Rational choice theory

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vast majority of its activities consist of unconscious appraisals and emotions. The significance of emotions in decision-making has generally been ignored by rational choice theory, according to these critics. Moreover, emotional choice theorists contend that the rational choice paradigm has difficulty incorporating emotions into its models, because it cannot account for the social nature of emotions. Even though emotions are felt by individuals, psychologists and sociologists have shown that emotions cannot be isolated from the social environment in which they arise. Emotions are inextricably intertwined with people's social norms and identities, which are typically outside the scope of standard rational choice models. Emotional choice theory seeks to capture not only the social but also the physiological and dynamic character of emotions. It represents a unitary action model to organize, explain, and predict the ways in which emotions shape decision-making.

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is because “models of rational choice in the private sphere treat agents’ choices as instrumental”. “Behaviour in the public sphere, by contrast, is largely non-instrumental because it is non-consequential". Individuals make no difference to the outcome, “much as single molecules make no difference to the properties of the gas" (Herbert, G). This is a weakness of rational choice theory as it shows that in situations such as voting in an election, the rational decision for the individual would be to not vote as their vote makes no difference to the outcome of the election. However, if everyone were to act in this way the democratic society would collapse as no one would vote. Therefore, we can see that rational choice theory does not describe how everything in the economic and political world works, and that there are other factors of human behaviour at play.

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alternatives they confront". In a social situation, there has to be a level of trust among the individuals. He noted that this level of trust is a consideration that an individual takes into concern before deciding on a rational action towards another individual. It affects the social situation as one navigates the risks and benefits of an action. By assessing the possible outcomes or alternatives to an action for another individual, the person is making a calculated decision. In another situation such as making a bet, you are calculating the possible lost and how much can be won. If the chances of winning exceeds the cost of losing, the rational decision would be to place the bet. Therefore, the decision to place trust in another individual involves the same rational calculations that are involved in the decision of making a bet.

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to, politicians, lobbyists, businesspeople, activists, regular voters and any other individual in the national audience. The use of rational choice theory as a framework to predict political behavior has led to a rich literature that describes the trajectory of policy to varying degrees of success. For example, some scholars have examined how states can make credible threats to deter other states from a (nuclear) attack. Others have explored under what conditions states wage war against each other. Yet others have investigated under what circumstances the threat and imposition of international economic sanctions tend to succeed and when they are likely to fail.

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of the friendship. Homan mentions that actions of humans are motivated by punishment or rewards. This reinforcement through punishments or rewards determines the course of action taken by a person in a social situation as well. Individuals are motivated by mutual reinforcement and are also fundamentally motivated by the approval of others. Attaining the approval of others has been a generalized character, along with money, as a means of exchange in both Social and Economic exchanges. In Economic exchanges, it involves the exchange of goods or services. In Social exchange, it is the exchange of approval and certain other valued behaviors.

2590:) assumptions (which require deductions to be simply analytic). To make rational calculations projectible, the agents may be assumed to have idealized abilities, especially foresight; but then the induction problem is out of reach because the agents of the world do not resemble those of the model. The agents of the model can be abstract, but they cannot be endowed with powers actual agents could not have. This also undermines methodological individualism; if behaviour cannot be reliably predicted on the basis of the ‘rational choices of agents’, a social order cannot reliably follow from the choices of agents. 2552:“Rationality” has played a central role in shaping and establishing the hegemony of contemporary mainstream economics. As the specific claims of robust neoclassicism fade into the history of economic thought, an orientation toward situating explanations of economic phenomena in relation to rationality has increasingly become the touchstone by which mainstream economists identify themselves and recognize each other. This is not so much a question of adherence to any particular conception of rationality, but of taking rationality of individual behavior as the unquestioned starting point of economic analysis. 2459: 4095: 2434:

concludes that people marry if the expected utility from such marriage exceeds the utility one would gain from remaining single, and in the same way couples would separate should the utility of being together be less than expected and provide less (economic) benefit than being separated would. Since the theory behind rational choice is that individuals will take the course of action that best serves their personal interests, when considering relationships it is still assumed that they will display such mentality due to deep-rooted, self-interested aspects of human nature.

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derived from voting and C is the cost of voting. It is from this that we can determine that parties have moved their policy outlook to be more centric in order to maximise the number of voters they have for support. It is from this very simple framework that more complex adjustments can be made to describe the success of politicians as an outcome of their ability or failure to satisfy the utility function of individual voters.

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themselves the institutional structures of modern capitalist society, or something approximating them. But this way of looking at matters systematically neglects the ways in which modern capitalist society and its social relations in fact constitute the ‘rational’, calculating individual. The well-known limitations of rational-actor theory, its static quality, its logical antinomies, its vulnerability to arguments of

2729:. Theoretical choice focuses on social outcomes rather than individual outcomes. Social outcomes are identified as stable equilibria in which individuals have no incentive to deviate from their course of action. This orientation of others' behaviour toward social outcomes may be unintended or undesirable. Therefore, the conclusions generated in such cases are relegated to the "study of irrational behaviour". 233: 2530:

that the issues arising from basic maximizing models have extensive implications for econometric methodology (Hollis and Nell, 1975, p. 2). In particular it is this class of models – rational behavior as maximizing behaviour – which provide support for specification and identification. And this, they argue, is where the flaw is to be found. Hollis and Nell (1975) argued that

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perspective, rational choice theory has provided very little to the overall understanding of political interaction - and is an amount certainly disproportionately weak relative to its appearance in the literature. Yet, they concede that cutting-edge research, by scholars well-versed in the general scholarship of their fields (such as work on the U.S. Congress by

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preferences can explain group-level outcomes that fail to accomplish any one individual's preferred objectives. Rational choice theory provides a framework to describe outcomes like this as the product of rational agents performing their own cost–benefit analysis to maximize their self-interests, a process that doesn't always align with the group's preferences.

1298:. Contemporary theory bases rational choice on a set of choice axioms that need to be satisfied, and typically does not specify where the goal (preferences, desires) comes from. It mandates just a consistent ranking of the alternatives. Individuals choose the best action according to their personal preferences and the constraints facing them. 2538:. Indeed, they argue that rationality is central to neo-classical economics – as rational choice – and that this conception of rationality is misused. Demands are made of it that it cannot fulfill. Ultimately, individuals do not always act rationally or conduct themselves in a utility maximising manner. 2806:

Herbert Gintis has also provided an important criticism to rational choice theory. He argued that rationality differs between the public and private spheres. The public sphere being what you do in collective action and the private sphere being what you do in your private life. Gintis argues that this

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Schram and Caterino (2006) contains a fundamental methodological criticism of rational choice theory for promoting the view that the natural science model is the only appropriate methodology in social science and that political science should follow this model, with its emphasis on quantification and

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The theory can be applied to general settings outside of those identified by costs and benefits. In general, rational decision making entails choosing among all available alternatives the alternative that the individual most prefers. The "alternatives" can be a set of actions ("what to do?") or a set

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out of available choice alternatives. These preferences are assumed to be complete and transitive. Completeness refers to the individual being able to say which of the options they prefer (i.e. individual prefers A over B, B over A or are indifferent to both). Alternatively, transitivity is where the

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in the ancestral environment but not necessarily in the current one. Thus, when living at subsistence level where a reduction of resources may have meant death it may have been rational to place a greater value on losses than on gains. Proponents argue it may also explain differences between groups.

