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the metal elements of the glaze. Reduction is a decrease in oxidation number. Closing the can reduces the oxygen content after the combustible materials such as sawdust catch fire and forces the reaction to pull oxygen from the glazes and the clay minerals. For example, luster gets its color from deprivation of oxygen. The reduction agent is a substance from which electrons are being taken by another substance. The reaction uses oxygen from the atmosphere within the reduction tube and, to continue, it receives the rest of the oxygen from the glazes. This leaves ions and iridescent luster behind, creating a metallic effect. Pieces with no glaze have nowhere to get the oxygen from, so they take it from clay minerals. This atmosphere will turn clay black, producing a matte color.
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the glaze and the clay to allow the reaction to continue. Oxygen serves as the limiting reactant in this scenario because the reaction that creates fire needs a constant supply of it to continue; when the glaze and the clay come out hardened, this means that the oxygen was subtracted from the glaze and the clay to accommodate the lack of oxygen in the atmosphere. Consequently, the Raku piece appears black or white, depending on the amount of oxygen that was lost from each area of the piece. The empty spaces that occur from the reduction of oxygen are filled in by carbon molecules in the atmosphere of the container, which makes the piece blacker in spots where more oxygen was retracted.
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reduction firing and use propane or natural gas. Gas kilns also heat more quickly than electric kilns, but it is more difficult to maintain temperature control. There is a noteworthy difference when using an updraft kiln rather than a downdraft kiln. An updraft kiln has shelves that trap heat. This effect creates uneven temperatures throughout the kiln. Conversely, a downdraft kiln pulls air down a separate stack on the side and allows a more even temperature throughout and allows the work to be layered on shelves.
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slowly in the open air, or placed in a barrel filled with combustible material, such as newspaper, covered, and allowed to smoke. Water immediately cools the pottery, stopping the chemical reactions of the glaze and fixing the colors. The combustible material results in smoke, which stains the unglazed portions of the pottery black. The amount of oxygen that is allowed during the firing and cooling process affects the resulting color of the glaze and the amount of crackle.
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fired to 1,400 °F (760 °C). At this point, the piece is removed from the kiln and placed into the reduction chamber. In reduction the carbon will soak into the clay where the slip has cracked and turn black, but where the slip is stuck on the clay will keep its natural color. The slip can be easily removed by hand from the cooled piece to reveal the design.
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contain alumina, which has a very high melting point. Therefore, carbon will not replace the glaze as it does the wax. Any unglazed areas turn black due to the carbon given off from the reduction of oxygen. Next, the clay is moved from the kiln to a container, usually a trashcan, which contains combustible organic materials such as leaves, sawdust, or paper.
103:. Typically wares are fired at a high temperature, and after removing pieces from the kiln, the wares are placed in an open-air container filled with combustible material, which is not a traditional Raku practice in Japan. The Western process can give a great variety of colors and surface effects, making it very popular with studio and amateur potters.
135:("Enjoyment"). Raku then became the name of the family that produced the wares. Both the name and the ceramic style have been passed down through the family (sometimes by adoption) to the present 16th generation (Raku Kichizaemon XVI). The name and the style of ware has become influential in both Japanese culture and literature.
