192:, the pleasure principle emanating from psychological hedonism became aligned with the Eros, which drives a person to satiate sexual and reproductive desires. Alternatively, Thanatos seeks the cessation of pain through death and the end of the pursuit of pleasure: thus, hedonism rules Thanatos, but it centers on the complete avoidance of pain rather than psychological hedonist function which pursues pleasure and avoids pain. Therefore, Freud believed in qualitatively different hedonisms where the total avoidance of pain hedonism and the achievement of the greatest net pleasure hedonism are separate and associated with distinct functions and drives of the human psyche. Although Eros and Thanatos are ruled by qualitatively different types of hedonism, Eros remains under the rule of Jeremy Bentham's
163:, a psychological egoist, argued that all animals primarily seek to survive and protect their lineage. Essentially, the need for the individual and for the individual's immediate family to live supersedes the others' need to live. All species attempt to maximize their own chances of survival and, therefore, well-being. Spencer asserted the best adapted creatures will have their pleasure levels outweigh their pain levels in their environments. Thus, pleasure meant an animal was fulfilling its egoist goal of self survival, and pleasure would always be pursued because species constantly strive for survival.
366:: "If a person willingly performs an act, that means he derives personal enjoyment from it; therefore, people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment." In particular, seemingly altruistic acts must be performed because people derive enjoyment from them and are therefore, in reality, egoistic. This statement is circular because its conclusion is identical to its hypothesis: it assumes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment, and concludes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment. This objection was tendered by
281:
to save a person who is drowning in the water. In such cases, according to
Nietzsche, there comes into play unconscious fears regarding our own safety. The suffering of another person is felt as a threat to our own happiness and sense of safety, because it reveals our own vulnerability to misfortunes, and thus, by relieving it, one could also ameliorate those personal sentiments. Essentially, proponents argue that altruism is rooted in self-interest whereas opponents claim altruism occurs for altruism's sake or is caused by a non-selfish reason.
311:"No one deserves thanks from another about something he has done for him or goodness he has done, he is either willing to get a reward from God, therefore he wanted to serve himself, or he wanted to get a reward from people, therefore, he has done that to get profit for himself, or to be mentioned and praised by people, therefore, to it is also for himself, or due to his mercy and tenderheartedness, so he has simply done that goodness to pacify these feelings and treat himself."
465:. Specifically, they focus on the human behavior of parental care. To set up their argument, they propose two potential psychological mechanisms for this. The hedonistic mechanism is based on a parent's ultimate desire for pleasure or the avoidance of pain and a belief that caring for its offspring will be instrumental to that. The altruistic mechanism is based on an altruistic ultimate desire to care for its offspring.
349:
neurological perspective, scientists argue that when a human empathizes with another, the brain operates as if the human is actually participating in the actions of the other person. Thus, when performing altruistic actions motivated by empathy, humans experience someone else's pleasure of being helped. Therefore, in performing acts of altruism, people act in their own self-interest even at a neurological level.
251:
selfish reasons even when cost of the altruistic action is far outweighed by the reward of acting selfishly because altruism is performed to fulfill the desire of a person to act altruistically. Other critics argue that it is false either because it is an over-simplified interpretation of behavior or that there exists empirical evidence of altruistic behaviour. Recently, some have argued that
230:
incorporated into the fundamental principles and experimental designs of behaviorism, behaviorism itself explains and interprets only observable behavior and therefore does not theorize about the ultimate cause of human behavior. Thus, behaviorism uses but does not strictly support psychological hedonism over other understandings of the ultimate drive of human behavior.
