: Irwin Law Inc. pp. 155–156.
3204:(5th ed.). Toronto, ON: Irwin Law Inc. pp. 144–146.
2457:
Government of Canada, Department of Justice (April 17, 2002).
1954:
1060:
5020:
3740:
Official Languages Act / ᑲᑎᑕᐅᓂᖓ ᐊᑕᐅᓯᕐᒧᑦ ᐃᓕᓴᕆᔭᐅᓯᒪᔪᑦ ᐅᖃᐅᓰᑦ ᐱᖁᔭᖅ
2281:
1967:
complaints against judges and recommend their removal to the
885:
821:
Canadian court system (Source Canadian Department of Justice)
725:
4126:
4034:
3379:
3262:
3220:
3013:
2998:
2984:
2971:
2957:
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2853:
2837:
2811:
2784:
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2756:
2701:
2699:
1551:
as the corresponding former divisions of the Federal Court.
892:
is akin to a combined superior court and territorial court.
350:
4121:
4111:
4049:
4039:
3442:
3309:
3082:
3027:
2577:"The judicial structure - About Canada's System of Justice"
2485:"The judicial structure – About Canada's System of Justice"
2089:
1776:
Reference re Remuneration of Judges of the Provincial Court
1769:
Reference re Remuneration of Judges of the Provincial Court
1572:
hearings used to dispense with minor service offences. The
966:
4022:
1055:
812:
4727:
2696:
2266:, future Prime Minister of Canada, in his barristers gown
1867:
1274:
Provincial and territorial courts of limited jurisdiction
3980:
Riddell, Troy, Lori Hausegger, Matthew Hennigar (2008),
3402:
Monahan, Patrick J.; Shaw, Byron; Ryan, Padraic (2017).
3350:
Monahan, Patrick J.; Shaw, Byron; Ryan, Padraic (2017).
3279:
Monahan, Patrick J.; Shaw, Byron; Ryan, Padraic (2017).
3200:
Monahan, Patrick J.; Shaw, Byron; Ryan, Padraic (2017).
2800:
The Supreme Court of Canada – History of the Institution
2745:
The Supreme Court of Canada – History of the Institution
2732:
The Supreme Court of Canada – History of the Institution
2719:
The Supreme Court of Canada – History of the Institution
2691:
The Supreme Court of Canada – History of the Institution
948:
In Nunavut, there is a single unified trial court, the
888:
each possess an analogous Territorial Court, while the
740:
in nature, while others are provincial or territorial.
3927:
Supreme Court of British Columbia (January 15, 2024).
2026:
official languages of the federal government of Canada
1760:
2921:
2919:
2574:
2534:
2482:
2456:
2386:
2351:
In any criminal law case, the prosecuting party is "
1914:
3984:, Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press Canada,
2508:
1855:any reductions to judicial remuneration, including
3173:Quebec North Shore Paper Co v Canadian Pacific Ltd
2042:As well, in all criminal trials under the federal
1872:
3982:Canadian courts : law, politics, and process
3963:Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada
2916:
777:The smaller federal court system consists of the
6438:
5899:
1941:, and paid by the federal government. Since the
1515:
1163:Provincial and territorial superior trial courts
3891:
3889:
3734:
3732:
3349:
3278:
2952:
2950:
2307:". The French-language style used in Quebec is
1047:In 1949, Parliament passed an amendment to the
1023:Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council
531:Proposed annexation of Turks and Caicos Islands
6187:
3020:
1351:Territorial Court of the Northwest Territories
6173:
5885:
4743:
4491:
4160:
4136:
4020:Canadian Legal Information Institute (CanLII)
2602:"Commercial List | Superior Court of Justice"
1949:Judicial Compensation and Benefits Commission
1345:Provincial Court of Newfoundland and Labrador
1106:Court of Appeal for the Northwest Territories
806:
701:
205:Provincial and territorial executive councils
4320:Provincial/Territorial superior trial courts
4003:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3929:"PD-64: Practice Direction: Form of Address"
3886:
3729:
2947:
2786:Reference re Supreme Court Act Amendment Act
2336:
2320:
2314:
2308:
1100:Court of Appeal of Newfoundland and Labrador
940:Certain superior courts include specialized
932:
926:
920:
3717:
3715:
3460:, 2 S.C.R. 286, 2005 SCC 44 at paras 11-12
2693:(Toronto: Osgoode Society, 1985), pp. 6-7.
1955:Tenure of judges and removal from the bench
1829:the individual independence of a judge, and
1690:
1610:
1567:
1450:
1070:normally conduct trials or hear witnesses.
1061:Provincial and territorial appellate courts
1039:In 1939, the federal government proposed a
978:, the final court of appeals in the country
830:
6180:
6166:
5892:
5878:
4814:World wars and interwar period (1914–1945)
4750:
4736:
4498:
4484:
4167:
4153:
2231:Supreme Court of Newfoundland and Labrador
2004:
1799:
1464:, including locations in northern Canada.