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producer behaviour in both product and factor markets. Both are based on rational optimizing behaviour. They consider imperfect as well as perfect markets since neo-classical thinking embraces many market varieties and disposes of a whole system for their classification. However, the authors believe

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Coleman discussed a number of theories to elaborate on the premises and promises of rational choice theory. One of the concepts that He introduced was Trust. It is where "individuals place trust, in both judgement and performance of others, based on rational considerations of what is best, given the

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By making calculative decisions, it is considered as rational action. Individuals are often making calculative decisions in social situations by weighing out the pros and cons of an action taken towards a person. The decision to act on a rational decision is also dependent on the unforeseen benefits

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According to Abell, Rational Choice Theory is "understanding individual actors... as acting, or more likely interacting, in a manner such that they can be deemed to be doing the best they can for themselves, given their objectives, resources, circumstances, as they seem them". Rational Choice Theory

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is a well-developed field of mathematics. These two factors make rational choice models tractable compared to other approaches to choice. Most importantly, this approach is strikingly general. It has been used to analyze not only personal and household choices about traditional economic matters like

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Assuming that the individual has adequately adapted to the rules of the social system in question – rationality will mean carrying out the dispositions of biopower. If the common denominator of both paradigms is the punishment-reward axis, then adapting to the system will mean maximising gains and

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among sociologists regarding rational choice stems from a misunderstanding of the lack of realist assumptions. Social research has shown that social agents usually act solely based on habit or impulse, the power of emotion. Social Agents predict the expected consequences of options in stock markets

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Other social scientists, inspired in part by Bourdieu's thinking have expressed concern about the inappropriate use of economic metaphors in other contexts, suggesting that this may have political implications. The argument they make is that by treating everything as a kind of "economy" they make a

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Social Exchange and Rational Choice Theory both comes down to an individual's efforts to meet their own personal needs and interests through the choices they make. Even though some may be done sincerely for the welfare of others at that point of time, both theories point to the benefits received in

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is a conscious and reflective process based on thoughts and beliefs. It presumes that people decide on the basis of calculation and deliberation. However, cumulative research in neuroscience suggests that only a small part of the brain's activities operate at the level of conscious reflection. The

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Even though rational theory is used in Economics and Social settings, there are some similarities and differences. The concept of reward and reinforcement is parallel to each other while the concept of cost is also parallel to the concept of punishment. However, there is a difference of underlying

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Rational choice theory has become one of the major tools used to study international relations. Proponents of its use in this field typically assume that states and the policies crafted at the national outcome are the outcome of self-interested, politically shrewd actors including, but not limited

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Downs' work provides a framework for analyzing tax-rate preference in a rational choice framework. He argues that an individual votes if it is in their rational interest to do so. Downs models this utility function as B + D > C, where B is the benefit of the voter winning, D is the satisfaction

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Rational choice theory can be viewed in different contexts. At an individual level, the theory suggests that the agent will decide on the action (or outcome) they most prefer. If the actions (or outcomes) are evaluated in terms of costs and benefits, the choice with the maximum net benefit will be

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The concept of rationality used in rational choice theory is different from the colloquial and most philosophical use of the word. In this sense, "rational" behaviour can refer to "sensible", "predictable", or "in a thoughtful, clear-headed manner." Rational choice theory uses a much more narrow

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underlies decision-making processes. Simon argues factors such as imperfect information, uncertainty and time constraints all affect and limit our rationality, and therefore our decision-making skills. Furthermore, his concepts of 'satisficing' and 'optimizing' suggest sometimes because of these

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Rational Choice Theory in this instance, heavily emphasizes the individual's interest as a starting point for making social decisions. Despite differing view points about Rational choice theory, it all comes down to the individual as a basic unit of theory. Even though sharing, cooperation and

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G.S Becker offers an example of how Rational choice can be applied to personal decisions, specifically regarding the rationale that goes behind decisions on whether to marry or divorce another individual. Due to the self-serving drive on which the theory of rational choice is derived, Becker

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fiercely opposed rational choice theory as grounded in a misunderstanding of how social agents operate. Bourdieu argued that social agents do not continuously calculate according to explicit rational and economic criteria. According to Bourdieu, social agents operate according to an implicit

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The concept of rationality, to use Hegelian language, represents the relations of modern capitalist society one-sidedly. The burden of rational-actor theory is the assertion that ‘naturally’ constituted individuals facing existential conflicts over scarce resources would rationally impose on

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Rational choice theory provides a framework to explain why groups of rational individuals can come to collectively irrational decisions. For example, while at the individual level a group of people may have common interests, applying a rational choice framework to their individually rational

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Jakub Chustecki pointed out, however, that the assumptions of the two paradigms need not contradict each other. In modern society, following micropower scripts brings certain social and economic benefits, and therefore, from the perspective of rational choice theory, fulfilling them can be

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drew attention to the micro-power structures that shape the soul, body and mind and thus top-down impose certain decisions on individuals. Humans - according to the assumptions of the biopolitical paradigm - therefore conform to dominant social and cultural systems rather than to their own

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argue that the empirical outputs of rational choice theory have been limited. They contend that much of the applicable literature, at least in political science, was done with weak statistical methods and that when corrected many of the empirical outcomes no longer hold. When taken in this

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can be solved within the framework of neoclassical assumptions. The neoclassical approach is to call on rational economic man to solve both. Economic relationships that reflect rational choice should be ‘projectible’. But that attributes a deductive power to ‘rational’ that it cannot have

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Somewhat surprisingly and independently, Hollis and Nell (1975) and Boland (1982) both use a ‘cross sectional approach’ to the understanding of neo-classical economic theory and make similar points about the foundations of neo-classicism. For an account see Nell, E.J. and Errouaki, K

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assumptions in both contexts. In a social setting, the focus is often on the current or past reinforcements, with no guarantee of immediate tangible or intangible returns from another individual in the future. In Economics, decisions are made with heavier emphasis on future rewards.

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In the field of political science rational choice theory has been used to help predict human decision making and model for the future; therefore it is useful in creating effective public policy, and enables the government to develop solutions quickly and efficiently.

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concluded that a high income voter ‘votes for whatever party he believes would provide him with the highest utility income from government action’, using rational choice theory to explain people's income as their justification for their preferred tax rate.

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of objects ("what to choose/buy"). In the case of actions, what the individual really cares about are the outcomes that results from each possible action. Actions, in this case, are only an instrument for obtaining a particular outcome.

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consumption and savings, but also choices about education, marriage, child-bearing, migration, crime and so on, as well as business decisions about output, investment, hiring, entry, exit, etc. with varying degrees of success.

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The individual's preferences are then expressed as the relation between these ordinal assignments. For example, if an individual prefers the candidate Sara over Roger over abstaining, their preferences would have the relation:

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Despite having both perspectives differ in focus, they primarily reflect on how individuals make different rational decisions when given an immediate or long-term circumstances to consider in their rational decision making.