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is a raku form that uses a yeast solution which then creates an earthy tone on secondary firing. The obvara mixture is usually cream in color and opaque. It is made from yeast, flour, sugar, and water. The temperature which the pottery piece is lowered into the obvara solution is usually 800 degrees
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container acts as a reduction chamber, which is a container that allows the carbon dioxide to pass through a small hole. A reduction atmosphere is created by closing the container. A reduction atmosphere induces a reaction between oxygen and the clay minerals, which affects the color. It also affects
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Raku ware marked an important point in the historical development of
Japanese ceramics, as it was the first ware to use a seal mark and the first to focus on close collaboration between potter and patron. Other famous Japanese clay artists of this period include Dōnyū (grandson of Chōjirō, also known
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and the youngest in the dynastic raku succession, Kichiemon (of the fourteenth generation of the "Raku" family of potters), concerning the right to use the title "raku". The
Japanese artists maintain that any work by other craftspeople should take their own name, (i.e., Soldner-ware, Hirsh-ware), as
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Horse hair decoration is a process where the piece remains unglazed; when it reaches temperature in the kiln it is placed in the open air rather than the reduction chamber, and horse hair is strategically arranged on the piece. The horse hair immediately burns and leaves thin linear markings on the
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Reduction firing is when the kiln atmosphere, which is full of combustible material, is heated up. "Reduction is incomplete combustion of fuel, caused by a shortage of oxygen, which produces carbon monoxide" (Arbuckle, 4). Eventually, all of the available oxygen is used. This then draws oxygen from
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It is important for a kiln to have a door that is easily opened and closed, because, when the artwork in the kiln has reached the right temperature (over 1000 degrees
Celsius), it must be quickly removed and put in a metal or tin container with combustible material, which reduces the pot and leaves
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Unlike traditional
Japanese raku, which is mainly hand built bowls of modest design, western raku tends to be vibrant in color, and comes in many shapes and sizes. Western raku can be anything from an elegant vase to an eccentric abstract sculpture. Although some do hand build, most western potters
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is credited with bringing Raku to the west. In 1911 he attended a party where he witnessed raku firing. This was his first experience of ceramics. Although he continued to experiment with raku firing for a few years following his return to
England in 1920 - the technique was largely forgotten after
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contain metallic compounds including such metals as copper, iron, and cobalt. After the glaze has reached a certain temperature, the metal in the glaze reacts taking on a specific color. For example, cobalt produces dark blue, and copper produces green but can also produce a red when the oxygen in
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10 stoneware firings. This is due to several factors: raku glazes mature at a much lower temperature (under 980 °C or 1,800 °F, as opposed to almost 1,260 °C or 2,300 °F for high-fire stoneware); kiln temperatures can be raised rapidly; and the kiln is loaded and unloaded while
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is done by coating a section of the exterior of the piece with slip, taping off portions of the piece to leave parts of the body exposed to the firing; these areas will turn black after reduction. The piece is then fired in the kiln at lower temperatures until the slip has dried, and then further
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are unlike crackle glazes. While the latter are deliberately subjected to cooling and the oxidation process between the kiln and the reduction chamber so the glaze will crackle, the copper glazed pieces are transferred from the kiln to the reduction chamber as quickly as possible. This causes the
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Made by
Ruthann Hurwitz (The Village Potter) in the Western style of Raku. It was built with the coil and pinch method, glazed, then fired. It was removed from the 1800 degree kiln while red hot and placed into containers with combustibles, then covered where reduction takes place, "smoking" the
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Raku's unpredictable results and intense color attracts modern potters. These patterns and color result from the harsh cooling process and the amount of oxygen that is allowed to reach the pottery. Depending on what effect the artist wants, the pottery is either instantly cooled in water, cooled
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which is painted over the bare clay, is the suspension of wax in water. This is done so that the glaze does not cover the area where the wax resist was applied, thus creating a design. When in the kiln, the wax melts off and the carbon that results from oxygen reduction replaces it. Raku glazes
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is often the preferred material, as it contributes both mechanical strength and, in amounts up to 20%, significantly reduces thermal expansion. Although any clay body can be used, white stoneware clay bodies are unsuitable for the western raku process unless some material is added to deal with
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the glaze is completely gone. The change in temperature and in the reduction oxidation (redox) process sometimes cause cracking or crazing. Crazing is a pattern of surface cracking in the glaze of a piece. The timing of removal and placement in water directly affects the shades of each color.