833:(The book in Arabic). The quote in Arabic "ูุง ูุณุชุญู ุฃุญุฏ ู
ู ุฃุญุฏ ุดูุฑุง ุนูู ุดูุก ูุนูู ุจู ุฃู ุฎูุฑ ุฃุณุฏุงู ุฅููู ูุฃูู ูุง ูุฎูู ุฃู ูููู ูุนู ุฐูู ุทูุจุง ููุซูุงุจ ู
ู ุงููู ุชุนุงูู ูุฅูู
ุง ุฅูู ููุณู ูุตุฏ ุฃู ูููู ูุนูู ููู
ูุงูุฃุฉ ูุฅูู ุฅูู ุงูุฑุจุญ ุฐุงูุจ ุฃู ูููู ูุนูู ููุฐูุฑ ูุงูุซูุงุก ููู ุญุธู ุณุนู ููู ุญุจูู ุญุทุจ ุฃู ูุนูู ุฑุญู
ุฉ ูู ูุฑูุฉ ูุถุนุช ูู ููุจู ูุฅูู
ุง ุณูู ุจุชูู ุงูุนุทูุฉ ุนูุชู ูุฏุงูู ุจูุง ู
ู ุฏุงุฆู"
512:
often refers to our sensual desires or appetites, or to our being attracted to something, by finding the thought of it appealing. I shall use โdesireโ in a wider sense, which refers to any state of being motivated, or of wanting something to happen and being to some degree disposed to make it happen,
238:
Psychological egoism is controversial. Proponents cite evidence from introspection: reflection on one's own actions may reveal their motives and intended results to be based on self-interest. Psychological hedonists have found through numerous observations of natural human behavior that behavior can
334:
in terms of psychological hedonism. According to the "merge with others hypothesis", empathy increases the more an individual feels like they are one with another person, and decreases accordingly. Therefore, altruistic actions emanating from empathy, and empathy itself, are caused by making others'
293:
Psychological egoists, however, respond that helping others in such ways is ultimately motivated by some form of self-interest, such as non-sensory satisfaction, the expectation of reciprocation, the desire to gain respect or reputation, or by the expectation of a reward in a putative afterlife. The
289:
David Hume once wrote, "What interest can a fond mother have in view, who loses her health by assiduous attendance on her sick child, and afterwards languishes and dies of grief, when freed, by its death , from the slavery of that attendance?". It seems incorrect to describe such a mother's goal as
481:
to not limit the fitness of the organism. Sober and Wilson argue that there is neither reason to suppose that an altruistic mechanism should be any less available than a hedonistic one nor reason to suppose that the content of thoughts and desires (hedonistic vs. altruistic) should impact energetic
280:
that in such cases compassionate impulses arise out of the projection of our identity unto the object of our feeling. He gives some hypothetical examples as illustrations to his thesis: that of a person, feeling horrified after witnessing a personal feud, coughing blood, or that of the impulse felt
250:
Opponents have argued that psychological egoism is not more parsimonious than other theories. For example, a theory that claims altruism occurs for the sake of altruism explains altruism with less complexity than the egoistic approach. The psychological egoist asserts humans act altruistically for
322:
According to psychological hedonism, the ultimate egoistic motive is to gain good feelings of pleasure and avoid bad feelings of pain. Other, less restricted forms of psychological egoism may allow the ultimate goal of a person to include such things as avoiding punishments from oneself or others
151:
asserted, like
Epicurus, that human behavior is governed by a need to increase pleasure and decrease pain. Bentham explicitly described what types and qualities of pain and pleasure exist, and how human motives are singularly explained using psychological hedonism. Bentham attempted to quantify
485:
For the hedonistic mechanism to produce the behavior of caring for offspring, the parent must believe that the caring behavior will produce pleasure or avoidance of pain for the parent. Sober and Wilson argue that the belief also must be true and constantly reinforced, or it would not be likely
229:
states that behaviors associated with pleasantness will be learned and those associated with pain will be extinguished. Often, behaviorist experiments using humans and animals are built around the assumption that subjects will pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Although psychological hedonism is
99:
Immediate gratification can be sacrificed for a chance of greater, future pleasure. Further, humans are not motivated to strictly avoid pain and only pursue pleasure, but, instead, humans will endure pain to achieve the greatest net pleasure. Accordingly, all actions are tools for increasing
1126:
Mehiel, R. (1997). The consummatory rat: The psychological hedonism of Robert C. Bolles. In M. E. Bouton & M. S. Fanselow (Eds.), Learning, motivation, and cognition: The functional behaviorism of Robert C. Bolles. (Vol. xiii, pp. 271โ280). Washington, DC, US: American
Psychological
348:
to humans experiencing empathy. Mirror neurons are activated both when a human (or animal) performs an action and when they observe another human (or animal) perform the same action. Researchers have found that the more these mirror neurons fire the more human subjects report empathy. From a
262:
desires. Even though it is true that every human being seeks their own satisfaction, this sometimes may only be achieved via the well-being of their neighbor. An example of this situation could be phoning for an ambulance when a car accident has happened. In this case, the caller desires the
143:
argued the theory of human behavior being motivated by pleasure alone is evidenced from infancy to adulthood. Humanity performs altruistic, honorable, and virtuous acts not for the sake of another or because of a moral code but rather to increase the well-being of the self.