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definition of rationality. At its most basic level, behavior is rational if it is reflective and consistent (across time and different choice situations). More specifically, behavior is only considered irrational if it is

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Voter behaviour shifts significantly thanks to rational theory, which is ingrained in human nature, the most significant of which occurs when there are times of economic trouble. An example in economic policy, economist

2109:: identifying and weighing each alternative against every other may take time, effort, and mental capacity. Recognising the cost that these impose or cognitive limitations of individuals gives rise to theories of 2724:

However, sociology commonly misunderstands rational choice in its critique of rational choice theory. Rational choice theory does not explain what rational people would do in a given situation, which falls under

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and an innovation in the field of economic methodology. Further, they outlined an alternative vision to neo-classicism based on a rationalist theory of knowledge. Within neo-classicism, the authors addressed

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Despite the empirical shortcomings of rational choice theory, the flexibility and tractability of rational choice models (and the lack of equally powerful alternatives) lead to them still being widely used.

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Rakner, L (1996) Rational choice and the problem of institutions. A discussion of rational choice institutionalism and its application by Robert Bates Bergen: Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI Working Paper WP

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Rational choice theory does not claim to describe the choice process, but rather it helps predict the outcome and pattern of choice. It is consequently assumed that the individual is a self-interested or

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The validity of Rational Choice Theory has been generally refuted by the results of research in behavioral psychology. The revision or alternative theory that arises from these discrepancies is called

2081:: In a richer model that involves uncertainty about the how choices (actions) lead to eventual outcomes, the individual effectively chooses between lotteries, where each lottery induces a different 1761: 1233:

individual weakly prefers option A over B and weakly prefers option B over C, leading to the conclusion that the individual weakly prefers A over C. The rational agent will then perform their own

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refers to a set of guidelines that help understand economic and social behaviour. The theory originated in the eighteenth century and can be traced back to the political economist and philosopher

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that has been selected was picked based on restriction of financial, legal, social, physical or emotional restrictions that the agent is facing. After that, a choice will be made based on the

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The basic premise of rational choice theory is that the decisions made by individual actors will collectively produce aggregate social behaviour. The theory also assumes that individuals have

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A.M. McKinnon (2013). "Ideology and the Market Metaphor in Rational Choice Theory of Religion: A Rhetorical Critique of 'Religious Economies'". Critical Sociology, vol 39, no. 4, pp. 529-543.

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has been used to comprehend the complex social phenomena, of which derives from the actions and motivations of an individual. Individuals are often highly motivated by their wants and needs.

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The basic assumptions of rational choice theory do not take into account external factors (social, cultural, economic) that interfere with autonomous decision-making. Representatives of the

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emphasises that the goals are not restricted to self-regarЭдеЧding, selfish, or material interests. They also include other-regarding, altruistic, as well as normative or ideational goals.

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factors, we settle for a decision which is good enough, rather than the best decision. Other economists have developed more theories of human decision-making that allow for the roles of

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practical logic—a practical sense—and bodily dispositions. Social agents act according to their "feel for the game" (the "feel" being, roughly, habitus, and the "game" being the

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perspective suggests that many of the seeming contradictions and biases regarding rational choice can be explained as being rational in the context of maximizing biological

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The rational choice approach allows preferences to be represented as real-valued utility functions. Economic decision making then becomes a problem of maximizing this

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For an in-depth examination of rationality and economic complexity, see Foley (1998). For an account of rationality, methodology and ideology, see Foley (1989, 2003).

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Research since the 1980s sought to develop models that weaken these assumptions and argue some cases of this behaviour can be considered rational. However, the

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Foley, D. K. (2003) Rationality and Ideology in Economics. lecture in the World Political Economy course at the Graduate Faculty of New School UM, New School.

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Rational choice theory and social exchange theory involves looking at all social relations in the form of costs and rewards, both tangible and non tangible.

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to determine whether an option is right for them. Rational choice theory looks at three concepts: rational actors, self interest and the invisible hand.

2099:: when decisions affect choices (such as consumption) at different points in time, the standard method for evaluating alternatives across time involves 4496: 3399:

Jaleh Dashti-Gibson, Patricia Davis, and Benjamin Radcliff (1997). "On the Determinants of the Success of Economic Sanctions: An Empirical Analysis,"

2075:: The simple rational choice model assumes that individuals are capable of calculating the best course of action and that they always intend to do so. 4526:. An unpublished lecture to Berkeley graduate students in 1989 discussing personal and collective survival strategies for non-mainstream economists. 2664:, who in his work Neuropolitics shows that advances in neuroscience further illuminate some of the problematic practices of rational choice theory. 4394:

Cristian Maquieira, Jan 2019, Japan's Withdrawal from the International Whaling Commission: A Disaster that Could Have Been Avoided, Available at:

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particular vision of the way an economy works seem more natural. Thus, they suggest, rational choice is as much ideological as it is scientific.

2648: 2069:: The rational choice model assumes that preferences will remain consistent, in order to maximize personal utility based on available information 3917:"Animal Spirits: How Human Psychology Drives the Economy, and Why it Matters for Global Capitalism, by George A. Akerlof and Robert J. Shiller" 1208:

Rationality can be used as an assumption for the behaviour of individuals in a wide range of contexts outside of economics. It is also used in

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Grüne-Yanoff, Till (2012). "Paradoxes of Rational Choice Theory". In Sabine Roeser; Rafaela Hillerbrand; Per Sandin; Martin Peterson (eds.).

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and economic crises and choose the best option through collective "emotional drives," implying social forces rather than "rational" choices.

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Gary Browning, Abigail Halcli, Frank Webster, 2000, Understanding Contemporary Society: Theories of the Present, London, SAGE Publications

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Anthony Downs, 1957, An Economic Theory of Political Action in a Democracy, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 65, No. 2, pp. 135–150

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chosen by the rational individual. Rational behaviour is not solely driven by monetary gain, but can also be driven by emotional motives.

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Rational choice theorists discuss individual values and structural elements as equally important determinants of outcomes. However, for

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Downs, A (1957) An Economic Theory of Political Action in a Democracy, Journal of Political Economy, volume 65, No. 2, Pages 135-150

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reasons in the empirical application, more emphasis is usually placed on social structural determinants. Therefore, in line with

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Together these two assumptions imply that given a set of exhaustive and exclusive actions to choose from, an individual can

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For example, if a person can choose to vote for either Roger or Sara or to abstain, their set of possible alternatives is:

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Both the assumptions and the behavioral predictions of rational choice theory have sparked criticism from various camps.

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See, for example, David D. Franks (2014), "Emotions and Neurosociology," in Jan E. Stets and Jonathan H. Turner, eds.,

2374:. In these fields, the use of rational choice theory to explain broad social phenomena is the subject of controversy. 3439: 279: 167: 102: 1259:

Rational choice theory has proposed that there are two outcomes of two choices regarding human action. Firstly, the

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will be chosen within all the possible and related action. Second, after the preferred option has been chosen, the

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the elements of this set in terms of his preferences in an internally consistent way (the ranking constitutes a

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mathematization. Schram and Caterino argue instead for methodological pluralism. The same argument is made by

2291:{\displaystyle u\left({\text{Sara}}\right)>u\left({\text{Roger}}\right)>u\left({\text{abstain}}\right).} 1256:”. Here, the individual comes to a decision that optimizes their preferences by balancing costs and benefits. 4733: 4314: 512: 3878:"The Quantitative Analysis of Large-Scale Data-sets and Rational Action Theory: For a Sociological Alliance" 774: 2582: 2565:, its failure to develop a progressive concrete research program, can all be traced to this starting-point. 1643: 2497:, and determination of individual tastes by their socioeconomic environment (cf. Fernandez-Huerga, 2008). 4505: 4346: 2948: 2505: 1811: 1123: 343: 333: 207: 94: 4599:

Rational Choice and Political Behaviour: A lecture by Herbert Gintis. YouTube video. 23:57. Nov 21,2018)

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This article is about a theory of economics. For rational choice theory as applied to criminology, see

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Barriers and Bounds to Rationality: Essays on Economic Complexity and Dynamics in Interactive Systems

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subjectively defined goals, which they would seek to achieve through rational and optimal decisions.