1436:
1212:Supreme Court of the Northwest Territories
1206:Supreme Court of Newfoundland and Labrador
955:
708:
694:
4040:Federal Court and Federal Court of Appeal
4026:court's website (see partial list below).
2204:Learn how and when to remove this message
3712:
3709:, R.S.O. 1990, c. C.43, ss. 125 and 126.
2258:
2235:Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom
2142:
2066:
2008:
1721:
1379:Provincial Court of Prince Edward Island
982:The Supreme Court is established by the
965:
838:
816:
5286:
4243:Provincial/Territorial appellate courts
3979:
3848:
3691:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
3649:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
2623:"Cour supérieure - Chambre commerciale"
2097:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
2057:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
1747:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
1667:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
1056:Courts of the provinces and territories
813:Levels and branches of the court system
351:Courts of the Provinces and Territories
14:
6439:
5710:
3959:
3842:
2826:An Act to Amend the Supreme Court Act,
1868:Inherent versus statutory jurisdiction
1494:
1449:. All judges of the Federal Court are
1252:Court of King's Bench for Saskatchewan
1200:Court of King's Bench of New Brunswick
1052:Committee was not decided until 1960.
310:Provincial and territorial parliaments
6161:
5873:
5516:Metropolitan areas and agglomerations
4731:
4479:
4148:
4135:
4117:Supreme Court of Prince Edward Island
3810:
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3627:
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3337:
3274:
3272:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
2114:regularly use juries in civil trials.
1240:Supreme Court of Prince Edward Island
4174:
4122:Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada
3909:
2706:The Supreme and Exchequer Courts Act
2438:
2436:
2434:
2274:
2186:adding citations to reliable sources
2157:
2129:or Associate Justices who deal with
1789:A further Supreme Court decision in
1427:Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada
1327:Provincial Court of British Columbia
1130:Prince Edward Island Court of Appeal
846:
360:
5789:Topics by provinces and territories
4397:Provincial/Territorial trial courts
4050:Courts of the Northwest Territories
1894:
1762:Reference Re Remuneration of Judges
1082:Court of Appeal of British Columbia
355:
24:
3953:
3624:
3568:
3522:
3428:
3387:
3368:
3334:
3269:
3179:
2813:Reference re Privy Council Appeals
1558:
895:
25:
6458:
4012:
3098:"Provincial Offences Act Ontario"
2431:
2310:Madame la Juge / Monsieur le Juge
1915:Appointment and removal of judges
1447:Canada Industrial Relations Board
1404:
1339:Provincial Court of New Brunswick
1194:Court of King's Bench of Manitoba
1188:Supreme Court of British Columbia
1168:superior trial courts remain the
764:provincial and territorial courts
378:Peace, order, and good government
6301:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
6016:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
5852:
5851:
5839:
4505:
2389:
2233:and some courts in Ontario, the
2162:
2138:
1467:
1391:Provincial Court of Saskatchewan
1182:Court of King's Bench of Alberta
1142:Court of Appeal for Saskatchewan
1094:Court of Appeal of New Brunswick
665:
653:
41:
4874:Former colonies and territories
3920:
3899:
3823:Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)
3788:
3774:
3760:
3754:Language Act / Loi linguistique
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2902:
2888:
2874:
2860:
2846:
2831:
2819:
2805:
2792:
2778:
2764:
2750:
2737:
2724:
2711:
2683:
2669:
2655:
2641:
2615:
2173:needs additional citations for
1921:Judicial appointments in Canada
1873:Courts of inherent jurisdiction
1753:in its decision on this point.
1534:In 1971, Parliament passed the
1357:Provincial Court of Nova Scotia
1305:Ontario Provincial Offences Act
1032:Following the enactment of the
526:Canada–European Union relations
259:Opposition Leader in the Senate
254:Government Leader in the Senate
4809:Post-Confederation (1867–1914)
3960:Morton, Frederick Lee (2002),
3936:The Courts of British Columbia
2839:Ponoka-Calmar Oils v Wakefield
2594:
2568:
2554:
2528:
2511:"Federal Court - Jurisdiction"
2502:
2476:
2450:
2417:
2147:A Canadian courtroom with the
1930:, acting on the advice of the
903:The general meaning is that a
521:Canada–Latin America relations
422:Provincial electoral districts
383:Charter of Rights and Freedoms
291:His Majesty's Loyal Opposition
286:Opposition Leader in the house
281:Government Leader in the house
183:President of the Privy Council
13:
1:
3798:, RSC 1985, c C-46, Part XVII
3445:, retrieved on March 3, 2024.
3014:The Court of Appeal Act, 2000
2410:
1516:History of the federal courts
994:and, on occasion, delivering
766:. Provincial and territorial
6426:United States Virgin Islands
6141:United States Virgin Islands
4030:Department of Justice Canada
3757:, S.S. 1988, c. L-6.1, s. 11
3726:, RSNWT 1988, c. O-1, s. 9.