224:
which adds or removes pleasure and pain to manipulate behavior. Using pleasure and pain to control behavior means behaviorists assumed the principles of psychological hedonism could be applied to predicting human behavior. For example,
343:
experiments have provided evidence for this theory: as humans increase our oneness with others, our empathy increases, and as empathy increases, so too does our inclination to act altruistically. Neuropsychological studies have linked
486:
enough to persist. If the belief fails then the behavior is not produced. The altruistic mechanism does not rely on belief; therefore, they argue that it would be less likely to fail than the alternative, i.e. more reliable.
525:
first in the wide sense and then in the narrow sense. If I voluntarily gave up my life to save the lives of several strangers, my act would not be selfish, though I would be doing what in the wide sense I wanted to do.
468:
Sober and Wilson argue that when evaluating the likelihood of a given trait to evolve, three factors must be considered: availability, reliability and energetic efficiency. The genes for a given trait must first be
1161:
Mees, U., & Schmitt, A. (2008). Goals of action and emotional reasons for action. A modern version of the theory of ultimate psychological hedonism. Journal for the Theory of Social
Behaviour, 38(2), 157โ178.
679:
is also often read as a psychological egoist, but this is fairly controversial, especially in respect of whether or not he used it to ground his moral theory. See Gert (1967) and Lloyd & Sreedhar (2008).
1094:
Kaplan, J. T., & Iacoboni, M. (2006). Getting a grip on other minds: Mirror neurons, intention understanding, and cognitive empathy. Social
Neuroscience, 1(3/4), 175โ183. doi:10.1080/17470910600985605
52:. It claims that, when people choose to help others, they do so ultimately because of the personal benefits that they themselves expect to obtain, directly or indirectly, from doing so.
482:
efficiency. As availability and energetic efficiency are taken to be equivalent for both mechanisms it follows that the more reliable mechanism will then be the more likely mechanism.
266:
To counter this critique, psychological egoism asserts that all such desires for the well-being of others are ultimately derived from self-interest. For example, German philosopher
63:
view, since it only makes claims about how things are, not how they "ought to be" according to some. It is, however, related to several other normative forms of egoism, such as
1022:
Cialdini, Robert B., S. L. Brown, B. P. Lewis, C. Luce, & S. L. Neuberg (1997). "Reinterpreting the
Empathy-Altruism Relationship: When One Into One Equals Oneness".
1174:
Young, P. T. (1936). Motivation of behavior: The fundamental determinants of human and animal activity. (Vol. xviii). Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
504:, Volume 1, Parfit presents an argument against psychological egoism that centers around an apparent equivocation between different senses of the word "want":
744:
1158:
Sober, E., & Wilson, D. S. (1999). Unto others: the evolution and psychology of unselfish behavior. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press.