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Conflict among Nations: Bargaining, Decision Making, and System Structure in International Crises

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Calhoun, C. et al. (1992) "Pierre Bourdieu: Critical Perspectives." University of Chicago Press.

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The theory makes two technical assumptions about individuals' preferences over alternatives:

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A preference relation that as above satisfies completeness, transitivity, and, in addition,

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show that this comes at a major cost of internal coherence, such that weakening any of the

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criticize the rational choice paradigm by drawing on new findings from emotion research in

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return. These returns may be received immediately or in the future, be it tangible or not.

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about the alternatives, i.e., the ranking between two alternatives involves no uncertainty.

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Paul H. Rubin and C. Monica Capra (2011). "The Evolutionary Psychology of Economics". In

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Levin, J. and Milgrom, P., 2004. Introduction to choice theory. Available from internet:

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cultural norms emerge, it all stems from an individual's initial concern about the self.

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The available alternatives are often expressed as a set of objects, for example a set of

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Bruce Bueno de Mesquita (1981). "Risk, Power Distributions, and the Likelihood of War,"

749: 4668: 4575: 4384: 4371: 4111: 4077: 4030: 3983: 3944: 3893: 3858: 3707: 3646: 3561: 3553: 3271: 3143: 3085: 2793:. They point out that rational choice theory is generally based on the assumption that 2518: 1614: 1529: 1444: 1108: 1064: 869: 706: 701: 681: 632: 572: 562: 507: 502: 474: 469: 439: 307: 4343:

Rationalizing Capitalist Democracy: The Cold War Origins of Rational Choice Liberalism

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Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory: A Critique of Applications in Political Science

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Carrots as Sticks: How Effective Are Foreign Aid Suspensions and Economic Sanctions?,

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Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory: A Critique of Applications in Political Science

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using a variety of criterion to perform their self-determined best choice of action.

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The Economic Behavior of Human Beings: The Institutionalist//Post-Keynesian Model

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Rethinking rational choice theory : a companion on rational and moral action

3123: 2855: 2838: 2822: 2794: 2742: 2726: 2672: 2611: 2607: 2600: 2541: 2462: 2339: 2146: 2126: 2122: 2059:: The simple rational choice model above assumes that the individual has full or 1938: 1574: 1357: 1264: 1260: 1253: 1143: 1054: 1019: 984: 919: 844: 829: 716: 691: 686: 662: 434: 429: 49: 4194: 4163: 3503: 2858: – Principle that an action is rational if it maximizes one's self-interest 4621:, edited by William Outhwaite and Stephen P. Turner. London: Sage, pp. 269–282. 4557: 4530: 4509: 3916: 3365:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; G. H. Snyder and P. Diesing (1977). 3339:

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Kydd, Andrew H. (2008). "Methodological Individualism and Rational Choice,"

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work has been notably elaborated by research undertaken and supervised by

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Making Political Science Matter: Debating Knowledge, Research, and Method

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axioms makes. The most severe consequences are associated with violating

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Explaining Social Behavior - more Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences

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Duncan Snidal (2013). "Rational Choice and International Relations," in

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perspectives, rational choice explanations are considered mainstream in

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Becker, Gary S.; Landes, Elisabeth M.; Michael, Robert T. (Dec 1977).

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The Sanctions Paradox: Economic Statecraft and International Relations

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The 'doubly-divergent' critique of Rational Choice Theory implicit in

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Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska sectio K – Politologia

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in recent decades. It has had far-reaching impacts on the study of

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Susanne Lohmann (2008). "Rational Choice and Political Science,"

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minimising losses, and will therefore be the most rational action

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Grenfell, M (2011) "Bourdieu, Language and Linguistics" London,

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For an account of Bourdieu's work, see the wikipedia article on

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that an individual assigns over the available actions, such as:

2117:

Alternative theories of human action include such components as

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a comparison, they must therefore be indifferent in this case.

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As mentioned above, some economists have developed models of

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The DNA of neoclassical economics is defective. Neither the

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Understanding Contemporary Society: Theories of the Present

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has sometimes been presented as a revision or alternative.

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Rational choice theory has become increasingly employed in

2210:{\displaystyle u\left(a_{i}\right)>u\left(a_{j}\right).} 1489: 1337: 3964:"General Social Equilibrium: Toward Theoretical Synthesis" 3583:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 22–44. 2362:, especially in fields like the study of interest groups, 1201:. The theory postulates that an individual will perform a 2305:, can be equivalently represented by a utility function. 4631:

Mas-Colell, A., M. D. Whinston, and J. R. Green (1995).

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plausible without completely abandoning the idea that

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pairs of alternatives can be compared with each other.

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The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling

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Gary Browning, Abigail Halcli, Frank Webster (2000).

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Schram, Sanford F. and Brian Caterino, eds. (2006).