3582:, RSC 1985, c J-1, ss 80, 86
3550:, RSC 1985, c J-1, ss 79-139
2772:British Coal Corp v The King
2366:The "versus" or "v." in the
2062:
1333:Provincial Court of Manitoba
1218:Supreme Court of Nova Scotia
571:Indigenous Peoples in Canada
544:Crown and Indigenous peoples
7:
6188:Judiciary of North America
4854:Crown and Indigenous people
3743:, C.S.Nu. , c. O-20, s. 8.
3238:, RSC 1970 (2nd Supp), c 10
2382:
1944:Provincial Judges Reference
1124:Court of Appeal for Ontario
1112:Nova Scotia Court of Appeal
405:Federal electoral districts
172:List of Canadian ministries
10:
6463:
5744:Provincial and territorial
5667:Inventions and discoveries
4804:British Canada (1763–1867)
4757:
4065:Courts of British Columbia
3849:MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008),
2244:
2219:
1928:Governor General of Canada
1918:
1766:
1617:List of Canadian tribunals
1614:
1594:Code of Service Discipline
1529:Exchequer Court of England
1519:
1397:Territorial Court of Yukon
1270:lawyers, in these courts.
1076:Court of Appeal of Alberta
959:
791:Court Martial Appeal Court
751:exclusive jurisdiction in
556:Aboriginal self-government
188:Clerk of the Privy Council
6401:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
6319:
6193:
6116:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
6034:
5908:
5833:
5797:
5771:
5622:
5538:
5508:
5460:
5451:
5352:
5190:
5126:
5042:
5033:
5003:
4970:Newfoundland and Labrador
4942:
4931:
4837:
4774:
4765:
4710:Law School Admission Test
4695:
4650:
4580:
4539:
4513:
4435:Newfoundland and Labrador
4395:
4357:Newfoundland and Labrador
4319:
4281:Newfoundland and Labrador
4241:
4205:
4182:
4142:
4137:Links to related articles
4127:Canadian Judicial Council
4100:February 8, 2005, at the
3803:October 10, 2011, at the
3127:E-laws Government Website
3102:E-laws Government Website
3042:Northwest Territories Act
2509:Federal Court of Canada.
1969:Canadian Judicial Council
1234:Superior Court of Justice
757:administration of justice
736:. Some of the courts are
629:Provinces and territories
427:Politics of the provinces
415:List of federal elections
112:Monarchy in the provinces
6421:Turks and Caicos Islands
6136:Turks and Caicos Islands
4610:Immigration and refugees
4060:Nunavut Court of Justice
3785:, R.S.A. 2000 cL-6, s. 4
3610:, RSC 1985, c J-1, s 139
3596:, RSC 1985, c J-1, s 148
3439:Supreme Court Law Review
3305:Dunsmuir v New Brunswick
3176:, 2 SCR 1054 at 1065-66
2240:
2073:Supreme Court of Ontario
1962:Under section 99 of the
1611:Administrative tribunals
1597:, which is found in the
1373:Ontario Court of Justice
1363:Nunavut Court of Justice
1321:Alberta Court of Justice
1285:Nunavut Court of Justice
1224:Nunavut Court of Justice
1170:courts of first instance
1148:Court of Appeal of Yukon
1088:Manitoba Court of Appeal
950:Nunavut Court of Justice
890:Nunavut Court of Justice
874:Ontario Court of Justice
870:Alberta Court of Justice
807:administrative tribunals
762:Most cases are heard in
759:within that province.
732:interpret and apply the
410:Federal electoral system
296:Leader of the Opposition
4904:Persons of significance
4899:National Historic Sites
4213:Federal Court of Appeal
4190:Supreme Court of Canada
4095:Courts of New Brunswick
4035:Supreme Court of Canada
3533:Constitution Act, 1867,
3123:"Courts of Justice Act"
2882:The Court of Appeal Act
2562:Constitution Act, 1867,
2444:Constitution Act, 1867,
2005:Languages used in court
1964:Constitution Act, 1867,
1901:Supreme Court of Canada
1881:, which means that the
1800:Reasons of the majority
1781:Constitution Act, 1867.
1647:Constitution Act, 1867,
1522:Federal Court of Canada
1437:Federal Court of Appeal
1415:Federal Court of Appeal
1118:Nunavut Court of Appeal
988:Chief Justice of Canada
976:Supreme Court of Canada
962:Supreme Court of Canada
956:Supreme Court of Canada
798:Supreme Court of Canada
783:Federal Court of Appeal
551:Canadian Aboriginal law
342:Chief Justice of Canada
156:List of prime ministers
6351:British Virgin Islands
6066:British Virgin Islands
4799:New France (1534–1763)
4600:Civil and human rights
4107:Courts of Newfoundland
4080:Courts of Saskatchewan
3723:Official Languages Act
3663:Official Languages Act
3635:Constitution Act, 1867
3516:Constitution Act, 1867
2677:Constitution Act, 1867
2425:Constitution Act, 1867
2348:) "my learned friend".