258:
Critics have stated that proponents of psychological egoism often confuse the satisfaction of their own desires with the satisfaction of their own
239:
be manipulated through reward and punishment, both of which have direct effects of pain and pleasure. Also, the work of some social scientists has
156:
or the measurement of relative gains and losses in pain and pleasure to determine the most pleasurable action a human could choose in a situation.
902:
100:
pleasure or decreasing pain, even those defined as altruistic and those that do not cause an immediate change in satisfaction levels.
811:
Ethics and human well-being: an introduction to moral philosophy. Year 1996. Chapter 1. Psychological Egoism. By Edward Jarvis Bond.
180:
borrowed much from psychological egoism and psychological hedonism in particular. The pleasure principle rules the behavior of the
842:
316:
969:
883:
Cialdini, Robert B., S. L. Brown, B. P. Lewis, C. Luce, & S. L. Neuberg (1997); Kaplan, J. T., & Iacoboni, M. (2006).
270:
was a psychological egoist for some of his career, though he is said to have repudiated that later in his campaign against
17:
1284:
1271:
1257:
461:, Sober and Wilson detailed an evolutionary argument based on the likelihood for egoism to evolve under the pressures of
226:
374:
in the 19th century, and has been restated many times since. An earlier version of the same objection was made by
252:
177:
184:
which is an unconscious force driving humans to release tension from unfulfilled desires. When Freud introduced
48:
is the view that humans are always motivated by self-interest and selfishness, even in what seem to be acts of
959:
1320:
1191:
Batson, C.D. & L. Shaw (1991). "Evidence for
Altruism: Toward a Pluralism of Prosocial Motives,"
995:
Batson, C.D. & L. Shaw (1991). "Evidence for
Altruism: Toward a Pluralism of Prosocial Motives,"
545:
140:
123:
Some theorists explain behavior motivated by self-interest without using pleasure and pain as the
1315:
1084:
942:
221:
39:
335:
interests our own, and the satisfaction of their desires becomes our own, not just theirs. Both
181:
1305:
829:
Ibn-Qutaiba Al-Dainoori, "Taweel
Mukhtalaf AlHadith" (interpretation of controversial Hadith),
243:
supported this theory. Further, they claim psychological egoism posits a theory that is a more
209:
88:, the view that the ultimate motive for all voluntary human action is the desire to experience
830:
185:
148:
1104:
Lloyd, Sharon A. & Sreedhar, Susanne. (2008). "Hobbes's Moral and Political Philosophy",
189:
906:
363:
336:
213:
8:
1310:
267:
1165:
Sweet, W. (2004). Spencer, Herbert. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from
1088:
1076:
946:
934:
795:
550:
535:
391:
153:
112:
56:
394:
paper "Psychological Egoism", embraces a similar critique by drawing attention to the
965:
566:
555:
462:
152:
psychological hedonism. Bentham endeavored to find the ideal human behavior based on
1213:
1055:
874:
Cialdini, Robert B., S. L. Brown, B. P. Lewis, C. Luce, & S. L. Neuberg (1997).
395:
244:
104:
60:
1141:
O'Keefe, T. (2005). Epicurus. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from
1109:
477:
produce an increase in fitness for the organism. The trait must also operate with
1300:
500:
380:
371:
367:
340:
276:
160:
68:
1002:
64:
1294:
1279:
1226:
Krebs, Dennis (1982). "Psychological Approaches to Altruism: An Evaluation".
1097:
Krebs, Dennis (1982). "Psychological Approaches to Altruism: An Evaluation".
1068:
926:
858:
791:
772:
713:
676:
560:
398:
of psychological egoism. He expounds it in the following cross-examination:
387:
375:
345:
263:
well-being of the victim, even though the desire itself is the caller's own.
217:
1152:
176:
Whether or not Sigmund Freud was a psychological egoist, his concept of the
756:
495:
444:
136:
108:
1073:
Reason & Responsibility: Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy
931:
Reason & Responsibility: Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy
820:
Mees, U., & Schmitt, A. (2008), Sober, E., & Wilson, D. S. (1999).