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The type and the size of kilns that are used in raku are crucial in the outcome. One aspect that can affect the results is the use of electric versus gas kilns. Electric kilns allow easy temperature control. Gas kilns, which comprise brick or ceramic fibers, can be used in either oxidation or
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06 firing temperature range. The process is known for its unpredictability, particularly when reduction is forced, and pieces may crack or even explode due to thermal shock. Pots may be returned to the kiln to re-oxidize if firing results do not meet the potter's expectations, although each
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Raku is a unique form of pottery making; what makes it unique is the range of designs that can be created by simply altering certain variables. These variables—which include wax resist, glazes, slips, temperature, and timing—ultimately determine the outcome when firing a piece of clay.
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Because temperature changes are rapid during the raku process, clay bodies used for raku ware must be able to cope with significant thermal stress. The usual way to add strength to the clay body and to reduce thermal expansion is to incorporate a high percentage of quartz,
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Raku in the west has been abstracted and is now a more philosophical approach with the emphasis on the spontaneity of surface pattern creation rather than purely a firing technique. Consequently, this has expanded its application from pots to sculptural ceramics.
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successive firing has a high chance of weakening the overall structural integrity of the pot. Pots that are exposed to thermal shock multiple times can break apart in the kiln, as they are removed from the kiln, or when they are in the reduction chamber.
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127:-styled tea ceremony that was Rikyū's ideal. The resulting tea bowls made by Chōjirō were initially referred to as "ima-yaki" ("contemporary ware") and were also distinguished as Juraku-yaki, from the red clay (Juraku) that they employed.
598:, which is a nearly documentary story showing how Sen no Rikyu met Chojiro, who made the first genuine Raku tea bowl (chawan) and how Rikyu trained the shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the tea ceremony with Raku chawans.(Ashton D 1997).
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in the 1960s to compensate for the difference in atmosphere between wood-fired
Japanese raku kilns and gas-fired American kilns. Typically, pieces removed from the hot kiln are placed in masses of combustible material (e.g.,
253:. These pieces are often white with squiggly black lines and smoke-like smudges. These effects are created by placing horse hair, feathers, or even sugar on the pottery as it is removed from the kiln and still extremely hot.
391:. Although almost any low-fire glaze can be used, potters often use specially formulated glaze recipes that "crackle" or craze (present a cracked appearance), because the crazing lines take on a dark color from the carbon.
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After the publication of a manual in the 18th century, raku ware was also made in numerous workshops by amateur potters and tea practitioners in Kyoto, and by professional and amateur potters around Japan.
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Western raku potters rarely use lead as a glaze ingredient, due to its serious level of toxicity, but may use other metals as glaze ingredients. Japanese potters substitute a non-lead
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glaze to have as much reduction as possible and can pull out vibrant flashes of color from the glaze and end with either a matte or glossy finish depending on the type of glaze used.
142:), in the raku-ware tradition, that have been founded by Raku-family members or potters who apprenticed at the head family's studio. One of the most well-known of these is Ōhi-yaki (
241:. Americans kept the general firing process, that is, heating the pottery quickly to high temperatures and cooling it quickly, but continued to form their own unique style of raku.
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Warshaw, Josie. The
Practical Potter: a Step-by-step Handbook : a Comprehensive Guide to Ceramics with Step-by-step Projects and Techniques. London: Hermes House, 2003. Print.
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Zamek, Jeff. "Glazes: Materials, Mixing, Testing, Firing." Ceramic Arts Daily – Featured Tip of the Day. Ceramic
Publications Company, 5 Nov. 2009. Web. 26 May 2010. <
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while still glowing hot. In the traditional
Japanese process, the fired raku piece is removed from the hot kiln and is allowed to cool in the open air.
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tea bowls. It is traditionally characterised by being hand-shaped rather than thrown, fairly porous vessels, which result from low firing temperatures,
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Pot with an example of horsehair raku technique. The vessel was taken out of the kiln at 732 Celsius and horsehair applied on, which burned into it.
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Rhodes, Daniel. "Special Glazes and Surface Effects." Clay and Glazes for the Potter. Revised ed. Randor: Chilton Book Company, 1973. 318. Print.