2337:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2267:
2155:
2080:
2030:Constitution Act, 1867
2014:
1996:Constitution Act, 1867
1939:Constitution Act, 1867
1888:exclusive jurisdiction
1751:Constitution Act, 1867
1739:Constitution Act, 1867
1691:
1568:
1451:
1411:Constitution Act, 1867
1258:Supreme Court of Yukon
1136:Quebec Court of Appeal
1034:Statute of Westminster
1011:Constitution Act, 1867
979:
933:
927:
921:
858:Constitution Act, 1867
831:
822:
745:Constitution of Canada
722:court system of Canada
486:Diplomatic missions of
178:29th Canadian Ministry
6291:Saint Kitts and Nevis
6006:Saint Kitts and Nevis
5011:Northwest Territories
4914:Territorial evolution
4637:Labour and employment
4615:Intellectual property
4460:Northwest Territories
4382:Northwest Territories
4306:Northwest Territories
4112:Courts of Nova Scotia
3706:Courts of Justice Act
3565:RSC 1985, c J-1, s 59
3249:National Defence Act,
3000:Courts of Justice Act
2989:, RSPEI 1988, c J-2.1
2972:Courts of Justice Act
2262:
2254:justices of the peace
2151:, and a photo of the
2146:
2070:
2012:
1879:inherent jurisdiction
1728:Judicial independence
1722:Judicial independence
1640:workers' compensation
1509:Canada Revenue Agency
1478:intellectual property
1443:National Energy Board
1309:Courts of Justice Act
1297:justices of the peace
1293:inherent jurisdiction
1246:Quebec Superior Court
969:
882:Northwest Territories
852:province, set out in
839:A note on terminology
820:
772:inherent jurisdiction
467:Global Affairs Canada
249:Speaker of the Senate
4985:Prince Edward Island
4450:Prince Edward Island
4372:Prince Edward Island
4296:Prince Edward Island
4228:Court Martial Appeal
4183:Court of last resort
3830:on September 4, 2007
3771:, RSY 2002, c. 133.
3251:R.S.C. 1985, c. N-5.
2359:" (or, in Ontario, "
2182:improve this article
1600:National Defence Act
974:for justices of the
825:Generally speaking,
749:Parliament of Canada
447:Municipal government
276:Speaker of the house
193:Privy Council Office
146:King’s Privy Council
117:Lieutenant governors
6447:Judiciary of Canada
6306:Trinidad and Tobago
6201:Antigua and Barbuda
6021:Trinidad and Tobago
5916:Antigua and Barbuda
5340:Firearms regulation
4531:Provincial statutes
4045:Tax Court of Canada
3875:on 10 November 2012
3045:, SC 2014, c 2, s 2
3028:Court of Appeal Act
3017:, SS 2000, c C-42.1
2930:, RSNWT 1988, c J-1
2868:Court of Appeal Act
2854:Court of Appeal Act
2798:Snell and Vaughan,
2743:Snell and Vaughan,
2730:Snell and Vaughan,
2717:Snell and Vaughan,
2708:, S.C. 1875, c. 11.
2689:Snell and Vaughan,
2627:Barreau de Montréal
1981:Minister of Justice
1566:Summary trials are
1495:Tax Court of Canada
1423:Tax Court of Canada
1174:indictable offences
928:Cour du Banc du Roi
724:is made up of many
672:Politics portal
561:First Nations bands
237:List of parliaments
6241:Dominican Republic
5956:Dominican Republic
5521:Population centres
4075:Courts of Manitoba
3677:Manitoba Act, 1870
3443:2006 CanLIIDocs 32
3404:Constitutional Law
3352:Constitutional Law
3323:Federal Courts Act
3281:Constitutional Law
3202:Constitutional Law
2975:, RSO 1990, c C.43
2944:, RSNS 1989, c 240
2913:, RSNL 1990, c J-4
2899:, RSNB 1973, c J-2
2857:, RSA 2000, c C-30
2665:, RSC 1985, c S-26
2280:Judges do not use
2268:
2156:
2081:
2015:
1712:Federal Courts Act
1578:Commanding Officer
1545:Federal Courts Act
980:
823:
747:gives the federal
604:Constitutional law
232:Federal parliament
34:Politics of Canada
6434:
6433:
6323:other territories
6155:
6154:
6149:
6148:
6038:other territories
5867:
5866:
5846:Canada portal
5767:
5766:
5534:
5533:
5348:
5347:
5303:Political parties
5271:Foreign relations
5186:
5185:
5073:Canadian Prairies
5063:Pacific Northwest
5029:
5028:
4927:
4926:
4884:Foreign relations
4725:
4724:
4473:
4472:
4085:Courts of Ontario
4070:Courts of Alberta
3991:978-0-19-542373-0
3966:, Frederick Lee,
3916:Styles of address
3865:978-0-662-46012-1
3852:A Crown of Maples
3412:978-1-55221-587-6
3361:978-1-55221-587-6
3290:978-1-55221-587-6
3236:Federal Court Act
3223:Ottawa Law Review
3210:978-1-55221-587-6
3148:"Municipal Court"
3087:, RSY 2002, c 211
3084:Supreme Court Act
2871:, RSBC 1996, c 77
2663:Supreme Court Act
2581:www.justice.gc.ca
2541:www.justice.gc.ca
2489:www.justice.gc.ca
2463:www.justice.gc.ca
2275:Etiquette/Decorum
2214:
2213:
2206:
1689:The principle of
1574:Presiding Officer
1536:Federal Court Act
1049:Supreme Court Act
1016:Act of Parliament
984:Supreme Court Act
847:Provincial courts
718:
717:
660:Canada portal
624:Political culture
508:Visa requirements
460:Foreign relations
373:Constitution Acts
126:Royal prerogative
16:(Redirected from
6454:
6391:Saint Barthélemy
6321:Dependencies and
6194:Sovereign states
6182:
6175:
6168:
6159:
6158:
6106:Saint Barthélemy
6036:Dependencies and
5909:Sovereign states
5903:of North America
5894:
5887:
5880:
5871:
5870:
5855:
5854:
5844:
5843:
5842:
5708:
5707:
5551:Higher education
5458:
5457:
5443:Science and tech
5330:Multiculturalism
5284:
5283:
5266:Local government
5231:House of Commons
5215:Governor General
5051:
5040:
5039:
4955:British Columbia
4940:
4939:
4794:Pre-colonization
4772:
4771:
4752:
4745:
4738:
4729:
4728:
4677:Courts of Appeal
4526:Federal statutes
4500:
4493:
4486:
4477:
4476:
4405:British Columbia
4327:British Columbia
4251:British Columbia
4176:Courts of Canada
4169:
4162:
4155:
4146:
4145:
4133:
4132:
4090:Courts of Quebec
4008:
4002:
3994:
3976:
3947:
3946:
3944:
3942:
3933:
3924:
3918:
3913:
3907:
3903:
3897:
3893:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3874:
3868:, archived from
3857:
3846:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3835:
3814:
3808:
3792:
3786:
3778:
3772:
3764:
3758:
3750:
3744:
3736:
3727:
3719:
3710:
3702:
3696:
3687:
3681:
3673:
3667:
3659:
3653:
3645:
3639:
3631:
3622:
3617:
3611:
3603:
3597:
3589:
3583:
3575:
3566:
3557:
3551:
3543:
3537:
3529:
3520:
3512:
3506:
3505:at paras 131–137
3497:
3491:
3482:
3476:
3467:
3461:
3452:
3446:
3435:
3426:
3420:
3414:
3400:
3385:
3377:
3366:
3365:
3347:
3332:
3328:
3319:
3313:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3276:
3267:
3259:
3253:
3245:
3239:
3233:
3227:
3218:
3212:
3198:
3177:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3144:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3133:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3094:
3088:
3080:
3074:
3066:
3060:
3052:
3046:
3038:
3032:
3031:, RSY 2002, c 47
3024:
3018:
3010:
3004:
2996:
2990:
2982:
2976:
2968:
2962:
2954:
2945:
2937:
2931:
2923:
2914:
2906:
2900:
2892:
2886:
2878:
2872:
2864:
2858:
2850:
2844:
2835:
2829:
2823:
2817:
2809:
2803:
2796:
2790:
2782:
2776:
2768:
2762:
2758:Nadan v The King
2754:
2748:
2741:
2735:
2728:
2722:
2715:
2709:
2703:
2694:
2687:
2681:
2673:
2667:
2659:
2653:
2652:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2619:
2613:
2612:
2610:
2608:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2572:
2566:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2521:
2515:www.fct-cf.gc.ca
2506:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2495:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2454:
2448:
2440:
2429:
2421:
2399:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2340:
2325:(your lordship).
