158:) and Chile. Most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy. Spanish Americans in royalist areas who were committed to independence had already joined guerrilla movements. Ferdinand's actions did set areas outside of the control of the royalist armies on the path to full independence. The governments of these regions, which had their origins in the juntas of 1810—and even moderates there who had entertained a reconciliation with the crown—now saw the need to separate from Spain, if they were to protect the reforms they had enacted.
130:, then on May 10 ordered the arrest of liberal leaders who had created it. Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had been made by a Cortes assembled in his absence and without his consent. He also declared all of the juntas and constitutions written in Spanish America invalid and restored the former law codes and political institutions. News of the events arrived through Spanish America during the next three weeks to nine months, depending on time it took
458:. From January to February 1817, San MartĂn led the Army over the Andes in an audacious move that turned the tables on the royalists in Chile. By February 10, San MartĂn had control of northern and central Chile, and a year later had control of the south. Chile was secured from royalist control and independence was declared in 1818. San MartĂn and his allies spent the next two years planning an invasion of Peru, which began in 1820.
171:. Although this force was crucial in retaking a solidly pro-independence region like New Granada, its soldiers were eventually spread out throughout Venezuela, New Granada, Quito and Peru and lost to tropical diseases, diluting their impact on the war. Ultimately, the majority of the royalist forces were composed, not of soldiers sent from Spain, but of Spanish Americans.
167:
Venezuela, where royalists and pro-independence forces had exchanged control of the country several times. To pacify
Venezuela and to retake New Granada, Spain organized and sent in 1815 the largest armed force it ever sent to the New World, consisting of approximately 10,000 troops and nearly sixty ships under the command of general
373:
137:
This, in effect, constituted a definitive break with two groups that could have been allies of
Ferdinand VII: the autonomous governments, which had not yet declared formal independence, and Spanish liberals who had created a representative government that would fully include the overseas possessions
77:
By 1815 the general outlines of which areas were controlled by royalists and pro-independence forces had been established and the situation had reached a stalemate. With the exception of rural areas controlled by guerrillas, New Spain and Peru was under the control of royalists, and in South
America
465:
devised a change the center of military operations from
Caracas to New Granada. Like San MartĂn, BolĂvar personally undertook the efforts to create an army to invade a neighboring country and collaborated with pro-independence exiles from that region. Unlike San MartĂn, BolĂvar did not have the
166:
During this period royalist forces made advances into New
Granada, which they controlled from 1815 to 1819, and into Chile, from 1814 to 1817. Except for royalist areas in the northeast and south, the provinces of New Granada had maintained independence from Spain since 1810, unlike neighboring
395:
Far from pacifying the patriots, these actions served to incite them to the military solution, and soon even moderates, who had previously envisioned a negotiation with the
Spanish crown, concluded that war of independence was the only way to guarantee their newfound freedoms.
294:, who was also the newly appointed governor. Osorio succeeded in organizing local recruits into a mobile army of some 5,000 men, of which the troops of the Talaveras Regiment were practically the only Spaniards. The new royalist force fought the patriot forces on October 1 in
488:
and gained the support of New
Granada, which still resented the harsh reconquest carried out under Morillo. With the resources of New Granada, BolĂvar became the undisputed leader of the patriots in Venezuela and orchestrated the union of the two regions in a new state,
342:, commander in chief of the expeditionary force sent South America, reported that he only had 2,000 European soldiers under his command in 1820, in other words, only half of the soldiers of his expeditionary force were European. It is estimated that in the
333:
Overall, Europeans formed only about a tenth of the royalist armies in
Spanish America, and only about half of the expeditionary units once they were deployed in the Americas. Since each European soldier
325:
became the new governor and he initiated a new campaign of fierce political and military persecution. MarcĂł del Pont appointed San Bruno president of a
Tribunal of Vigilance and Public Security.