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at 900 °C (1,650 °F) and glost or glaze fired (the final firing) between 800–1,000 °C (1,470–1,830 °F), which falls into the
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http://ceramicartsdaily.org/ceramic-glaze-recipes/glaze-chemistry-ceramic-glaze-recipes-2/glazes-materials-mixing-testing-firing/?floater=99
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Celsius. After dipping the piece into the obvara solution, it is removed and dipped into water to "seal" the design via rapid cooling.
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Aesthetic considerations include clay color and fired surface texture, as well as the clay's chemical interaction with raku glazes.
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with designs of pine boughs and interlocking circles, unknown raku ware workshop, Kyoto, Edo period, 18th–19th century
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use throwing wheels while creating their raku piece. Western culture has even created a new sub-branch of raku called
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The glaze firing times for raku ware are short: an hour or two as opposed to up to 16 hours for high-temperature
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A western vase glazed and fired using the western raku technique, showing the soot, crackle glazing, and random
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Herb, Bill. "What Is Raku." Dimensional Design. Bill Herb A.k.a Dimensional Design, Jan. 2000. Web. 6 May 2010.
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318:
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Byers, Ian (1990). The Complete Potter: Raku. Series Ed. Emmanuel Cooper. B.T. Batsford Ltd 1990, pp. 16.
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source(Knapp, Brian J. Oxidation and Reduction. Port Melbourne, Vic.: Heinemann Library, 1998. Print.)
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source(Birks, Tony. The New Potter's Companion. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1982. Print.)
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The use of a reduction chamber at the end of the raku firing was introduced by the American potter
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Aguirre, Amber (2012). Naked Fauxku. In Pottery Making Illustrated, Jan/Feb vol 15, p. 40-42.
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In a craft conference in Kyoto in 1979, a heated debate sprang up between Western raku artists
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Knapp, Brian J. Oxidation and Reduction. Port Melbourne, Vic.: Heinemann Library, 1998. Print.
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Birks, Tony. The New Potter's Companion. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1982. Print.
1154:
1149:
1047:
Branfman, Steven. "Raku FAQs." Ceramics Today. Ceramics Today, Sept. 2002. Web. 6 May 2010.
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Ashton D: The delicate thread. Teshigahara's life in art. Kodansha Int. Tokyo 1997;150-163.
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into the body before the pot is formed. At high additions, quartz can increase the risk of
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658:"Raku Firing - the past and the present of the incredible Japanese ceramics technique"
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Raku work with crackle glazes (left), copper glazes (right), and pop-off slip (center)
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380:. The first Japanese-style kiln in the west was built by Tsuronosuke Matsubayashi at
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technique of firing. Presented at III Latvia Ceramics Biennale Martinsons Award 2021
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presented Jokei, Chōjirō's son, with a seal that bore the Chinese character for
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770:"Muestra póstuma trae a Montevideo obras de la nieta española de Torres García"
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thermal shock. Porcelain, however, is often used but it must be thinly thrown.
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Andrews, Tim " Raku: a review of contemporary work". A.C.Black, London. 1994
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Raku became popular with American potters in the late 1950s with the help of
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A copper matte raku fired oval vase made by Adil Ghani from RAAQUU, Malaysia
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A & C Black Publishers, Limited, London, England, Third Edition 1991.
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traditionally used in Japanese tea ceremonies, most often in the form of
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Handmade Culture: Raku Potters, Patrons, and Tea Practitioners in Japan.
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1122:"The history of Raku fired pottery and the raku copper matte technique"
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Alternative Kilns & Firing Techniques: Raku * Saggar * Pit * Barrel
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Amongst some of the western raku artists include: the French ceramist
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Arbuckle. "Reduction Firing." Reduction Firing. Web. 6 May 2010. <
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395:
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116:
115:, the Japanese tea master, was involved with the construction of the
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836:"Oxidation/Reduction Firing." Frog Pond Pottery. Web. 29 May 2010.