2324:
2322:Votre Seigneurie
2318:
2312:
2209:
2202:
2198:
2195:
2189:
2166:
2158:
2153:Canadian monarch
2108:British Columbia
2071:Justices of the
1895:Statutory courts
1696:
1659:privative clause
1571:
1454:
1369:Court of Ontario
1230:Court of Ontario
992:appellate courts
942:commercial court
936:
930:
924:
834:
710:
703:
696:
670:
669:
658:
657:
656:
440:Local government
418:
338:
335:List of justices
271:House of Commons
264:Senate divisions
240:
175:
159:
104:
96:Governor General
88:
64:
45:
29:
28:
21:
18:Provincial Court
6462:
6461:
6457:
6456:
6455:
6453:
6452:
6451:
6437:
6436:
6435:
6430:
6324:
6322:
6315:
6189:
6186:
6156:
6151:
6150:
6145:
6039:
6037:
6030:
5904:
5898:
5868:
5863:
5840:
5838:
5829:
5793:
5763:
5706:
5618:
5609:Social programs
5575:Law enforcement
5530:
5504:
5447:
5344:
5282:
5182:
5122:
5109:Atlantic Canada
5087:Canadian Shield
5082:Northern Canada
5049:
5048:
5025:
4999:
4935:and territories
4934:
4923:
4833:
4780:
4761:
4756:
4726:
4721:
4717:Call to the bar
4691:
4682:Superior Courts
4646:
4576:
4535:
4509:
4504:
4474:
4469:
4391:
4315:
4237:
4201:
4178:
4173:
4138:
4102:Wayback Machine
4055:Courts of Yukon
4015:
3996:
3995:
3992:
3974:
3956:
3954:Further reading
3951:
3950:
3940:
3938:
3931:
3925:
3921:
3914:
3910:
3904:
3900:
3894:
3887:
3878:
3876:
3872:
3866:
3855:
3847:
3843:
3833:
3831:
3818:"Criminal Code"
3816:
3815:
3811:
3805:Wayback Machine
3793:
3789:
3779:
3775:
3765:
3761:
3751:
3747:
3737:
3730:
3720:
3713:
3703:
3699:
3688:
3684:
3674:
3670:
3660:
3656:
3646:
3642:
3632:
3625:
3618:
3614:
3604:
3600:
3590:
3586:
3576:
3569:
3558:
3554:
3544:
3540:
3530:
3523:
3513:
3509:
3498:
3494:
3483:
3479:
3468:
3464:
3453:
3449:
3436:
3429:
3421:
3417:
3401:
3388:
3378:
3369:
3362:
3348:
3335:
3326:
3320:
3316:
3302:
3298:
3291:
3277:
3270:
3260:
3256:
3246:
3242:
3234:
3230:
3219:
3215:
3199:
3180:
3170:
3166:
3156:
3154:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3131:
3129:
3121:
3120:
3116:
3106:
3104:
3096:
3095:
3091:
3081:
3077:
3067:
3063:
3059:, SC 1993, c 28
3053:
3049:
3039:
3035:
3025:
3021:
3011:
3007:
2997:
2993:
2983:
2979:
2969:
2965:
2955:
2948:
2938:
2934:
2924:
2917:
2907:
2903:
2893:
2889:
2879:
2875:
2865:
2861:
2851:
2847:
2836:
2832:
2824:
2820:
2815:, AC 127 (PC).
2810:
2806:
2797:
2793:
2783:
2779:
2774:, AC 500 (PC).
2769:
2765:
2755:
2751:
2742:
2738:
2729:
2725:
2716:
2712:
2704:
2697:
2688:
2684:
2674:
2670:
2660:
2656:
2647:
2646:
2642:
2632:
2630:
2621:
2620:
2616:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2599:
2595:
2585:
2583:
2573:
2569:
2559:
2555:
2545:
2543:
2533:
2529:
2519:
2517:
2507:
2503:
2493:
2491:
2481:
2477:
2467:
2465:
2455:
2451:
2441:
2432:
2427:, ss. 91 and 92
2422:
2418:
2413:
2395:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2277:
2249:
2243:
2222:
2210:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2179:
2167:
2141:
2065:
2007:
1957:
1932:federal Cabinet
1923:
1917:
1897:
1875:
1870:
1802:
1771:
1765:
1724:
1655:judicial review
1632:immigration law
1619:
1613:
1561:
1559:Military courts
1524:
1518:
1497:
1470:
1439:
1407:
1402:
1385:Court of Quebec
1276:
1263:
1165:
1153:
1063:
1058:
964:
958:
922:Cour supérieure
898:
896:Superior courts
878:Court of Quebec
876:), and Quebec (
849:
841:
815:
768:superior courts
714:
685:
681:Other countries
676:
664:
654:
652:
644:
643:
594:
586:
585:
546:
536:
535:
517:
498:Nationality law
494:
482:
462:
452:
451:
442:
432:
431:
412:
400:
390:
389:
361:Military courts
332:
325:
315:
314:
234:
227:
217:
216:
169:
153:
141:
131:
130:
98:
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58:
36:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6460:
6450:
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6411:Sint Eustatius
6408:
6403:
6398:
6393:
6388:
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6378:
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6356:Cayman Islands
6353:
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6325:
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6123:
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6098:
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5393:
5391:Communications
5388:
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5237:Prime Minister
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5104:Eastern Canada
5101:
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5092:Central Canada
5089:
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5079:
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5058:Western Canada
5054:
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5050:(west to east)
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4233:Courts Martial
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2986:Judicature Act
2977:
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2828:SC 1949, c 37.
2818:
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2749:
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1501:Income Tax Act
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5367:Dairy farming
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5254:Supreme Court
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5114:The Maritimes
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4175:
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3939:. Retrieved
3935:
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3877:, retrieved
3870:the original
3851:
3844:
3832:. Retrieved
3828:the original
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3782:Language Act
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3329:1985, c. F-7
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3266:, 1 SCR 186
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2631:. Retrieved
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2605:. Retrieved
2596:
2584:. Retrieved
2580:
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2544:. Retrieved
2540:
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2518:. Retrieved
2514:
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2492:. Retrieved
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2466:. Retrieved
2462:
2452:
2443:
2424:
2419:
2305:Your Worship
2269:
2250:
2223:
2215:
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2191:
2180:Please help
2175:verification
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2016:
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719:
599:Conservatism
476:Mélanie Joly
368:Constitution
322:
26:
6386:Puerto Rico
6296:Saint Lucia
6246:El Salvador
6101:Puerto Rico
6011:Saint Lucia
5961:El Salvador
5901:Judiciaries
5687:Individuals
5495:2021 Census
5480:Immigration
5362:Agriculture
5323:Transgender
5163:Great Lakes
5143:Earthquakes
5097:Great Lakes
5004:Territories
4975:Nova Scotia
4894:Monarchical
4879:Immigration
4581:Other areas
4445:Nova Scotia
4367:Nova Scotia
4291:Nova Scotia
3651:, s. 19(1).