3746:"The Rationalist Delusion? A Post Hoc Investigation" 2852: – Economic theory applied to political science 4274:, 3rd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press. 3616: 3531: 4703:of rational choice theory in political forecasting 4403:(1957). "An Economic Theory of Democracy." Harper. 3829:Hechter, Michael; Kanazawa, Satoshi (1997-08-01). 2290: 2209: 2023:. Since (by completeness) the individual does not 1795: 1755: 4707:To See The Future, Use The Logic Of Self-Interest 3434:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 2802:The difference between public and private spheres 2760:Critiques on the basis of evolutionary psychology 2405:Rational choice theory in international relations 4720: 4529:Foley, D.K. (1998). Introduction (chapter 1) in 4225:Roberts, S. C. (2011). Roberts, S. Craig (ed.). 4195:"Rational choice theory in light of biopolitics" 4164:"Rational choice theory in light of biopolitics" 1975:implies that individual either strictly prefers 1944:The preference between two alternatives can be: 1302:Actions, assumptions, and individual preferences 137:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks 4619:The SAGE Handbook of Social Science Methodology 3828: 3727:"Prospect Theory, Risk Preference, and the Law" 3403:, 41(2), pp. 608–18; Daniel W. Drezner (1999). 3000:http://web. stanford. edu/~ jdlevin/Econ, 20202 2480:, such as Herbert Simon, which hope to be more 4692:Rational Choice Theory - Article by John Scott 4626:The Oxford Handbook of International Relations 2651:) has generated valuable scientific progress. 3534:"An Economic Analysis of Marital Instability" 2573:and Karim Errouaki (2011, Ch. 1) argued that: 2556:Foley (2003, p. 9) went on to argue that 2414:Rational choice theory in social interactions 1644: 1175: 3498:, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 165–193, 3182: 3055:. Springer Netherlands. pp. 1947–1950. 2825: – Branch of applied probability theory 2733:Criticism based on the biopolitical paradigm 2712:Criticism based on the assumption of realism 2471: 2085:over outcomes. The additional assumption of 1790: 1782: 1750: 1699: 4050:"The Rationality of Rational Choice Theory" 4047: 3308: 2888: – To like one thing more than another 2688:Criticism based on motivational assumptions 2654: 2378:Rational choice theory in political science 1857:, or the individual is indifferent between 103:Learn how and when to remove these messages 43:It has been suggested that this article be 4638: 3875: 3046: 2777:Critiques on the basis of emotion research 2594: 2500: 1995:occurs when an individual neither prefers 1651: 1637: 1182: 1168: 4493:Rationality, Allocation, and Reproduction 4235:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001 4192: 4161: 4141:(Vintage books ed.). Vintage Books. 2667: 2548:and its role in economics. He argued that 2137:Often preferences are described by their 2050: 1286:writing about rational choice, including 280:Learn how and when to remove this message 168:Learn how and when to remove this message 4516:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4320:Choice Theory: A Very Short Introduction 4134: 3373:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3314: 3301:Donald P. Green and Ian Shapiro (1994). 3286: 3280: 3215: 3141: 3032:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 3012:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 2931:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 2912:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics 2457: 257:of all important aspects of the article. 4224: 3914: 3724: 3578: 3489: 3117: 2870: – Form of psychological framework 2132: 2087:independence of irrelevant alternatives 2041:independence of irrelevant alternatives 14: 4721: 4450:Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences 4000: 3961: 3053:Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions 2946: 2621: 2586:consistently with positivist (or even 1787:Vote for Roger, Vote for Sara, Abstain 253:Please consider expanding the lead to 4270:See Arlie Russell Hochschild (2012), 4261:, vol. 2. New York: Springer, p. 267. 4259:Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions 3831:"Sociological Rational Choice Theory" 3768: 3592: 3590: 3401:American Journal of Political Science 2628:Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory 298:Rationalism (international relations) 4572:The Social Structures of the Economy 3806:The Social Structures of the Economy 3682: 2965:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100213 2750:interpreted as optimal and rational: 294:Rational choice theory (criminology) 226: 179: 109: 68: 29: 4217: 4048:Quackenbush, Stephen (2004-04-01). 3962:Fararo, Thomas J. (November 1993). 3804:. See also Pierre Bourdieu (2005). 3791:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 3600:Exchange and Rational Choice Theory 3596: 3305:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 3112:Handbook of International Relations 1667: 24: 4635:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4604: 4549:The Foundations of Economic Method 4287:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3894:10.1093/oxfordjournals.esr.a018180 3876:Goldtborpe, John H. (1996-09-01). 3731:Northwestern University Law Review 3587: 2387:Rational choice in voting behavior 1951:occurs when an individual prefers 25: 4750: 4680: 3915:Rapetti, Martin (February 2012). 3743: 3490:Johnson, Doyle Paul, ed. (2008), 3244: 2979: 84:This article has multiple issues. 3216:Milgrom, Paul; Levin, Jonathan. 1149: 1137: 322: 231: 184: 114: 73: 34: 4652:Journal of European Integration 4425:, Pearson. Especially chapters 4277: 4264: 4251: 4227:Applied Evolutionary Psychology 4193:Chustecki, Jakub (2023-10-25). 4186: 4162:Chustecki, Jakub (2023-10-25). 4155: 4128: 4088: 4041: 3994: 3955: 3908: 3869: 3822: 3811: 3794: 3777: 3762: 3737: 3718: 3676: 3666: 3657: 3610: 3572: 3525: 3483: 3456: 3421: 3417:, Volume 68, Issue 2, June 2024 3415:International Studies Quarterly 3393: 3384:International Studies Quarterly 3376: 3355: 3346: 3333: 3323: 3317:The Rational Choice Controversy 3295: 3264: 3238: 3218:"Introduction to Choice Theory" 3209: 3176: 3135: 2949:"Beyond Rational Choice Theory" 2947:Boudon, Raymond (August 2003). 2333: 1989:or is indifferent between them. 1969:view them as equally preferred. 424:Concepts, theory and techniques 245:may be too short to adequately 92:or discuss these issues on the 4499:and scroll to chapter-preview 3428:Coleman, James Samuel (1990). 3061:10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_1549 3040: 3021: 3004: 2992: 2940: 2929:(2008). "Rational Behaviour," 2900: 1535:Utilitarian social choice rule 1240:One version of rationality is 255:provide an accessible overview 60:Proposed since September 2024. 13: 1: 4462:, Cambridge University Press. 4452:, Cambridge University Press. 4442:, Cambridge University Press. 4294: 4108:10.1080/02691728.2016.1172358 3343:, Vol. 65, No. 2, pp. 135-150 3049:"Rationality (Philosophical)" 2909:and David Easley (2008). "," 2366:, behaviour in legislatures, 4414:Foundations of Social Theory 4376:Rationality and Coordination 3882:European Sociological Review 3847:10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.191 3538:Journal of Political Economy 3431:Foundations of social theory 3341:Journal of Political Economy 3193:10.1007/978-94-007-1433-5_19 3129:Essays in Positive Economics 3047:Taliaferro, Charles (2013). 2989:, London: SAGE Publications. 2583:methodological individualism 2453: 1815:– for any two alternatives 7: 4614:. 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Oxford University Press. 3504:10.1007/978-0-387-76522-8_7 2882: – Economic phenomenon 2876: – Academic discipline 2810: 2308: 1279:, i.e. self-contradictory. 