926:"Obvara Raku Pottery: Unveiling the Ancient Alchemy of Creativity"
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The Western version of raku was developed in the 20th century by
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811:"Soke: Historical Incarnations of a Title and its Entitlements"
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Type of Japanese pottery traditionally used in tea ceremonies
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1013:. The Overlook Press, Woodstock, NY, Second Edition 1996.
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for the glaze and to stain the exposed body surface with
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3 Obvara vases made by Adil Ghani from RAAQUU, Malaysia.
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Andrews, Tim " Raku". A.C.Black, London. 2nd Ed.2005
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from Nagoya, Owari province in the later Edo period.
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The Potter's Dictionary of Materials and Techniques.
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http://lindaarbuckle.com/handouts/reduction_fire.pdf
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design by Raku IX (Ryōnyū), Edo period, c. 1810–1838
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711:. United States: krause publications. p. 17.
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123:, produce hand-moulded tea bowls for use in the
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260:, who received the Suntory Museum Grand Prix;
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264:, a British artist making raku figurines,
750:. Daugavpils Mark Rothko Art Centre. 2021
480:In the western style of raku firing, the
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95:The final phase in the Western technique
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656:andreamartinazaghi (22 November 2021).
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394:Western raku is typically made from a
321:, ceramics, the artwork created using
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1028:, Lark Ceramics Publications, 2007.
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138:In Japan, there are "branch kilns" (
1105:Encyclopædia Britannica | Raku ware
683:"Rob Wheeler - East Anglian Potter"
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84:and the removal of pieces from the
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983:University of Hawaii Press, 2005.
476:Raku ware in the reduction chamber
451:that was how "raku" was intended.
343:typical of this pottery technique.
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1120:Ghani, Adil (8 February 2023).
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201:Black Raku teabowl "aged pine (
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270:Academy of Fine Arts in Gdańsk
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352:certain colors and patterns.
953:"charlie riggs pop off slip"
839:"Oxidation/Reduction Firing"
776:(in Spanish). 3 August 2018.
119:and had a tile-maker, named
37:, Edo period, 17th century.
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276:introduced the practice to
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709:Raku: A Practical Approach
319:Alicja Buławka-Fankidejska
266:Alicja Buławka-Fankidejska
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1011:The Craft and Art of Clay
707:Branfman, Steven (2001).
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994:Hamer, Frank and Janet.
687:www.robwheelerpotter.com
748:"Martinsons Award 2021"
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187:Azuchi–Momoyama period
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154:as Nonkō; 1574–1656),
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111:In the 16th century,
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1160:Japanese inventions
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384:, St Ives in 1922.
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341:reduction-oxidation
25:White Raku teabowl
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1024:Watkins, James C.
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129:Toyotomi Hideyoshi
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1100:Raku museum Kyoto
1034:978-1-57990-455-5
1009:Peterson, Susan.
979:Pitelka, Morgan.
636:The Leach Pottery
459:Reduction process
317:"Naked" - artist
181:Black Raku-style
39:National Treasure
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231:Bernard Leach
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113:Sen no Rikyū
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1155:Ceramic art
1150:Art pottery
754:26 December
549:Horse hair:
498:Wax resist,
398:clay body,
167:Hōraku ware
1144:Categories
732:5 November
602:References
542:Naked Raku
323:naked raku
31:Mount Fuji
960:Lessparks
936:31 August
632:"History"
552:pottery.
482:aluminium
433:shivering
396:stoneware
370:newspaper
272:; artist
117:Jurakudai
60:raku-yaki
46:Raku ware
1131:9 August
901:Branfman
641:20 March
565:Tea bowl
305:pottery.
144:Ōhi ware
140:wakigama
27:Fuji-san
437:kyanite
429:dunting
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366:sawdust
278:Uruguay
268:at the
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107:History
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378:carbon
203:shōrei
183:chawan
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595:Rikyu
423:, or
368:, or
362:straw
207:crane
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915:Herb
851:2010
756:2021
734:2015
694:2024
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616:ISBN
421:grog
412:cone
404:cone
389:frit
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125:wabi
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