294:
helpful action is merely instrumental to these ultimately selfish goals.
205:
124:
1198:
1080:
1012:
938:
736:
521:
This argument for Psychological Egoism fails, because it uses the word
1171:
Wallwork, E. (1991). Psychoanalysis and Ethics. Yale University Press.
1142:
700:
698:
298:
240:
196:
psychological hedonism because Eros seeks the greatest net pleasure.
93:
1047:, edited and with Introduction by Jon Cook, Oxford University Press.
688:
Slote, M. A. (1964). "An Empirical Basis for Psychological Egoism,"
1238:
1120:
903:"Macaulay, "Mill on Government" ToC: The Online Library of Liberty"
695:
271:
193:
89:
49:
1252:
1166:
1135:
331:
31:
1266:
800:
Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior
540:
35:
324:
315:
This sort of explanation appears to be close to the view of
831:
http://www.almeshkat.net/books/open.php?cat=9&book=1150
777:
The Altruism Question: Toward a Social-Psychological Answer
724:, J. H. Bernard (ed.), London: Macmillan, Sermons I and XI.
1036:
Gert, Bernard (1967). "Hobbes and Psychological Egoism",
1009:. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907. First published in 1789.
1029:
Gallese, V. (2001). "The 'shared manifold' hypothesis".
1007:
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation
563:, for a proposed anatomic basis of psychological egoism.
323:(such as guilt or shame) and attaining rewards (such as
1201:(1971). "Egoism as a Theory of Human Motives," in his
1015:(1971). "Egoism as a Theory of Human Motives," in his
327:, self-worth, power or reciprocal beneficial action).
166:
473:
in the gene pool for selection. The trait must then
74:
27:View that true altruism in humans isn't impossible
34:. For broader coverage of egoist philosophy, see
1292:
362:Psychological egoism has been accused of being
284:
779:, Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
741:An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals
849:. London: Gillyflower, Sare, & Everingham
1233:May, Joshua (2011). "Psychological Egoism",
1115:May, Joshua (2011). "Psychological Egoism",
1024:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
718:Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel
302:
208:dictates all human behavior is explained by
1203:Broad's Critical Essays in Moral Philosophy
1045:Self-Love and Benevolence Selected Writings
1017:Broad's Critical Essays in Moral Philosophy
847:Moral Maxims and Reflections, in Four Parts
297:In the ninth century, Mohammed Ibn Al-Jahm
84:A specific form of psychological egoism is
1151:(Winter Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (
666:Young, P. T. (1936) and Mehiel, R. (1997).
103:The most famous psychological egoists are
139:claims humans live to maximize pleasure.
79:
1188:, Peter Singer (ed.), Blackwell: Oxford.
992:, Peter Singer (ed.), Blackwell: Oxford.
763:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
452:
1235:The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1149:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1132:The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1117:The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1106:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
732:
730:
14:
1293:
216:. Operant conditioning works through
1237:, J. Fieser & B. Dowden (eds.). (
1134:, J. Fieser & B. Dowden (eds.). (
1130:Moseley, Alexander (2006). "Egoism",
1119:, J. Fieser & B. Dowden (eds.). (
787:
785:
704:Sober, E., & Wilson, D. S. (1999)
247:explanation than competing theories.
1162:doi:10.1111/j.1468-5914.2008.00364.x
727:
1285:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1272:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1258:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1143:http://www.iep.utm.edu/epicur/#SH5a
1040:, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 503โ520.
402:"All men desire only satisfaction."
303:
135:Beginning with ancient philosophy,
24:
1178:
782:
167:Contributions to modern psychology
159:From an evolutionary perspective,
25:
1332:
1245:
1205:, London: George Allen and Unwin.
1147:Shaver, Robert (2002). "Egoism",
1019:, London: George Allen and Unwin.
422:"Their desires for satisfaction."