3490:at para 118
3475:at para 115
3056:Nunavut Act
2721:, pp. 10-11
2629:(in French)
2376:Australasia
2247:Court dress
2077:court clerk
2075:, with the
1732:rule of law
1582:magistrates
1474:immigration
1067:full courts
513:Visa policy
225:Legislative
91:Charles III
6381:Montserrat
6376:Martinique
6371:Guadeloupe
6226:Costa Rica
6096:Montserrat
6091:Martinique
6086:Guadeloupe
5941:Costa Rica
5815:Historians
5672:Literature
5585:Corruption
5568:Euthanasia
5558:Healthcare
5500:Population
5222:Parliament
5192:Government
4829:since 1982
4705:Law school
4687:Provincial
4593:Indigenous
4588:Aboriginal
4540:Core areas
3879:19 January
3693:, s. 19(2)
3607:Judges Act
3593:Judges Act
3579:Judges Act
3561:Judges Act
3547:Judges Act
3383:, 3 SCR 3
2788:, SCR 49.
2411:References
2252:courts or
2194:March 2024
2053:section 14
1976:Judges Act
1636:energy law
1624:labour law
1615:See also:
1584:' courts.
1547:in 1990.
1462:St. John's
1452:ex officio
1421:, and the
996:references
614:Liberalism
609:Federalism
107:Mary Simon
56:Government
6366:Greenland
6281:Nicaragua
6256:Guatemala
6081:Greenland
5996:Nicaragua
5971:Guatemala
5590:Terrorism
5546:Education
5485:Languages
5473:Ethnicity
5468:Canadians
5416:Petroleum
5396:Companies
5298:Elections
5178:Volcanism
5153:Mountains
5035:Geography
4943:Provinces
4933:Provinces
4864:Etymology
4824:1960–1981
4819:1945–1960
4777:Year list
4697:Education
4630:Trademark
4620:Copyright
3637:, s. 133.
3425:2 SCR 286
3310:1 SCR 190
3132:March 28,
3107:March 28,
3070:Yukon Act
2802:, p. 188.
2446:s. 92(14)
2353:the Crown
2329:Justice".
2297:addressed
2063:Procedure
2024:are both
1701:Although
1680:mediation
1458:Vancouver
1041:reference
1004:civil law
854:s. 92(14)
787:Tax Court
730:judiciary
490:in Canada
398:Elections
139:Executive
73:The Crown
61:structure
6441:Category
6331:Anguilla
6266:Honduras
6236:Dominica
6211:Barbados
6046:Anguilla
5981:Honduras
5951:Dominica
5926:Barbados
5858:Category
5798:Research
5772:Contents
5754:Heraldic
5662:Identity
5657:Holidays
5652:Folklore
5563:Abortion
5490:Religion
5428:Taxation
5335:Cannabis
5313:Intersex
5289:Politics
5261:Military
5173:Wildlife
4960:Manitoba
4889:Military
4859:Economic
4784:timeline
4642:Maritime
4572:Property
4562:Contract
4557:Criminal
4420:Manitoba
4342:Manitoba
4266:Manitoba
4098:Archived
3999:citation
3941:July 10,
3834:April 6,
3801:Archived
3679:, s. 23.
3457:General)
3152:Éducaloi
2734:, p. 16.
2679:, s. 101
2586:March 1,
2546:March 1,
2520:March 1,
2494:March 3,
2468:March 1,
2383:See also
2372:Scotland
2118:lawyers.
1858:de facto
1445:and the
1307:and the
503:Passport
472:Minister
323:Judicial
210:Premiers
6361:Curaçao
6346:Bonaire
6341:Bermuda
6271:Jamaica
6251:Grenada
6206:Bahamas
6076:Curaçao
6061:Bonaire
6056:Bermuda
5986:Jamaica
5966:Grenada
5921:Bahamas
5825:Surveys
5820:Studies
5784:Outline
5759:Tartans
5713:Symbols
5702:Theatre
5647:Cuisine
5624:Culture
5597:Poverty
5539:Society
5433:Tourism
5406:Fishing
5379:Banking
5354:Economy
5210:Monarch
5148:Islands
5045:Regions
5016:Nunavut
4980:Ontario
4950:Alberta
4767:History
4514:Sources
4465:Nunavut
4425:Ontario
4410:Alberta
4387:Nunavut
4347:Ontario
4332:Alberta
4311:Nunavut
4271:Ontario
4256:Alberta
4195:History
4023:website
3518:, s. 96
3503:3 SCR 3
3488:3 SCR 3
3473:3 SCR 3
3157:May 28,
2299:as "My
2220:Symbols
2134:Master.
