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motion picture producers elected to license one or the other. In a few cases, where mergers had occurred, a producer might be licensed for both. For many years, it was customary to "brand" a film with its sound system, variously as "RCA Sound
Recording", "Western Electric Recording", or similar brands, often including the corporate logo of the licensor (
495:
Once the ability to record stereo tracks became a commercial imperative for sound-transfer facilities, the RCA system was abandoned, as it was incapable of producing time-aligned stereo sound negatives. Whereas the
Western Electric/Westrex recorders with the ca. 1938 4-ribbon light valve (RA-1231,
383:
Roughly equal measured and perceived quality was available from both systems and from both manufacturers. Neither recording system nor manufacturer was clearly superior to the other, except where specific customer end-to-end processes made one system/manufacturer more consistently superior to the
359:
Many years later, the
Photophone trademark would be reused by the Western Electric/Westrex stereo variable-area system, after both the Western Electric and Westrex trademarks became unavailable due to corporate asset sales by the disintegrating Bell System, but the Western Electric/Westrex stereo
342:
For nearly half a century, motion picture sound systems were licensed, with two major licensors in North
America, RCA and Western Electric (Northern Electric, in Canada), which licensed their principal sound element (original track negative) recording systems on a non-exclusive basis. In general,
355:
for the post-1956 divestiture of
Western Electric under Litton Industries' ownership). Such branding ceased in about 1976, particularly after nearly all optical sound recording (for release prints) had been converted to Westrex's stereo variable-area system from RCA's and Westrex's mono systems,
436:
When originally introduced in 1947, the RA-1231 could be configured as a mono 35mm variable-density or variable-area recorder, or a mono 16mm variable-density or variable-area recorder, at the customer's option. However its basic electro-optical arrangement could also be used to create a
402:
Variable-density was finally abandoned as customer preferences for "dual-bilateral" variable-area soundtracks emerged in the late 1950s. This required changes to some laboratory processing and quality controls, but the real reason for variable-density's demise was yet to come.
309:
to create a variable-area soundtrack. A number of demonstrations of this system, now known as
Photophone, were given in 1926 and 1927. The first public screenings with this system were of a sound version (music plus sound effects only) of the silent film
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Two, three or four time-aligned tracks were theoretically possible, and one implementation did, indeed, offer four time-aligned discrete tracks. The four-track experiment was not repeated. All subsequent implementations were two discrete, time-aligned
477:
Nearly all original track negatives (OTNs) are now produced as stereo variable-area, and the former
Western Electric (Westrex) system has been renamed Photophone and has become the de facto standard for analogue optical soundtracks, world-wide.
447:), the discrete L and R channels of Westrex's stereo variable-area system were renamed "Left Total" and "Right Total", and when decoded utilizing Dolby's Cinema Processor these produced the L, C, R and S sound image first commonly used by Fox's
659:, 1949). Discusses, in the abstract, the components of that which later became today's Photophone (né Western Electric/Westrex) stereo variable-area system, but the component descriptions are spread throughout this essential and definitive text
284:(GE) developed a photographic film recorder, initially to record transoceanic wireless telegraphy signals. However, this recorder was later adapted for recording speech and was used in 1921 to record speeches by President
536:
The re-use of the
Photophone brand was relatively short-lived. After the closure of the immediate successor to Litton, the RA-1231 recorder and its supporting electronics were taken over by yet another successor.
368:
Although variable-density sound system recording is usually associated with
Western Electric and variable-area sound system recording is usually associated with RCA, these relationships are not cast into stone.
528:
The
Westrex system also has the capability of producing a DTS time-code track along with its native stereo variable-area tracks, or DTS time-code alone for use with 70mm and "special venue" prints.
414:
As a consequence by the early 1970s several individuals and organizations were considering improvements to the dated technical standards used for optical sound on 35mm film. In particular both
487:
The fully degenerate case of stereo variable-area (i.e., no 4-2-4 encoding/decoding, and left total/left equal to right total/right) produces a conventional "dual-bilateral" mono 1.0 track.
440:
Variable-density's fate was then sealed as these stereo optical sound prints (as contrasted with stereo magnetic sound prints or mono optical sound prints) became a marketing imperative.
470:("Very Kind to Film") sprockets, which perform optimally on KS- as well as CS-perforated prints. Stereo variable-area, therefore, provided for the first time stereo film prints of
305:
systems in which the audio modulated the intensity of a recording lamp which exposed the soundtrack, thus creating a variable-density track, the GE system employed a fast-acting
624:
Indeed, the RCA-licensed Maurer recorder could produce either variable-area or variable-density by simply shifting a portion of the optical system at the recordist's discretion.
433:
since 1956, and the successor to Western Electric's cinema sound business unit) re-introduced the ca. 1938 "four ribbon" light valve, and the ca. 1947 RA-1231 sound recorder.
484:
The partially degenerate case of stereo variable-area (i.e., no 4-2-4 encoding/decoding, but discrete left total/left and right total/right) produces a stereo 2.0 track.
831:
466:
perforations can only be run on a projector fitted with special narrow-toothed sprockets or permanent damage will be done to the film. An alternative is LaVezzi's
395:
was also a silver gray-scale record, which greatly facilitated variable-density (and made variable-area rather difficult). The "key" record was deleted from most
360:
variable-area system continued to be marketed by a successor, and it is still serviced and supported to this day, although it is no longer branded as Photophone.
521:
The Westrex system, briefly renamed Photophone, is still in use, with more than 100 systems currently in active service, world-wide. Some users, including
437:
time-aligned, two-channel variable-area version, and this then became the industry standard device for recording stereo variable-area optical soundtracks.