171:
1184:Baier, Kurt (1990). "Egoism" in
1031:Journal of Consciousness Studies
988:Baier, Kurt (1990). "Egoism" in
412:"Satisfaction of their desires."
75:Subtypes of psychological egoism
1167:http://www.iep.utm.edu/spencer/
1038:Journal of the History of Ideas
952:
920:
895:
886:
877:
868:
852:
836:
823:
814:
805:
766:
750:
707:
682:
669:
660:
489:
1216:(ed.), Harmondsworth: Penguin.
1075:, edited by Joel Feinberg and
1058:(ed.), Harmondsworth: Penguin.
933:, edited by Joel Feinberg and
651:
648:Wallwork, E. (1991). p. 132-33
642:
633:
624:
615:
606:
597:
594:Shaver (2002); Moseley (2006).
588:
579:
517:already has both these senses.
357:
255:provides evidence against it.
199:
130:
118:
13:
1:
1071:. "Psychological Egoism." In
982:
929:. "Psychological Egoism." In
843:La Rochefoucauld, Franรงois de
352:
285:Problem of apparent altruism
7:
964:. OUP Oxford. 26 May 2011.
961:On What Matters: Volume One
761:The Possibility of Altruism
657:Young, P. T. (1936). p. 332
639:Wallwork, E. (1991). p. 125
630:Wallwork, E. (1991). p. 110
529:
330:Some psychologists explain
10:
1337:
1108:, Edward N. Zalta (ed.). (
802:, Harvard University Press
722:The Works of Bishop Butler
307:) has been quoted saying:
304:ู
ุญู
ุฏ ุจู ุงูุฌููููู
ุงูุจูุฑู
ููู
29:
1043:Hazlitt, William (1991).
546:Enlightened self-interest
442:"For satisfaction"โetc.,
417:"Their desires for what?"
233:
227:Thorndike's law of effect
1221:Of Liberty and Necessity
1063:Of Liberty and Necessity
572:
188:and its opposing force,
30:Not to be confused with
1219:Hobbes, Thomas (1654).
1208:Hobbes, Thomas (1651).
1061:Hobbes, Thomas (1654).
1050:Hobbes, Thomas (1651).
427:"Satisfaction of what?"
407:"Satisfaction of what?"
274:. He argues in ยง133 of
40:Egoist (disambiguation)
1253:"Psychological egoism"
1230:, 92, pp. 447โ58.
1101:, 92, pp. 447โ58.
319:(and perhaps Hobbes).
313:
210:classical conditioning
147:In modern philosophy,
86:psychological hedonism
80:Psychological hedonism
38:. For other uses, see
1193:Psychological Inquiry
1186:A Companion to Ethics
997:Psychological Inquiry
990:A Companion to Ethics
690:Journal of Philosophy
612:Jeremy Bentham (1789)
453:Evolutionary argument
309:
513:if we can. The word
479:energetic efficiency
457:In their 1998 book,
214:operant conditioning
46:Psychological egoism
18:Psychological Egoism
268:Friedrich Nietzsche
253:evolutionary theory
1077:Russ Shafer-Landau
1026:, 73 (3): 481โ494.
935:Russ Shafer-Landau
743:. Public domain. (
675:See Bentham 1789.
603:O'Keefe, T. (2005)
551:Experience machine
536:Academic careerism
341:neuropsychological
178:pleasure principle
113:Bernard Mandeville
1085:Thomson Wadsworth
971:978-0-19-161346-3
943:Thomson Wadsworth
567:Simulated reality
556:Inclusive fitness
463:natural selection
290:self-interested.
16:(Redirected from
1328:
1321:Ethical theories
1276:
1262:
1223:, public domain.
1214:C. B. Macpherson
1065:, public domain.
1056:C. B. Macpherson
1033:, 8(5-7), 33โ50.