1223: 197:to comply with Knowledge's 10: 4755: 4539:Princeton University Press 4471:Journal of Economic Issues 4380:Cambridge University Press 4138:The history of sexuality / 4054:International Interactions 4001:Haller, Max (2001-09-01). 3835:Annual Review of Sociology 3388:International Organization 3315:Friedman, Jeffrey (1996). 3287:Dunleavy, Patrick (1991). 2953:Annual Review of Sociology 2880:Tyranny of small decisions 2523:revealed preference theory 291: 4665:10.1080/07036330600785749 4486:New York University Press 4465:Fernandez-Huerga (2008.) 4363:: Utility and Probability 4211:10.17951/k.2023.30.1.7-16 4180:10.17951/k.2023.30.1.7-16 4135:Foucault, Michel (1990). 4066:10.1080/03050620490462595 4019:10.1007/s11577-001-0079-1 3808:, Cambridge: Polity 2005. 2864: – Economics concept 2845:Positive political theory 2818:Bibliography of sociology 2472:The limits of rationality 2107:Limited cognitive ability 4562:Rational Econometric Man 4560:and Errouaki, K. 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Schelling (1960). 3185:Handbook of Risk Theory 2868:Reasonable person model 2834:Emotional choice theory 2783:emotional choice theory 2766:evolutionary psychology 2702:social network analysis 2595:Psychological critiques 2514:neo-classical economics 2501:Philosophical critiques 2091:expected utility theory 2037:Von Neumann–Morgenstern 1570:Replaceability argument 1555:Demandingness objection 1428:Types of utilitarianism 1353:Claude Adrien Helvétius 1284:neoclassical economists 598:Industrial organization 455:Computational economics 152:more precise citations. 4739:Neoclassical economics 4729:Rational choice theory 4491:Walsh, Vivian (1996). 4440:Ulysses and the Sirens 3142:De Jonge, Jan (2012). 2919:." by Abstract & 2829:Ecological rationality 2757: 2668:Sociological critiques 2592: 2567: 2554: 2465: 2292: 2211: 2067:Consistent Preferences 2051:Additional assumptions 2045:transitive preferences 1797: 1757: 1605:Neoclassical economics 1595:Rational choice theory 1288:William Stanley Jevons 1195:Rational choice theory 450:Experimental economics 4514:Rational Economic Man 4484:New York and London: 3390:, 49(3), pp. 379–414. 3227:. Stanford University 3154:10.1057/9780230355545 2862:Rational expectations 2752: 2575: 2558: 2550: 2461: 2293: 2212: 2097:Inter-temporal choice 2073:Best course of action 1798: 1758: 1560:Mere addition paradox 1235:cost–benefit analysis 1203:cost–benefit analysis 4734:Economic methodology 4633:Microeconomic Theory 4341:Amadae, S.M.(2003). 3783:Donald P. Green and 3692:Political Psychology 3623:The Economic Journal 3187:. pp. 499–516. 2921:pre-publication copy 2874:Social choice theory 2626:In their 1994 work, 2618:and other scholars. 2581:nor the problems of 2228: 2156: 2133:Utility maximization 1829:in the set, either 1773: 1690: 1277:logically incoherent 677:Social choice theory 4697:The New Nostradamus 4385:Bicchieri, Cristina 4372:Bicchieri, Cristina 3968:Sociological Theory 3933:10.1057/eej.2010.16 3683:Levy, Jack (1992). 3597:Coleman, James. S. 2662:William E. Connolly 2622:Empirical critiques 2478:bounded rationality 2352:evolutionary theory 2319:optimization theory 2111:bounded rationality 2061:perfect information 2057:Perfect information 2033:Dutch book theorems 1871:. In other words, 1565:Paradox of hedonism 1525:Equal consideration 1144:Business portal 465:Operations research 445:National accounting 27:Sociological theory 4547:Boland, L. (1982) 4315:Allingham, Michael 3771:The Righteous Mind 3568:– via JSTOR. 3291:. London: Pearson. 2519:consumer behaviour 2466: 2288: 2207: 1897:, and alternative 1883:– if alternative 1793: 1753: 1615:Effective altruism 1530:Felicific calculus 475:Industrial complex 470:Middle income trap 125:list of references 4640:Nedergaard, Peter 4423:Surfing Economics 4410:Coleman, James S. 4353:Arrow, Kenneth J. 4244:978-0-19-958607-3 4148:978-0-679-72469-8 3744:Haidt, Jonathan. 3606:. pp. 36–54. 3513:978-0-387-76522-8 3476:978-1-84920-217-6 3202:978-94-007-1432-8 3163:978-0-230-35554-5 3132:, pp. 15, 22, 31. 3070:978-1-4020-8264-1 2907:Lawrence E. Blume 2741:paradigm such as 2612:Daniel Kahneman's 2579:induction problem 2360:political science 2356:political science 2279: 2260: 2241: 1949:Strict preference 1836:is preferred to 1788: 1661: 1660: 1627:Philosophy portal 1610:Population ethics 1368:Francis Hutcheson 1210:political science 1192: 1191: 290: 289: 282: 272: 271: 225: 224: 199:quality standards 178: 177: 170: 107: 67: 66: 62: 16:(Redirected from 4746: 4699:- on the use by 4676: 4648: 4361:The New Palgrave 4288: 4281: 4275: 4268: 4262: 4255: 4249: 4248: 4221: 4215: 4214: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4159: 4153: 4152: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4123: 4122: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4045: 4039: 4038: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3873: 3867: 3866: 3826: 3820: 3815: 3809: 3798: 3792: 3781: 3775: 3774: 3766: 3760: 3759: 3757: 3756: 3750:academic.oup.com 3741: 3735: 3734: 3722: 3716: 3715: 3689: 3680: 3674: 3670: 3664: 3661: 3655: 3654: 3614: 3608: 3607: 3605: 3594: 3585: 3584: 3576: 3570: 3569: 3544:(6): 1141–1187. 3529: 3523: 3522: 3521: 3520: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3425: 3419: 3397: 3391: 3380: 3374: 3359: 3353: 3350: 3344: 3337: 3331: 3327: 3321: 3320: 3312: 3306: 3299: 3293: 3292: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3268: 3262: 3261: 3259: 3258: 3249:. Archived from 3242: 3236: 3235: 3233: 3232: 3225:web.stanford.edu 3222: 3213: 3207: 3206: 3180: 3174: 3173: 3171: 3170: 3139: 3133: 3121: 3115: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3095: 3091: 3089: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3044: 3038: 3025: 3019: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2983: 2977: 2976: 2944: 2938: 2915:, 2nd Edition. 2904: 2563:infinite regress 2315:utility function 2297: 2295: 2294: 2289: 2284: 2280: 2277: 2265: 2261: 2258: 2246: 2242: 2239: 2216: 2214: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2198: 2179: 2175: 2174: 1918:is preferred to 1904:is preferred to 1890:is preferred to 1850:is preferred to 1802: 1800: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1786: 1762: 1760: 1759: 1754: 1749: 1748: 1730: 1729: 1711: 1710: 1668:Formal statement 1653: 1646: 1639: 1520:Consequentialism 1400:John Stuart Mill 1310: 1309: 1184: 1177: 1170: 1156:Money portal 1154: 1153: 1152: 1142: 1141: 638:Natural resource 430:Economic systems 326: 303: 302: 285: 278: 267: 264: 258: 235: 227: 220: 217: 211: 188: 180: 173: 166: 162: 159: 153: 148:this article by 139:inline citations 118: 117: 110: 99: 77: 76: 69: 58: 38: 37: 30: 21: 4754: 4753: 4749: 4748: 4747: 4745: 4744: 4743: 4719: 4718: 4683: 4646: 4612:Rational Choice 4607: 4605:Further reading 4568:Pierre Bourdieu 4397:, November 2019 4297: 4292: 4291: 4282: 4278: 4269: 4265: 4256: 4252: 4245: 4222: 4218: 4191: 4187: 4160: 4156: 4149: 4133: 4129: 4120: 4118: 4094: 4093: 4089: 4046: 4042: 3999: 3995: 3960: 3956: 3913: 3909: 3874: 3870: 3827: 3823: 3816: 3812: 3802:Pierre Bourdieu 3799: 3795: 3782: 3778: 3767: 3763: 3754: 3752: 3742: 3738: 3723: 3719: 3704:10.2307/3791682 3687: 3681: 3677: 3671: 3667: 3662: 3658: 3635:10.2307/2231324 3615: 3611: 3603: 3595: 3588: 3577: 3573: 3530: 3526: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3461: 3457: 3442: 3426: 3422: 3398: 3394: 3381: 3377: 3360: 3356: 3351: 3347: 3338: 3334: 3328: 3324: 3313: 3309: 3300: 3296: 3285: 3281: 3270: 3269: 3265: 3256: 3254: 3243: 3239: 3230: 3228: 3220: 3214: 3210: 3203: 3181: 3177: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3140: 3136: 3124:Milton Friedman 3122: 3118: 3109: 3105: 3093: 3092: 3083: 3082: 3075: 3073: 3071: 3045: 3041: 3034:, 2nd Edition. 