556:
327:
In April 1928, RCA Photophone Inc. was created as a subsidiary of RCA (itself then a GE subsidiary) to commercially exploit the Photophone system.
633:
The Production of Wide-Range, Low-Distortion Optical Soundtracks Utilizing the Dolby Noise Reduction System. Ioan Allen. JSMPTE Vol.84 Sept 1975
376:
being capable of producing either variable-density or variable-area depending on which ribbon axis was parallel to the film motion, and the RCA
474:
aspect ratio (1.37:1/Academy through 2.35:1/CinemaScope, inclusive) which could be run without damage on any normal 35mm cinema projector.
399:
prints after 1944, thereby creating a CMY color image, but Technicolor's strong preference for variable-density continued long thereafter.
387:
Variable-density was preferred for Technicolor sound prints as this process utilized a silver gray-scale "key" record, thereby creating a
174:
was the trade name given to one of four major competing technologies that emerged in the American film industry in the late 1920s for
744:
372:
Both variable-area systems and variable-density systems were marketed by both RCA and Western Electric, the Western Electric
514:
Renaming the Westrex system to Photophone was facilitated by the demise of RCA's cinema sound business unit, by the hand of
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was capable of producing either variable-area or variable-density depending upon the particulars of the optical system.
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The Westrex system was renamed Photophone after the Western Electric and Westrex registered trademarks were sold by
46:
454:
Stereo optical sound prints are compatible with films with any aspect ratio and with normal print film stocks with
792:
J.R. Sky, as the successor to Nuoptix, which, in turn, was the successor to Litton Industries' Westrex subsidiary
243:
481:
The fully implemented case of stereo variable-area (i.e., 4-2-4 encoding/decoding) produces a stereo 3.1 track.
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546:
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297:
In 1925, GE began a program to develop commercial sound-on-film equipment based on Hoxie's work. Unlike the
423:
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until the 1970s, when it became technically obsolete. The Western Electric system continued to use the
411:
In the early-1970s, there was renewed interest in improving the quality of optical film soundtracks.
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When encoded utilizing Dolby Laboratories' technology (itself originally being in part licensed from
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film perforations, whereas stereo magnetic sound prints require film stocks with the narrower
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which was exhibited as a road-show in around a dozen specially equipped theatres during 1927.
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and others which were broadcast over Station WGY (Schenectady). This recorder was called the
551:
224:
491:
RCA Photophone system abandoned – Westrex (stereo) variable-area system renamed Photophone
331:
was president and a member of the board of directors. The RCA system continued to use the
19:
This article is about the sound-on-film technology. For the telecommunication device, see
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History of Sound Motion Pictures, E.W. Kellog, Journal of the SMPTE Vol 64 June 1955
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although there were a few examples of such branding thereafter (mainly Westrex.)
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Stereophonic Photographic Soundtracks. Ronald E. Uhlig. JSMPTE Vol.82 April 1973
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and Warner Bros., have multiple systems. The RCA system is essentially defunct.
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RA-1231A) were inherently capable of producing time-aligned sound negatives.
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used RCA Photophone as its primary sound system. In March 1929, RKO released
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synchronizing electrically recorded audio to a motion picture image
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The Speed of Sound: Hollywood and the Talkie Revolution 1926–1930
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In the mid-1970s, Westrex Corp. (a wholly owned subsidiary of
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List of Early Sound Films 1894–1929 at Silent Era website
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Comparison of (mono) variable-area and variable-density
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signal. The three other major technologies were the
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Magazine ad insert introducing RCA Photophone, 1928
783:Alfred Hitchcock and Anny Ondra in Sound Test for
716:Moving Image Technology: From Zoetrope to Digital
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832:Academy Award for Technical Achievement winners
557:List of early sound feature films (1926–1929)
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424:Dolby noise reduction on optical soundtracks
211:system, as well as two "variable-density"
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704:(Westfield, NJ: Eastview Editions, 1981)
76:Learn how and when to remove this message
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39:This article includes a list of general
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16:Early film audio synchronization system
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45:it lacks sufficient corresponding
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193:area (width) corresponded to the
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688:Oxford University Press
60:more precise citations.
351:for Western Electric;
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812:Film sound production
391:color image, and the
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268:History and licensing
189:system, in which the
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552:List of film formats
407:Stereo variable-area
754:The Coming of Sound
349:The Voice of Action
307:mirror galvanometer
248:Keith-Albee-Orpheum
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89:RCA Photophone Inc.
684:A Song in the Dark
682:Barrios, Richard.
416:Dolby Laboratories
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256:RKO Radio Pictures
250:theater chain and
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577:Photokinema
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397:Technicolor
374:light valve
337:light valve
280:working at
274:World War I
261:Syncopation
58:introducing
827:RCA brands
801:Categories
603:Citations
598:References
582:Sound film
496:e.g., but
393:soundtrack
353:Li Westrex
106:Subsidiary
41:references
21:Photophone
785:Blackmail
758:Routledge
592:Vitaphone
572:Phonofilm
562:Movietone
347:for RCA;
303:Movietone
299:Phonofilm
233:Movietone
221:Phonofilm
215:systems,
206:Vitaphone
191:modulated
760:, 2005)
739:, 1997)
690:, 1995)
541:See also
505:AT&T
345:Meatball
195:waveform
187:exposure
148:Products
141:New York
669:tracks.
464:CS-type
460:CS-type
456:KS-type
197:of the
119:Defunct
111:Founded
54:improve
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523:Disney
445:Sansui
223:, and
159:Parent
43:, but
420:Kodak
313:Wings
238:When
199:audio
762:ISBN
741:ISBN
720:ISBN
706:ISBN
692:ISBN
507:and
418:and
389:CMYK
301:and
229:Case
184:film
130:411
122:1983
114:1928
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225:Fox
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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