976:
975:
956:
950:
924:
918:
917:
915:
914:
905:. Archived from
899:
893:
890:
884:
881:
875:
872:
866:
856:
850:
840:
834:
827:
821:
818:
812:
809:
803:
789:
780:
770:
764:
754:
748:
734:
725:
711:
705:
702:
693:
686:
680:
673:
667:
664:
658:
655:
649:
646:
640:
637:
631:
628:
622:
619:
613:
610:
604:
601:
595:
592:
586:
583:
432:"Their desires."
396:infinite regress
317:La Rochefoucauld
306:
305:
154:hedonic calculus
105:Sextus Empiricus
21:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1291:
1290:
1265:
1251:
1248:
1181:
1179:Further reading
1003:Bentham, Jeremy
985:
980:
979:
972:
958:
957:
953:
925:
921:
912:
910:
901:
900:
896:
892:Hazlitt (1991).
891:
887:
882:
878:
873:
869:
865:, public domain
857:
853:
841:
837:
828:
824:
819:
815:
810:
806:
790:
783:
771:
767:
755:
751:
735:
728:
712:
708:
703:
696:
687:
683:
674:
670:
665:
661:
656:
652:
647:
643:
638:
634:
629:
625:
621:Sweet, W (2004)
620:
616:
611:
607:
602:
598:
593:
589:
584:
580:
575:
532:
501:On What Matters
494:In philosopher
492:
455:
381:Fifteen Sermons
372:Thomas Macaulay
368:William Hazlitt
360:
355:
287:
236:
202:
174:
169:
161:Herbert Spencer
133:
121:
82:
77:
69:rational egoism
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1334:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1316:Theory of mind
1313:
1308:
1303:
1289:
1288:
1282:entry in the
1277:
1263:
1247:
1246:External links
1244:
1243:
1242:
1231:
1224:
1217:
1206:
1196:
1189:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1163:
1159:
1156:
1145:
1139:
1128:
1124:
1113:
1102:
1095:
1092:
1069:Feinberg, Joel
1066:
1059:
1048:
1041:
1034:
1027:
1020:
1010:
1000:
993:
984:
981:
978:
977:
970:
951:
927:Feinberg, Joel
919:
894:
885:
876:
867:
859:Hobbes, Thomas
851:
835:
822:
813:
804:
781:
765:
749:
726:
706:
694:
681:
668:
659:
650:
641:
632:
623:
614:
605:
596:
587:
577:
576:
574:
571:
570:
569:
564:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
531:
528:
519:
518:
491:
488:
454:
451:
450:
449:
439:
438:
434:
433:
429:
428:
424:
423:
419:
418:
414:
413:
409:
408:
404:
403:
359:
356:
354:
351:
346:mirror neurons
286:
283:
260:self-regarding
235:
232:
201:
198:
173:
172:Psychoanalysis
170:
168:
165:
149:Jeremy Bentham
132:
129:
120:
117:
81:
78:
76:
73:
65:ethical egoism
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1333:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1306:Individualism
1304:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1296:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1278:
1274:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1249:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1187:
1183:
1182:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1100:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1042:
1039:
1035:
1032:
1028:
1025:
1021:
1018:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1004:
1001:
998:
994:
991:
987:
986:
973:
967:
963:
962:
955:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
923:
909:on 2006-12-31
908:
904:
898:
889:
880:
871:
864:
860:
855:
848:
844:
839:
832:
826:
817:
808:
801:
797:
793:
788:
786:
778:
774:
769:
762:
758:
757:Nagel, Thomas
753:
746:
742:
738:
733:
731:
723:
719:
715:
710:
701:
699:
691:
685:
678:
677:Thomas Hobbes
672:
663:
654:
645:
636:
627:
618:
609:
600:
591:
585:Moore (2011).