3026: 3022: 3009: 3005: 2997: 2993: 2984: 2980: 2945: 2941: 2933:, 2nd Edition. 2924: 2905: 2901: 2896: 2891: 2856:Rational egoism 2839:Homo economicus 2823:Decision theory 2813: 2804: 2795:decision-making 2779: 2762: 2743:Michel Foucault 2735: 2727:decision theory 2714: 2690: 2673:Pierre Bourdieu 2670: 2657: 2632:Donald P. Green 2624: 2608:Prospect Theory 2601:Prospect Theory 2597: 2542:Duncan K. Foley 2503: 2482:psychologically 2474: 2463:Daniel Kahneman 2456: 2416: 2407: 2389: 2380: 2340:social sciences 2336: 2311: 2276: 2272: 2257: 2253: 2238: 2234: 2229: 2226: 2225: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2157: 2154: 2153: 2143:payoff function 2135: 2127:prospect theory 2123:Daniel Kahneman 2103:future payoffs. 2053: 2022: 2015: 2008: 2001: 1988: 1981: 1973:Weak preference 1964: 1957: 1939:maximal element 1924: 1917: 1910: 1903: 1896: 1889: 1869: 1862: 1855: 1848: 1841: 1834: 1827: 1820: 1785: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1744: 1740: 1725: 1721: 1706: 1702: 1691: 1688: 1687: 1670: 1657: 1621: 1620: 1619: 1589: 1581: 1580: 1579: 1575:Utility monster 1549: 1541: 1540: 1539: 1484: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1429: 1421: 1420: 1419: 1389: 1379: 1378: 1377: 1358:Cesare Beccaria 1332: 1304: 1265:feasible region 1261:feasible region 1254:homo economicus 1226: 1188: 1150: 1148: 1136: 1129: 1128: 1099: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1086: 850:von Böhm-Bawerk 738: 727: 726: 488: 480: 479: 435:Economic growth 425: 417: 416: 358: 356:classifications 301: 286: 275: 274: 273: 268: 262: 259: 252: 240:This article's 236: 221: 215: 212: 202: 189: 174: 163: 157: 154: 143: 129:related reading 119: 115: 78: 74: 63: 50:Decision theory 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Rational choice 15: 12: 11: 5: 4752: 4742: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4717: 4716: 4704: 4694: 4689: 4682: 4681:External links 4679: 4678: 4677: 4659:(3): 203–223. 4636: 4629: 4622: 4615: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4595: 4592: 4585: 4582: 4579: 4565: 4558:Edward J. Nell 4555: 4545: 4542: 4531:Peter S. Albin 4527: 4517: 4510:Edward J. Nell 4503: 4489: 4475: 4463: 4453: 4443: 4433: 4416: 4407: 4404: 4401:Downs, Anthony 4398: 4392: 4382: 4369: 4350: 4339: 4332: 4329:978-0192803030 4312: 4296: 4293: 4290: 4289: 4276: 4263: 4250: 4243: 4216: 4185: 4154: 4147: 4127: 4100:auth.uq.edu.au 4087: 4040: 4013:(3): 569–574. 3993: 3980:10.2307/201972 3974:(3): 291–313. 3954: 3927:(2): 276–278. 3907: 3888:(2): 109–126. 3868: 3841:(1): 191–214. 3821: 3810: 3793: 3776: 3761: 3736: 3717: 3698:(4): 283–310. 3675: 3665: 3656: 3609: 3586: 3571: 3550:10.1086/260631 3524: 3512: 3482: 3475: 3455: 3440: 3420: 3392: 3375: 3354: 3345: 3332: 3322: 3307: 3294: 3279: 3263: 3237: 3208: 3201: 3175: 3162: 3134: 3116: 3103: 3094:|website= 3069: 3039: 3028:Peter Hedström 3020: 3014:, 2nd Edition. 3003: 2991: 2978: 2939: 2898: 2897: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2871: 2865: 2859: 2853: 2847: 2842: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2812: 2809: 2803: 2800: 2781:Proponents of 2778: 2775: 2761: 2758: 2734: 2731: 2713: 2710: 2694:methodological 2689: 2686: 2669: 2666: 2656: 2653: 2641:Keith Krehbiel 2623: 2620: 2616:Jonathan Haidt 2596: 2593: 2571:Edward J. Nell 2569:More recently 2510:Edward J. Nell 2502: 2499: 2473: 2470: 2455: 2452: 2415: 2412: 2406: 2403: 2388: 2385: 2379: 2376: 2335: 2332: 2310: 2307: 2299: 2298: 2287: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2268: 2264: 2256: 2252: 2249: 2245: 2237: 2233: 2218: 2217: 2206: 2202: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2182: 2178: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2147:ordinal number 2134: 2131: 2115: 2114: 2104: 2094: 2089:then leads to 2076: 2070: 2064: 2052: 2049: 2029: 2028: 2020: 2013: 2006: 1999: 1990: 1986: 1979: 1970: 1962: 1955: 1935:total ordering 1927: 1926: 1922: 1915: 1908: 1901: 1894: 1887: 1876: 1867: 1860: 1853: 1846: 1839: 1832: 1825: 1818: 1804: 1803: 1792: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1764: 1763: 1752: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1736: 1733: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1717: 1714: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1669: 1666: 1659: 1658: 1656: 1655: 1648: 1641: 1633: 1630: 1629: 1623: 1622: 1618: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1602: 1597: 1591: 1590: 1588:Related topics 1587: 1586: 1583: 1582: 1578: 1577: 1572: 1567: 1562: 1557: 1551: 1550: 1547: 1546: 1543: 1542: 1538: 1537: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1473: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1431: 1430: 1427: 1426: 1423: 1422: 1418: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1405:Henry Sidgwick 1402: 1397: 1395:Jeremy Bentham 1391: 1390: 1387:Key proponents 1385: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1376: 1375: 1370: 1365: 1363:William Godwin 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1334: 1333: 1330: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1323:Utilitarianism 1319: 1318: 1303: 1300: 1225: 1222: 1190: 1189: 1187: 1186: 1179: 1172: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1159: 1158: 1146: 1131: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1121: 1111: 1106: 1100: 1095: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1085: 1084: 1077: 1072: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 997: 992: 987: 982: 977: 972: 967: 962: 957: 952: 947: 942: 937: 932: 927: 922: 917: 912: 907: 902: 897: 892: 887: 882: 877: 872: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 741: 740: 739: 733: 732: 729: 728: 725: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 679: 670: 665: 660: 655: 650: 645: 643:Organizational 640: 635: 630: 625: 620: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 489: 487:By application 486: 485: 482: 481: 478: 477: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 426: 423: 422: 419: 418: 415: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 380: 375: 370: 365: 359: 353: 352: 349: 348: 347: 346: 341: 336: 328: 327: 319: 318: 312: 311: 288: 287: 270: 269: 249:the key points 239: 237: 230: 223: 222: 192: 190: 183: 176: 175: 133:external links 122: 120: 113: 108: 82: 81: 79: 72: 65: 64: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4751: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4714: 4713: 4708: 4705: 4702: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4684: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4653: 4645: 4642:(July 2006). 4641: 4637: 4634: 4630: 4627: 4623: 4620: 4616: 4613: 4609: 4608: 4600: 4596: 4593: 4590: 4586: 4583: 4580: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4566: 4563: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4543: 4540: 4537:. Princeton: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4525: 4521: 4518: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4506:Martin Hollis 4504: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4487: 4483: 4481: 4476: 4473: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4461: 4457: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4444: 4441: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4411: 4408: 4405: 4402: 4399: 4396: 4393: 4390: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4364: 4362: 4357: 4354: 4351: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4337: 4333: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4321: 4316: 4313: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4299: 4298: 4286: 4280: 4273: 4267: 4260: 4254: 4246: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4220: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4158: 4150: 4144: 4140: 4139: 4131: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4091: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4060:(2): 87–107. 