118:
and several of the congresses in the
Americas, and many of the constitutions and new legal codes—had been done in his name. Once in Spain he realized that he had significant support from
451:
236:
the fortified city fell on December 1815. By May 6, 1816, the combined efforts of Spanish and colonial forces, marching south from Cartagena and north from royalist strongholds in
86:
remained outside of royalist control. After French forces left Spain in 1814, the restored Ferdinand VII, declared these developments in the Americas illegal, abolished the
110:
The restoration of Ferdinand VII signified an important change, since most of the political and legal changes done on both sides of the Atlantic—the myriad of
411:
gave the exiles military and monetary aid, which allowed them to resume the struggle for independence in conjunction with the patriots who had organized the
283:
197:
where no resistance was encountered. After leaving the island, Morillo's troops reinforced existing royalist forces in the Venezuelan mainland, entering
399:
In New Granada, patriots reacted to the expeditionary force with disunity, aiding Morillo's advance. Several Neogranadine and Venezuelan exiles fled to
256:
was set up to judge those accused of treason and rebellion, resulting in the execution of more than a hundred notable republican officials, including
338:
was substituted by a Spanish American soldier, over time, there were more and more Spanish American soldiers in the expeditionary units. For example
90:
passed by the Cortes of Cádiz, then sent expeditionary armies to quell the remaining rebellions. The impact of these expeditions was most notable in
426:, had been organizing an army as early as 1814 in preparation for an invasion of Chile. Chilean patriots who escaped the royalist reprisals fled to
390:
684:
357:
The American militias reflected the racial make-up of the local population. For example, in 1820 the royalist army in Venezuela had 843 white (
694:
66:
moved for greater autonomy or outright independence due to the political instability in Spain, which was eventually (1810) governed by the
123:
321:
was put in charge of carrying out the orders to arrest civilians suspected of having helped or sympathised with the patriots. In 1816
502:
631:
617:
589:
40:
507:
366:
662:
648:
603:
455:
180:
434:. While Argentinean forces prepared to invade Chile, San MartĂn and O'Higgins initiated a guerrilla campaign under
310:
95:
689:
512:
447:
43:. The term used in the past century by some Colombian and Chilean historians makes an analogy to the medieval
484:
over the cold, forbidding passes of the Andes, but the gamble paid off. By August BolĂvar was in control of
268:. Units of the republican armies of New Granada were incorporated into the royalist army and sent to Peru.
127:
87:
317:. By November Spanish control had been reestablished in most of Chile. A member of the Talavera Regiment,
277:
435:
322:
261:
314:
431:
111:
83:
71:
467:
386:
265:
16:
Brief period of restored Spanish rule over New Spain during the region's wars of independence
131:
36:
8:
229:
430:, an Argentine Andean province under Buenos Aires control. They were reorganized under
408:
462:
351:
347:
295:
257:
610:
Response to Revolution: Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions, 1810-1840
343:
298:, in which the patriots unsuccessfully tried to stop the expeditionaries from taking
115:
79:
67:
658:
644:
627:
613:
599:
585:
443:
416:
335:
318:
102:. The restoration of royal rule was short lived, reversed in these three countries.
442:, slave and freemen, recruits from Mendoza and Buenos Aires was the nucleus of the
427:
423:
241:
20:
217:, while the main contingent was directed towards the Neogranadine coastal city of
481:
306:
299:
139:
291:
210:
194:
59:
55:
39:
in 1814, during which royalist armies were able to gain the upper hand in the
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636:
490:
372:
339:
168:
91:
439:
119:
253:
225:
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44:
471:
287:
151:
407:, where they were out of reach of Morillo's forces. Haitian president
245:
624:
Insurrection or Loyalty: The Breakdown of the Spanish American Empire
446:, which received crucial political and material support in 1816 when
346:
only a quarter of the royalist forces were European soldiers, in the
202:
138:
and was seen as an alternative to independence by many in New Spain,
99:
48:
485:
249:
214:
198:
476:
190:
63:
28:
309:, patriots found in the city—among whom were members of the
186:
47:, in which Christian forces retook the Iberian Peninsula from the
412:
206:
155:
143:
404:
400:
362:
290:, a royalist bastion in Chile under the command of Brigadier
237:
233:
70: – which served as a democratic Regency after
32:
286:, a unit which had fought in the Peninsular War, arrived in
147:
174:
213:
in May. A small part of the main corps set off towards
228:
on July 23, the Spanish expeditionary forces besieged
193:(Venezuela) in April and later invaded the island of
422:
In the Southern Cone, San MartĂn as the governor of
403:, where they were well received. Others fled to the
224:
After picking up supplies and militia volunteers in
189:
on February 17, 1815, the force initially landed at
122:in the general population and the hierarchy of the
248:, completed the reconquest of New Granada, taking
641:Spain and the Independence of Colombia, 1810-1825
474:as cover, BolĂvar led an army composed mostly of
676:
584:. Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 1983.
105:
671:. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1959.
626:. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1980.
438:to keep the royalist forces off balance. The
56:Napoleon's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula
596:The Wars of Independence in Spanish America
643:. Exter: University of Exter Press, 2000.
391:BolĂvar's campaign to liberate New Granada
161:
371:
328:
19:In the struggle for the independence of
271:
677:
669:Pablo Morillo and Venezuela, 1815-1820
566:Spain and the Independence of Colombia
503:Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)
175:The expeditionary army of Tierra Firme
685:Spanish American wars of independence
126:, and so on May 4, he repudiated the
41:Spanish American wars of independence
695:Spanish colonization of the Americas
657:. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
612:. Cambridge University Press, 1986.
508:Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico
470:. From June to July 1819, using the
221:which was still in royalist hands.
655:The Independence of Spanish America
13:
14:
706:
181:Spanish reconquest of New Granada
35:history, following the defeat of
551:, 162. 171–172, 207. RodrĂguez,
598:. Willmington, SR Books, 2000.
574:
553:Independence of Spanish America
536:Independence in Spanish America
532:Independence of Spanish America
582:Spain & the Loss of Empire
558:
541:
524:
513:Venezuelan War of Independence
142:, the Caribbean, Quito (today
1:
518:
549:Spanish American Revolutions
128:Spanish Constitution of 1812
106:Restoration of Ferdinand VII
88:Spanish Constitution of 1812
7:
496:
461:In northern South America,
380:
354:less than 1% was European.
305:After royalist forces took
282:In August 1814 the Queen's
278:Chilean War of Independence
10:
711:
594:Christon I. Archer (ed.).
384:
350:about a fifth, and in the
313:—were exiled to the
275:
178:
132:goods and people to travel
448:Juan MartĂn de PueyrredĂłn
323:Francisco MarcĂł del Pont
262:Francisco José de Caldas
27:refers to the period of
534:, 169–172. Kinsbruner,
162:Expeditionary campaigns
124:Spanish Catholic Church
653:Jaime E. RodrĂguez O.
377:
315:Juan Fernández Islands
94:'s expedition against
690:19th century in Spain
608:Michael P. Costeloe.
387:Crossing of the Andes
375:
329:The royalist military
232:. After a five-month
622:Jorge I. DomĂnguez.
272:The Chilean campaign
185:Leaving the port of
468:Venezuelan congress
230:Cartagena de Indias
667:Stephen K. Stoan.
555:, 173–175, 192–194
432:JosĂ© de San MartĂn
378:
352:Battle of Ayacucho
348:Battle of Carabobo
258:Jorge Tadeo Lozano
632:978-0-674-45635-8
618:978-0-521-32083-2
590:978-0-8032-1014-1
444:Army of the Andes
319:Vicente San Bruno
284:Talavera Regiment
702:
569:
562:
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539:
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466:approval of the
456:United Provinces
452:Supreme Director
436:Manuel RodrĂguez
409:Alexandre PĂ©tion
266:JosĂ© MarĂa Cabal
60:Spanish colonies
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385:Main articles:
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140:Central America
116:Cortes of Cádiz
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80:RĂo de la Plata
74:was deposed.
68:Cortes of Cádiz
21:Spanish America
17:
12:
11:
5:
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292:Mariano Osorio
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254:council of war
252:. A permanent
211:Puerto Cabello
179:Main article:
176:
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160:
107:
104:
58:, a number of
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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663:0-521-62673-0
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637:Rebecca Earle
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491:Gran Colombia
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463:SimĂłn BolĂvar
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340:Pablo Morillo
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169:Pablo Morillo
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120:conservatives
117:
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97:
93:
92:Pablo Morillo
89:
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72:Ferdinand VII
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575:Bibliography
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531:
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472:rainy season
460:
440:black people
421:
398:
394:
358:
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332:
304:
281:
223:
184:
165:
136:
134:from Spain.
109:
76:
53:
24:
18:
530:RodrĂguez,
311:First Junta
226:Santa Marta
219:Santa Marta
96:New Granada
84:New Granada
45:Reconquista
25:Reconquista
679:Categories
519:References
369:soldiers.
367:Indigenous
288:Talcahuano
152:Upper Peru
361:), 5,378
203:La Guaira
195:Margarita
100:Venezuela
78:only the
49:Caliphate
29:Colombian
538:, 56–57.
497:See also
477:Llaneros
413:Llaneros
381:Reverses
365:and 980
336:casualty
307:Santiago
300:Santiago
296:Rancagua
191:Carupano
154:(today,
64:Americas
37:Napoleon
564:Earle,
547:Lynch,
454:of the
450:became
428:Mendoza
359:español
246:Popayán
207:Caracas
156:Bolivia
144:Ecuador
62:in the
54:During
33:Chilean
661:
647:
630:
616:
602:
588:
486:Bogotá
405:Llanos
250:Bogotá
244:, and
215:Panamá
209:, and
199:Cumaná
114:, the
112:juntas
98:, and
23:, the
415:into
401:Haiti
363:Casta
242:Pasto
238:Quito
234:siege
187:Cádiz
659:ISBN
645:ISBN
628:ISBN
614:ISBN
600:ISBN
586:ISBN
480:and
424:Cuyo
389:and
264:and
148:Peru
82:and
31:and
419:.
302:.
146:),
681::
639:.
493:.
260:,
240:,
205:,
201:,
150:,
51:.
568:.
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