2127:Masters
2112:Ontario
2055:of the
2018:English
1908:statute
1745:of the
1413:: the
880:). The
856:of the
738:federal
634:Regions
167:Cabinet
80:Monarch
6286:Panama
6276:Mexico
6221:Canada
6216:Belize
6001:Panama
5991:Mexico
5936:Canada
5931:Belize
5722:Anthem
5697:Sports
5642:Cinema
5614:Values
5461:Topics
5401:Energy
5384:Dollar
5249:Courts
5226:Senate
5168:Rivers
5138:Cities
5129:Topics
4990:Quebec
4909:Racism
4840:Topics
4759:Canada
4670:Appeal
4652:Courts
4625:Patent
4605:Family
4430:Quebec
4352:Quebec
4276:Quebec
3988:
3970:
3862:
3410:
3358:
3327:R.S.C.
3287:
3208:
2633:May 5,
2607:May 5,
2374:, and
2338:Maître
2282:gavels
2051:Under
2022:French
1814:judge)
1569:ad hoc
1417:, the
1399:(YKTC)
1393:(SKPC)
1387:(QCCQ)
1381:(PEPC)
1375:(ONCJ)
1365:(NUCJ)
1359:(NSPC)
1353:(NTTC)
1347:(NLPC)
1341:(NBPC)
1335:(MBPC)
1329:(BCPC)
1323:(ABCJ)
1260:(YKSC)
1248:(QCCS)
1242:(PESC)
1236:(ONSC)
1226:(NUCJ)
1220:(NSSC)
1214:(NTSC)
1208:(NLSC)
1190:(BCSC)
1150:(YKCA)
1144:(SKCA)
1138:(QCCA)
1132:(PECA)
1126:(ONCA)
1120:(NUCA)
1114:(NSCA)
1108:(NTCA)
1102:(NLCA)
1096:(NBCA)
1090:(MBCA)
1084:(BCCA)
1078:(ABCA)
827:Canada
785:, and
726:courts
244:Senate
6336:Aruba
6261:Haiti
6051:Aruba
5976:Haiti
5779:Index
5749:Royal
5682:Media
5677:Music
5580:Crime
5509:Lists
5021:Yukon
4919:Women
4455:Yukon
4377:Yukon
4301:Yukon
3932:(PDF)
3873:(PDF)
3856:(PDF)
2564:s. 96
2241:Dress
1630:law,
1280:trial
972:bench
886:Yukon
770:have
576:Métis
6406:Saba
6231:Cuba
6121:Saba
5946:Cuba
5737:List
5732:Flag
5318:LGBT
5242:list
4567:Tort
4018:The
4005:link
3986:ISBN
3968:ISBN
3943:2024
3881:2015
3860:ISBN
3836:2010
3535:s 99
3441:57,
3408:ISBN
3356:ISBN
3285:ISBN
3206:ISBN
3159:2022
3134:2015
3109:2015
2635:2024
2609:2024
2588:2024
2548:2024
2522:2024
2496:2024
2470:2024
2301:Lord
2110:and
2090:jury
2020:and
1899:The
1716:i.e.
1587:The
1480:and
1009:The
1000:i.e.
970:The
884:and
796:The
743:The
720:The
101:list
85:list
5637:Art
5411:Oil
5200:Law
4223:Tax
2319:or
2290:bar
2184:by
1773:In
1460:to
1287:.
6443::
4001:}}
3997:{{
3934:.
3888:^
3820:.
3731:^
3714:^
3626:^
3570:^
3524:^
3430:^
3389:^
3370:^
3336:^
3325:,
3308:,
3271:^
3225:99
3181:^
3150:.
3125:.
3100:.
2949:^
2918:^
2698:^
2625:.
2579:.
2539:.
2513:.
2487:.
2461:.
2433:^
2378:).
2256:.
1734:.
1638:,
1634:,
1626:,
1429:.
1371:–
1311:.
1232:–
1159:.
781:,
488:/
474::
344::
176::
160::
105::
89::
6181:e
6174:t
6167:v
5893:e
5886:t
5879:v
5233:)
5224:(
4786:)
4781:(
4751:e
4744:t
4737:v
4499:e
4492:t
4485:v
4168:e
4161:t
4154:v
4007:)
3945:.
3838:.
3807:.
3695:.
3563:,
3364:.
3331:.
3293:.
3161:.
3136:.
3111:.
2843:.
2651:.
2637:.
2611:.
2590:.
2550:.
2524:.
2498:.
2472:.
2292:.
2207:)
2201:(
2196:)
2192:(
2178:.
998:(
709:e
702:t
695:v
417:)
413:(
337:)
333:(
239:)
235:(
174:)
170:(
158:)
154:(
103:)
99:(
87:)
83:(
63:)
59:(
20:)
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