4059: 4055: 4051: 4044: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4009:(in German). 4008: 4004: 3997: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3958: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3872: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3825: 3819: 3814: 3807: 3803: 3797: 3790: 3786: 3780: 3772: 3765: 3751: 3747: 3740: 3732: 3728: 3721: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3686: 3679: 3669: 3660: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3629:(328): 1414. 3628: 3624: 3620: 3613: 3602: 3601: 3593: 3591: 3582: 3575: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3528: 3515: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3486: 3478: 3472: 3468: 3467: 3459: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3441:0-674-31225-2 3437: 3433: 3432: 3424: 3418: 3416: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3396: 3389: 3385: 3379: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3358: 3349: 3342: 3336: 3326: 3318: 3311: 3304: 3298: 3290: 3283: 3275: 3274: 3267: 3253:on 2009-02-27 3252: 3248: 3245:Scott, John. 3241: 3226: 3219: 3212: 3204: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3179: 3165: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3146: 3138: 3131: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3113: 3107: 3099: 3087: 3072: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3043: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3024: 3017: 3013: 3007: 3001: 2995: 2988: 2982: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2943: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2913: 2908: 2903: 2899: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2872: 2869: 2866: 2863: 2860: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2850:Public choice 2848: 2846: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2824: 2821: 2819: 2816: 2815: 2808: 2799: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2774: 2771: 2767: 2756: 2751: 2747: 2744: 2740: 2730: 2728: 2722: 2719: 2709: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2685: 2681: 2679: 2674: 2665: 2663: 2652: 2650: 2649:Mat McCubbins 2646: 2642: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2619: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2604: 2602: 2591: 2589: 2584: 2580: 2574: 2572: 2566: 2564: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2537: 2533: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2506:Martin Hollis 2498: 2496: 2492: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2469: 2464: 2460: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2411: 2402: 2398: 2395: 2394:Anthony Downs 2384: 2375: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2320: 2316: 2306: 2304: 2285: 2281: 2273: 2269: 2266: 2262: 2254: 2250: 2247: 2243: 2235: 2231: 2224: 2223: 2222: 2204: 2200: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2152: 2151: 2150: 2148: 2145:. This is an 2144: 2140: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2112: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2098: 2095: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2058: 2055: 2054: 2048: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2026: 2019: 2012: 2005: 1998: 1994: 1991: 1985: 1978: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1961: 1954: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1942: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1921: 1914: 1907: 1900: 1893: 1886: 1882: 1881: 1877: 1874: 1870: 1863: 1856: 1849: 1842: 1835: 1828: 1821: 1814: 1813: 1809: 1808: 1807: 1779: 1776: 1769: 1768: 1767: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1731: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1707: 1703: 1696: 1693: 1686: 1685: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1665: 1654: 1649: 1647: 1642: 1640: 1635: 1634: 1632: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1616: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1603: 1601: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1592: 1585: 1584: 1576: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1563: 1561: 1558: 1556: 1553: 1552: 1545: 1544: 1536: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1498: 1496: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1480: 1479: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1432: 1425: 1424: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1382: 1374: 1373:William Paley 1371: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1335: 1328: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1311: 1308: 1299: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1280: 1278: 1272: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1255: 1249: 1247: 1246:Duncan Snidal 1243: 1238: 1236: 1231: 1221: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1206: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1185: 1180: 1178: 1173: 1171: 1166: 1165: 1163: 1162: 1157: 1147: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1134: 1133: 1132: 1125: 1122: 1119: 1115: 1112: 1110: 1107: 1105: 1102: 1101: 1098: 1093: 1092: 1083: 1082: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 976: 973: 971: 968: 966: 963: 961: 958: 956: 953: 951: 948: 946: 943: 941: 938: 936: 933: 931: 928: 926: 923: 921: 918: 916: 913: 911: 908: 906: 903: 901: 898: 896: 893: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 745:de Mandeville 743: 742: 737: 731: 730: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 698: 695: 693: 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 674: 673:Public choice 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 648:Participation 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 619: 616: 614: 611: 609: 608:Institutional 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 558:Expeditionary 556: 554: 551: 549: 548:Environmental 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 490: 484: 483: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 427: 421: 420: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 384: 381: 379: 378:International 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 360: 357: 354:Branches and 351: 350: 345: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 331: 330: 329: 325: 321: 320: 317: 314: 313: 309: 305: 304: 299: 295: 284: 281: 266: 256: 250: 248: 243: 238: 234: 229: 228: 219: 209: 205: 200: 196: 193:This article 191: 187: 182: 181: 172: 169: 161: 151: 147: 141: 140: 134: 130: 126: 121: 112: 111: 106: 104: 97: 96: 91: 90: 85: 80: 71: 70: 61: 56: 52: 51: 46: 41: 32: 31: 19: 4710: 4656: 4650: 4632: 4625: 4618: 4611: 4598: 4571: 4561: 4548: 4534: 4523: 4520:Foley, D. K. 4513: 4492: 4479: 4469: 4466: 4459: 4449: 4439: 4413: 4375: 4359: 4342: 4319: 4307:. New York: 4304: 4301:Abella, Alex 4284: 4279: 4271: 4266: 4258: 4253: 4226: 4219: 4202: 4198: 4188: 4171: 4167: 4157: 4137: 4130: 4119:. Retrieved 4099: 4090: 4057: 4053: 4043: 4010: 4006: 3996: 3971: 3967: 3957: 3924: 3920: 3910: 3885: 3881: 3871: 3838: 3834: 3824: 3813: 3805: 3796: 3788: 3779: 3770: 3764: 3753:. Retrieved 3749: 3739: 3730: 3720: 3695: 3691: 3678: 3668: 3659: 3626: 3622: 3612: 3599: 3580: 3574: 3541: 3537: 3527: 3517:, retrieved 3495: 3485: 3465: 3458: 3430: 3423: 3414: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3348: 3340: 3335: 3325: 3316: 3310: 3302: 3297: 3288: 3282: 3272: 3266: 3255:. Retrieved 3251:the original 3240: 3229:. Retrieved 3224: 3211: 3184: 3178: 3167:. Retrieved 3144: 3137: 3127: 3119: 3111: 3106: 3074:. 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