582:
578:
568:
565:
562:
561:Reward system
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
542:
539:
537:
534:
533:
527:
524:
516:
511:
507:
506:
505:
503:
502:
498:'s 2011 book
497:
487:
483:
480:
476:
472:
466:
464:
460:
447:
446:
441:
440:
436:
435:
431:
430:
426:
425:
421:
420:
416:
415:
411:
410:
406:
405:
401:
400:
399:
397:
393:
389:
388:Joel Feinberg
385:
383:
382:
377:
376:Joseph Butler
373:
369:
365:
350:
347:
342:
338:
333:
328:
326:
320:
318:
312:
308:
300:
295:
291:
282:
279:
278:
273:
269:
264:
261:
256:
254:
248:
246:
242:
231:
228:
223:
219:
218:reinforcement
215:
211:
207:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
164:
162:
157:
155:
150:
145:
142:
138:
128:
127:of behavior.
126:
116:
114:
110:
106:
101:
97:
95:
91:
87:
72:
70:
66:
62:
58:
53:
51:
47:
41:
37:
33:
19:
1283:
1270:
1256:
1234:
1227:
1220:
1209:
1202:
1199:Broad, C. D.
1192:
1185:
1148:
1131:
1127:Association.
1116:
1105:
1098:
1072:
1062:
1051:
1044:
1037:
1030:
1023:
1016:
1013:Broad, C. D.
1006:
996:
989:
960:
954:
930:
922:
911:. Retrieved
907:the original
897:
888:
879:
870:
863:Human Nature
862:
854:
846:
838:
825:
816:
807:
799:
776:
773:Batson, C.D.
768:
760:
752:
740:
721:
717:
709:
689:
684:
671:
662:
653:
644:
635:
626:
617:
608:
599:
590:
581:
522:
520:
514:
509:
499:
496:Derek Parfit
493:
490:Equivocation
484:
478:
474:
470:
467:
458:
456:
445:ad infinitum
443:
386:
379:
361:
339:studies and
329:
321:
314:
310:
296:
292:
288:
275:
265:
259:
257:
249:
245:parsimonious
237:
204:Traditional
203:
194:quantitative
175:
158:
146:
137:Epicureanism
134:
125:final causes
122:
109:Pierre Bayle
102:
98:
92:or to avoid
85:
83:
59:rather than
54:
45:
44:
1195:2: 107โ122.
1079:, 520โ532.
999:2: 107โ122.
937:, 520-532.
796:D.S. Wilson
737:Hume, David
692:61: 530-537
459:Unto Others
437:"For what?"
358:Circularity
241:empirically
206:behaviorism
200:Behaviorism
131:Foundations
119:Final cause
57:descriptive
1311:Narcissism
1295:Categories
1280:""Egoism""
1081:California
983:References
939:California
913:2006-10-20
714:Butler, J.
299:Al-Barmaki
222:punishment
55:This is a
1210:Leviathan
1052:Leviathan
792:Sober, E.
508:The word
471:available
390:, in his
353:Criticism
337:cognitive
61:normative
1267:"Egoism"
1005:(1789).
861:(1650).
845:(1691).
798:(1998).
775:(1991).
759:(1970).
739:(1751).
716:(1726).
530:See also
475:reliably
364:circular
277:The Dawn
272:morality
186:Thanatos
141:Epicurus
90:pleasure
50:altruism
378:in the
332:empathy
32:Egotism
1301:Egoism
1228:Ethics
1099:Ethics
968:
794:&
541:Acedia
510:desire
234:Debate
111:, and
36:Egoism
720:, in
573:Notes
325:pride
1239:link
1153:link
1136:link
1121:link
1110:link
1089:2008
966:ISBN
947:2008
745:link
523:want
515:want
392:1958
370:and
220:and
212:and
190:Eros
96:.
94:pain
67:and
1297::
1269:.
1255:.
1212:,
1087:,
1083::
1054:,
945:,
941::
784:^
729:^
697:^
384:.
182:Id
115:.
107:,
71:.
1275:.
1261:.
1241:)
1155:)
1138:)
1123:)
1112:)
1091:.
974:.
949:.
916:.
747:)
448:.
301:(
42:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.